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P.O. Box 444 Tauranga Telephone 88-166

Number 46 Jvin Jig 7 March 1977

Editorial 4 A sense of direction

Robert Riddell 5 Letter from Britain: The Community Land Act

G.W.A. Bush 6 Local government & urban development

Richard Thompson 15 The second transport study: A review reviewed

John Chivers 18 Fences in the countryside

Rosemary Barrington 24 Multi unit housing in Calgary

R.V. Welch 30 Planning conflicts within tourist centres: A comment

Robert Riddell 33 Letter from Britain; Development Control

Morris Taylor 35 Book Review

Peter Horsley 36 Casebook

Town Planning Quarterly is the official journal of the New Address all correspondence to the Editor: Town Zealand Planning Institute Incorporated, P.O. Box 6388 Planning Quarterly, P.O.Box 8789, Symonds Street, Auckland Auckland 1. Telephone/Telegrams: 74-740 Editor: J.R. Dart Technical Editor: M.H.Pritchard Department of Town Planning, University of Auckland Annual Subscription: $5.00 (New Zealand and Australia) Design: David Reynolds post free, elsewhere $NZ6.00 Cover Photograph : Jim Dart

The Institute does not accept responsibility for statements Printed by made or opinions expressed in this Journal unless this Acme Printing Works Ltd, responsibility is expressly acknowledged. 137 Great North Road, Published March, June, September, December. Auckland. Town Planning Quarterly 46 —3 But exporting industry means cities and we fret at the way in which people move from small towns to big towns and the way in which the most industry and the most peo- ple seem to congregate together. ECKorial We fret, too, at the way in which our balance of payments never seems quite to, and never weighs in our favour. A sense of direction We fret that, in spite of all our efforts, a gap between Raymond Williams, in his scholarly study, Culture and the poor and the rich is widening. The continued existence Society, 1780-1950, remarked of R.H. Tawney, that he was, of the poor irritates and annoys; it taints the pleasure that "one of the noblest men of his generation". True or not, his we get from our possessions. In our more self-critical mo- two essays, The Acquisitive Society (1921) and Equality ments, we may even entertain the thought that the gap is (1931) are as pertinent today as they were when they were increasing because the rich are acquiring ever greater written half-a-century ago. wealth. Perhaps we are being just a little too self-indulgent It was in the former book that Tawney opened with the with our two houses and two cars, caravan and motorboat, observation that: swimming pool and sauna. But the act of acquisition pro- It is a commonplace that the characteristic virtue of En- vides a stimulus which sustains until next year's model ar- glishmen is their power of sustained practical activity, and rives to begin the cycle again. Self-constraint needs a their characteristic vice a reluctance to test the quality of philosophy to nurture it, to offer an alternative to the con- that activity by reference to principles. They are incurious sumer society. as to theory, take fundamentals for granted, and are more Bertrand Russell had a poetic ending to his Proposed interested in the state of the roads than in their place on the Roads to Freedom (1919). map. And it might fairly be argued that in ordinary times The world that we must seek is a world in which the that combination of intellectual tameness with practical creative spirit is alive, in which life is an adventure full of joy energy is sufficiently serviceable to explain, if not to justify, and hope, based rather upon the impulse to construct that the equanimity with which its possessors bear the criticism upon the desire to retain what we possess or to seize what of more mentally adventurous nations. It is the mood of is possessed by others. It must be a world in which affec- those who have made their bargain with fate and are con- tion has free play, in which love is purged of the instinct for tent to take what it offers without re-opening the deal. It domination, in which cruelty and envy have been dispelled leaves the mind free to concentrate undisturbed upon pro- by happiness and the unfettered development of all the fitable activities, because it is not distracted by a taste for instincts that build up life and fill it with mental delights. unprofitable speculations. Most generations, it might be Such a world is possible; it waits only for men to wish to said, walk in a path which they neither make nor discover, create it. but accept; the main thing is that they should march. The Last December, the report of the task force on economic blinkers worn by Englishmen enable them to trot all the and social planning, New Zealand at the Turning Point, ap- more steadily along the beaten road, without being dis- peared amidst brief publicity and some embarrassment. turbed by curiosity as to their destination. Like Tawney's Englishmen, we are not accustomed to lift- He could as well have been writing of New Zealanders. ing our eyes. In any case, the report was too reminiscent of As a nation, we have been content to keep moving with- the National Development Council of a decade earlier and out being overly concerned about either direction or con- we all know what that achieved. Sir Frank Holmes' little sequence. band will, inevitably, chase the scent of regional develop- We descended, as efficient as any locust plague, upon ment and they will conclude that what we need are more the forests; devoured everