DOCSLIB.ORG

Brosnan & De Waal Science 2014 with Summary

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Brosnan & De Waal Science 2014 with Summary RESEARCH ◥ have a more explicitly social focus (11). Disad- REVIEW vantageous IA is also the most common type in animals (see below). However, responses to over- compensation are also expected, as they, too, SOCIAL EVOLUTION provide a long-term benefit (12). We have called disadvantageous IA “first-order inequity aversion” to indicate that it is the primary reaction, using Evolution of responses to (un)fairness “second-order inequity aversion” for the less com- mon and less pronounced advantageous IA Sarah F. Brosnan1* and Frans B. M. de Waal2 (Fig. 1) (13). The connection between IA and fairness is not The human sense of fairness is an evolutionary puzzle. To study this, we can look to straightforward. The hallmark of the human other species, in which this can be translated empirically into responses to reward sense of fairness is the idea of impartiality; that distribution. Passive and active protest against receiving less than a partner for the same is, human fairness or justice is based on the idea task is widespread in species that cooperate outside kinship and mating bonds. There is of appropriate outcomes applied to everyone less evidence that nonhuman species seek to equalize outcomes to their own detriment, within the community, not just a few individuals, yet the latter has been documented in our closest relatives, the apes. This reaction and, in particular, not just oneself. Thus, out- probably reflects an attempt to forestall partner dissatisfaction with obtained outcomes comes are judged against a standard, or an ideal. and its negative impact on future cooperation. We hypothesize that it is the evolution of There is variation in this ideal across cultures or this response that allowed the development of a complete sense of fairness in humans, situations, but there is consistency within a given which aims not at equality for its own sake but for the sake of continued cooperation. context. This complete sense of fairness likely requires abstraction at the community level as ooperation could not have evolved without been explored in a number of species and found well as language (to establish a consistent set of mechanisms to ensure the sharing of pay- to be most pronounced in animals that cooperate ideals), both of which capacities may be restricted offs. For an individual to cooperate with an outside of the bonds of mating and kinship. to our species (14). Community concern is not unrelated partner to achieve goals that it We propose that sensitivity to (in)equity offers wholly absent in other primates, however, and cannot achieve alone or to exchange favors several evolutionary benefits. First, animals need neither is impartiality, such as when policing Cover time requires an ability to compare payoffs to recognize when they receive less than a part- males break up fights (15). with investments. Given the ample evidence for ner, because this tells them that the benefits of Inasmuch as social ideals escape measure- mutualistic cooperation and reciprocal altruism cooperation may be in danger. By protesting ment, a sense of fairness is impossible to prove or (1, 2)inhumansaswellasotherspecies(here- against this situation, they show a response known disprove in animals. Reactions to inequity, on after, animals), we therefore expect well-developed as inequity aversion (IA).Evidenceindicatesthat the other hand, are open to empirical investiga- capacities for payoff evaluation in species that this behavior is widespread in cooperative spe- tion by creating situations in which one individ- flexibly cooperate with individually known part- cies under many circumstances. As the reliance ual receives more or less than another. These ners. We also expect negative reactions to exces- on cooperation increases, individuals also benefit reactions typically manifest as a rejection of a sive payoff imbalances, because such imbalances from sensitivity to receiving more than another, received reward or an unwillingness to partici- undermine cooperation among nonrelatives, which which risks undermining cooperative partner- pate in the interaction (Fig. 2A). In most experi- requires proportionalitybetweeneffortandgain ships. This behavior is likely taxonomically re- ments, subjects must complete a simple task to so that gains among parties jointly contributing stricted, because it requires prediction of the receive a reward (Table 1). To control for the so- to a given enterprise are shared. partner's reaction to getting less and its effect on cial aspect of the interaction, these experiments Along with the human sense of fairness and the relationship. It also requires restraint to re- often combine with ones on contrast effects that justice, responses to inequity have enjoyed a long frain from an immediately advantageous out- measure how subjects respond to a lesser reward history of scholarship in philosophy, law, eco- come. The pressure for increased cooperation after having just received a better reward (con- nomics, and psychology. Yet the evolution of combined with advanced cognitive abilities and trast) or another lesser one (control). It has been these responses and possible parallels in other emotional control allowed humans to evolve a found that the mere visibility of better rewards is species have only recently come into focus. Even complete sense of fairness. Here, we review the not the issue, because primates reliably perform though “contrast effects,” which describe how literature on IA in humans and other animals tasks for lesser rewards regardless of whether or animals respond to unanticipated individual re- within an evolutionary framework of cooperation, not better ones are immediately in front of them ward outcomes, have been known for nearly a social reciprocity, and conflict resolution. Our main (6, 16). Experiments on IA have shown that there century (3), the first study to measure reactions conclusion is that the sense of fairness did not is substantial variation among species in this to interindividual outcome contrasts was pub- evolve for the sake of fairness per se but in order response, even within the primates; some species lished only in 2003 (4). In this study, brown capu- to reap the benefits of continued cooperation. respond more strongly to contrast effects (17), chin monkeys (Cebus apella)becameagitated others more strongly to disadvantageous inequity and refused to perform a task for which a com- Responses to inequity (4, 16); some respond to both (18), and some seem panion received superior rewards [see (5)fora IA has been defined as a negative reaction to indifferent to either condition (19, 20). video]. The monkeys’ protest was not due to the unequal outcomes (7). It is further subdivided There are also important individual differences mere sight of unavailable superior rewards, be- into “disadvantageous IA,” or reactions to in- in response that hint at the situations in which cause they showed it only if these rewards actual- equity to the detriment of the actor, and “advan- inequity responses provide an advantage. For in- ly went to their partner. If superior rewards were tageous IA,” also known as overcompensation, or stance, merely feeding unequal foods fails to merely visible, they were mostly ignored (4, 6). reactions to inequity that benefits the actor (7). generate the same reaction; hence, an effortful Since this early study, inequity responses have Responses to the first kind of IA offer a clear task is essential (6, 16, 20)(Table1),eventhough advantage if they help increase one’sownshare. the nature of the task may be irrelevant (20). A 1Departments of Psychology and Philosophy, Neuroscience Not surprisingly, human studies indicate that dis- second methodological issue emerges when we Institute and Language Research Center, Georgia State advantageous IA emerges earlier (8)andismore consider all reported studies regardless of spe- 2 University, Atlanta, GA, USA. Living Links, Yerkes National pronounced than advantageous IA (9). Young cies. Animals tested with an effortful task respond Primate Research Center and Psychology Department, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA. children may even pay a cost to maintain their to inequity almost exclusively when seated close- *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] advantage (10), although advantageous IA may ly side-by-side, compared with tests in which SCIENCE sciencemag.org 17 OCTOBER 2014 • VOL 346 ISSUE 6207 1251776-1 RESEARCH | REVIEW they sat far apart or across from each other, in to unfair outcomes. Additional work to deter- up a less-preferred, but still beneficial, reward) which few IA responses were observed (Table 1). mine the influence of these and other factors while increasing inequity (the partner still re- This suggests that physical proximity may be in- on animal IA responses will provide additional ceives the preferred reward versus the other re- tegral to IA outcomes, possibly because of the nuance in our understanding of the evolution ceiving nothing). If the goal of IA is to minimize relationship between proximity and cooperation of IA (Table 1). current inequity (7), these animals show the and the way proximity facilitates information First-order IA has been documented in controlled wrong response. gathering about the partner (21). Finally, individ- experiments in capuchin monkeys [(4, 6, 27–29), New lines of evidence, however, have led to a ual differences have been found in some species, but see also (30)], macaques (18, 31), chimpanzees reassessment of this evaluation. First, humans, notably chimpanzees, who show substantial varia- [(16, 22), but see also (32, 23)], dogs (33–35), and too, respond in this way. The workhorse of in- tion even within the same experiment (16, 22, 23). crows (36), and it has been implied in rodents equity studies has been the ultimatum game (UG), Responses also seem influenced by dominance (37). These animals refuse lesser rewards if a in which one individual, the proposer, must de- rank, sex, and relationship quality. This is the partner receives better ones and/or stop perform- cide how to divide a set sum of money. The sec- case in humans as well, where factors such as ing after multiple exposures to such outcomes.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay the Whole Data Set with a Value Greater Than the Test Value, Divided by the Total Number
    letters to nature uncertainty into the future, and this is carried through in the transformed series. Other Acknowledgements The HadCM3 data were provided by the Hadley Centre for Climate Research historical SSTseries could be substituted; the changes to the pattern are minor to negligible through D. Viner, who also provided information on the data’s characteristics. I thank M. Keeling (Supplementary Information). and G. Medley for advice on analyses; N. Rayner of the Hadley Centre for information on the HadISST1 data and for communicating results before publication; and O. Langmead and A. Edwards for assistance with data extraction. Computing probabilities of recurrence Subsets of data were extracted for warmest months, three warmest months and averaged Competing interests statement The author declares that he has no competing financial interests. warmest quarters of each year. Residuals of all but one (Alphonse atoll) warmest month series have normal distributions (Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests). Warmest quarters’ Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to C.R.C.S. residuals are also normally distributed in all sites except one (granitic Seychelles). As time ([email protected]). proceeds, the difference between the lethal 1998 SST value (also expressed as a residual) and the normally distributed population of SSTs decreases. For each month, ‘1 2 normdist’ determines the probability that each site’s lethal temperature is part of the site’s population of temperatures. This yields probability curves of repeat recurrences of the peak temperature of 1998. In the warmest 3-month data sets, residuals in only half of the sites have normal .............................................................. distributions (they lack extended ‘tails’).
    [Show full text]
  • Inequity Aversion in Dogs: a Review
    Learning & Behavior https://doi.org/10.3758/s13420-018-0338-x Inequity aversion in dogs: a review Jim McGetrick1,2 & Friederike Range1,2 # The Author(s) 2018 Abstract The study of inequity aversion in animals debuted with a report of the behaviour in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). This report generated many debates following a number of criticisms. Ultimately, however, the finding stimulated widespread interest, and multiple studies have since attempted to demonstrate inequity aversion in various other non-human animal species, with many positive results in addition to many studies in which no response to inequity was found. Domestic dogs represent an interesting case as, unlike many primates, they do not respond negatively to inequity in reward quality but do, however, respond negatively to being unrewarded in the presence of a rewarded partner. Numerous studies have been published on inequity aversion in dogs in recent years. Combining three tasks and seven peer-reviewed publications, over 140 individual dogs have been tested in inequity experiments. Consequently, dogs are one of the best studied species in this field and could offer insights into inequity aversion in other non-human animal species. In this review, we summarise and critically evaluate the current evidence for inequity aversion in dogs. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive discussion of two understudied aspects of inequity aversion, the underlying mechanisms and the ultimate function, drawing on the latest findings on these topics in dogs while also placing these develop- ments in the context of what is known, or thought to be the case, in other non-human animal species.
    [Show full text]
  • Estimating Social Preferences Using Stated Satisfaction: Novel Support for Inequity Aversion
    DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No. 14347 Estimating Social Preferences Using Stated Satisfaction: Novel Support for Inequity Aversion Lina Diaz Daniel Houser John Ifcher Homa Zarghamee APRIL 2021 DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No. 14347 Estimating Social Preferences Using Stated Satisfaction: Novel Support for Inequity Aversion Lina Diaz John Ifcher George Mason University Santa Clara University and IZA Daniel Houser Homa Zarghamee George Mason University Barnard College APRIL 2021 Any opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and not those of IZA. Research published in this series may include views on policy, but IZA takes no institutional policy positions. The IZA research network is committed to the IZA Guiding Principles of Research Integrity. The IZA Institute of Labor Economics is an independent economic research institute that conducts research in labor economics and offers evidence-based policy advice on labor market issues. Supported by the Deutsche Post Foundation, IZA runs the world’s largest network of economists, whose research aims to provide answers to the global labor market challenges of our time. Our key objective is to build bridges between academic research, policymakers and society. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available directly from the author. ISSN: 2365-9793 IZA – Institute of Labor Economics Schaumburg-Lippe-Straße 5–9 Phone: +49-228-3894-0 53113 Bonn, Germany Email: [email protected] www.iza.org IZA DP No. 14347 APRIL 2021 ABSTRACT Estimating Social Preferences Using Stated Satisfaction: Novel Support for Inequity Aversion In this paper, we use stated satisfaction to estimate social preferences: subjects report their satisfaction with payment-profiles that hold their own payment constant while varying another subject’s payment.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Does Inequity Aversion Develop? – an Experimental Test of Ultimate Explanations
    Why Does Inequity Aversion Develop? – An Experimental Test of Ultimate Explanations Emmie Marklund Master’s thesis in Psychology Supervisor: Jan Antfolk Faculty of Arts, Psychology and Theology Åbo Akademi University ÅBO AKADEMI UNIVERSITY – FACULTY OF ARTS, PSYCHOLOGY AND THEOLOGY Summary of master’s thesis Subject: Psychology Author: Emmie Marklund Title: Why Does Inequity Aversion Develop? – An Experimental Test of Ultimate Explanations Supervisor: Jan Antfolk Abstract: Children develop inequity aversion (a tendency to respond negatively to, and correct, unfair outcomes) around age six. This is expressed by children starting to avoid inequity by sharing more equally. In the current study, we tested whether fairness norms, reciprocal altruism, or inclusive fitness underlies the development of this phenomenon. One-hundred- and-six 4- to 8-year-old children (53% girls) distributed five erasers between themselves, a sibling, a friend, and a stranger. An option was to throw away any eraser. A pattern of more erasers distributed to oneself, the sibling, and the friend, or to oneself and the sibling, would indicate reciprocal altruism or inclusive fitness as the ultimate explanation, and erasers distributed equally to all recipients would indicate fairness norms. Consistent with previous research, 6- to 8-year-olds displayed more inequity aversion (i.e, exhibited less selfish behavior and shared more equally) than younger children. The patterns found were that younger children distributed significantly more erasers to themselves than to the friend and the stranger. This deviated from predictions and did not support reciprocal altruism or inclusive fitness as the ultimate cause for the development of inequity aversion. Whether a norm of fairness can explain the development of inequity aversion remains unclear.
    [Show full text]
  • The Economics of Fairness, Reciprocity and Altruism – Experimental Evidence and New Theories
    Chapter 8 THE ECONOMICS OF FAIRNESS, RECIPROCITY AND ALTRUISM – EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE AND NEW THEORIES ERNST FEHR Institute for Empirical Research in Economics, University of Zurich, Bluemlisalpstrasse 10, CH-8006 Zurich, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] KLAUS M. SCHMIDT Department of Economics, University of Munich, Ludwigstrasse 28, D-80539 Muenchen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] Contents Abstract 616 Keywords 616 1. Introduction and overview 617 2. Empirical foundations of other-regarding preferences 621 2.1. Other-regarding behavior in simple experiments 621 2.2. Other-regarding preferences or irrational behavior 628 2.3. Neuroeconomic foundations of other-regarding preferences 631 3. Theories of other-regarding preferences 636 3.1. Social preferences 637 3.1.1. Altruism 638 3.1.2. Relative income and envy 639 3.1.3. Inequity aversion 639 3.1.4. Hybrid models 642 3.2. Interdependent preferences 644 3.2.1. Altruism and spitefulness 645 3.3. Models of intention based reciprocity 647 3.3.1. Fairness equilibrium 647 3.3.2. Intentions in sequential games 649 3.3.3. Merging intentions and social preferences 650 3.3.4. Guilt aversion and promises 651 3.4. Axiomatic approaches 652 4. Discriminating between theories of other-regarding preferences 653 Handbook of the Economics of Giving, Altruism and Reciprocity, Volume 1 Edited by Serge-Christophe Kolm and Jean Mercier Ythier Copyright © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved DOI: 10.1016/S1574-0714(06)01008-6 616 E. Fehr and K.M. Schmidt 4.1. Who are the relevant reference actors? 654 4.2.
    [Show full text]
  • Inequity and Risk Aversion in Sequential Public Good
    Inequity and Risk Aversion in Sequential Public Good Games Sabrina Teyssier INRA-ALISS, 65 boulevard de Brandebourg, 94205 Ivry-sur-Seine Cedex, France. Email: [email protected]. September 2010 Abstract Behavioral hypotheses have recently been introduced into public-choice theory (Ostrom 1998). Nevertheless, the individual intrinsic preferences which drive decisions in social dilemmas have not yet been empirically identified. This paper asks whether risk and inequity preferences are behind agents' behavior in a sequential public good game. The experimental results show that risk aversion is negatively correlated with the contribution decision of first movers. Second movers who are averse to advantageous inequity free-ride less and reciprocate more than do others. Our results emphasize the importance of strategic uncertainty for the correct understanding of which preferences influence cooperation in social dilemmas. JEL classification: C72, C91, D63, D81, H41. Keywords: inequity aversion, risk aversion, public good game, conditional cooperation, strategic uncertainty. 1 1 Introduction Building on the hypothesis that the State's decisions consist of the behavior of agents who compose the government, the application of economic tools to political science introduced by Buchanan and Tullock (1962) and Olson (1965) has emphasized that collectively-optimal actions may not maximize individual utility. However, empirical evidence has shown that not all individuals act like homo-œconomicus agents (see for example Andreoni 1988; Berg et al. 1995; Camerer 2003; Forsythe et al. 1994; Isaac et al. 1984). Recent developments in public-choice theory have taken a behavioral approach to broaden the analysis of collective action. The introduction of social preferences, such as altruism, inequity aversion or trust, may mean that optimal collective choices are also optimal for individuals (Ahn et al.
    [Show full text]
  • What Have We Learned in Non-Human Primate Behavioral Economics?
    What have we learned in non-human primate behavioral economics? Spring 2017 Cognitive Science Author: Kevin Blohm Advisor: Mark Sheskin What have we learned in non-human primate behavioral economics? Abstract: Much work with nonhuman primates has been inspired by work from behavioral economics with humans. Topics studied include inequity aversion, prosociality, risk aversion, the framing effect, the endowment effect, and other so called cognitive biases. In this paper, I review the pre-existing literature, including, when relevant, active debates over the strength of evidence for particular cognitive biases in non- human primates. I conclude there is strong evidence that non-human primates have the framing effect and the endowment effect in common with humans, but that it is unlikely non-human primates are inequity averse or prosocial in the way we understand these terms with humans. I conclude by discussing future directions, including the possibility of studies designed to quantify the extent to which there are behavioral differences between individuals within nonhuman primate species. Based on recent discussions in human literature (e.g., regarding the replication crisis), I conclude that such advances likely will need larger sample sizes, and more standardized experimental protocols across research groups. 1 What have we learned in non-human primate behavioral economics? Contents 1. Introduction 1.1. Behavioral Economics 1.2. Nonhuman Primates 1.3. The Utility of Comparative Cognition 1.4. Goals of the Current Paper 2. The Findings and Open Debates in Primate Behavioral Economics 2.1. Fairness 2.2. Prosocial Donation 2.3. Endowment Effect 2.4. Framing Effect 3. Behavioral Economic Findings with Humans 3.1.
    [Show full text]
  • Social and Non-Social Mechanisms of Inequity Aversion in Non-Human Animals
    REVIEW published: 21 June 2019 doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00133 Social and Non-social Mechanisms of Inequity Aversion in Non-human Animals Lina Oberliessen* and Tobias Kalenscher Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany Research over the last decades has shown that humans and other animals reveal behavioral and emotional responses to unequal reward distributions between themselves and other conspecifics. However, cross-species findings about the mechanisms underlying such inequity aversion are heterogeneous, and there is an ongoing discussion if inequity aversion represents a truly social phenomenon or if it is driven by non-social aspects of the task. There is not even general consensus whether inequity aversion exists in non-human animals at all. In this review article, we discuss variables that were found to affect inequity averse behavior in animals and examine mechanistic and evolutionary theories of inequity aversion. We review a range of moderator variables and focus especially on the comparison of social vs. non-social explanations of inequity aversion. Particular emphasis is placed on the importance of considering the experimental design when interpreting behavior in inequity aversion tasks: the tasks used to probe inequity aversion are often based on impunity-game-like designs in which animals are faced with unfair reward distributions, and they can choose to accept the unfair offer, or reject it, leaving them with no reward. We compare inequity-averse behavior in such impunity- game-like designs with behavior in less common choice-based designs in which animals Edited by: actively choose between fair and unfair rewards distributions.
    [Show full text]
  • Wild Justice - Honor and Fairness Among Beasts at Play
    WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository Spring 2009 Wild Justice - Honor and Fairness Among Beasts at Play Marc Bekoff Jessica Pierce Follow this and additional works at: https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/soccog Part of the Animal Studies Commons, Comparative Psychology Commons, and the Other Animal Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Bekoff, M., & Pierce, J. (2009). Wild Justice: Honor and Fairness among Beasts at Play. American Journal of Play, 1(4), 451-475. This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Wild Justice - Honor and Fairness among Beasts at Play Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce ABSTRACT This essay challenges science’s traditional taboo against anthropomorphizing animals or considering their behavior as indicative of feelings similar to human emotions. In their new book Wild Justice: The Moral Lives of Animals, the authors argue that anthropomorphism is alive and well, as it should be. Here they describe some activities of animals, particularly animals at play, as clear signs that they have recognizable emotions and moral intelligence. Based on years of behavioral and cognitive research, the authors discuss in their book that animals exhibit a broad repertoire of moral behaviors, including empathy and cooperation, but here they concentrate on the fairness and trust so essential to any kind of play, animal or human. They contend that underneath this behavior lays a complex range of emotions, backed by a high degree of intelligence and surprising behavioral flexibility.
    [Show full text]
  • Explaining Individual Differences in Advantageous Inequity Aversion by Social-Affective Trait Dimensions and Family Environment
    Note: Article in press at Social Psychological and Personality Science (https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506211027794) Explaining individual differences in advantageous inequity aversion by social-affective trait dimensions and family environment Hongbo Yu 1, Chunlei Lu2, Xiaoxue Gao3,10, Bo Shen2,3, Kui Liu2, Weijian Li2, Yuqin Xiao4, Bo Yang4, Xudong Zhao5,6, Molly. J. Crockett7, Xiaolin Zhou2,3,6,8,9 1 Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, U.S.A. 2 Institute of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Zhejiang, China 3 School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China 4 School of Sociology, China University of Political Science and Law, Beijing, China 5 Pudong Mental Health Centre, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China 6 Department of Psychology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China 7 Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A. 8 Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China 9 PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, China 10 Current affiliation: Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Psychological Crisis Intervention, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed: Dr. Hongbo Yu Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences University of California Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, CA, USA Email: [email protected] ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3384-7772 or Dr. Xiaolin Zhou 1 School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences Peking University Beijing, China Email: [email protected] ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7363-4360 2 Abstract Humans are averse to both having less (i.e., disadvantageous inequity aversion) and having more than others (i.e., advantageous inequity aversion).
    [Show full text]
  • Children's Inequality Aversion in Ultimatum Games
    Lund University Bachelor’s thesis, [NEKK01] Department of Economics Tutor: Tommy Andersson Children’s Inequality Aversion in Ultimatum Games Victoria Nilsson 880414-8701 August 2011 Abstract Individuals do not only make decisions to maximize their own utility, but are also concerned with how their decisions affect others. Theories of inequality aversion, taking fairness considerations into account, suggest that many people dislike inequalities between themselves and others. Testing for inequality aversion is easiest done by using experimental economics, in this paper in the form of an ultimatum game. It is a bargaining game where the subjects get to bargain over a sum of money, with their economic behavior being analyzed and quantified afterwards. Adults who participate act more selfishly if they have to earn their own wealth in the game before starting to play. In this paper, an experiment testing how earned wealth affects children’s behavior is constructed. This is done in order to show that as much as one can prove that even young children take fairness considerations into account, they can also act as selfish actors to a high extent, especially when earning their own wealth before being asked to share it with others. Key words: altruism; fairness; inequality aversion; ultimatum games; children Words: 8957 1 Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Inequity Aversion
    I Inequity Aversion provided humans with a key selective advantage that has enabled population growth into even Gillian L Vale and Sarah F Brosnan boreal climates (Boyd et al. 2011). In particular, National Center for Chimpanzee Care, Michale E. such cooperative tendencies have been vital to our Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and cultural development, facilitating our ability to Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson accumulate complex traits and knowledge over Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX, USA time (cumulative culture), a process that is widely Department of Psychology and Language believed to underpin humanity’s extraordinary Research Center, Georgia State University, biological success. Given the selective advantage Atlanta, GA, USA wide-scale cooperation has conferred to our spe- cies, it is important to address why this capability may have evolved and the processes that may Synonyms underpin it. In this entry, we consider one mech- anism that may be essential to maintaining the Equality, Equity, Fairness, Justice success of cooperation, inequity aversion. When considering behaviors, evolutionary sci- entists typically focus on two features: its func- Definition tion, or why it evolved, and the mechanism(s) by which it operates. Regarding the first of these, Inequity aversion in animals is a response to out- the evolutionary pathway that leads to coopera- comes that are less than, or more than, what a tion is relatively well understood. It is typically social partner receives. accounted for by one of the three theories: kin selection, reciprocity, or mutualism. The kin selection account of cooperation is that coopera- Introduction tion can evolve when cooperative acts provide a fitness advantage to related individuals, despite a Humans are an exceptionally cooperative species, cost to helper organisms.
    [Show full text]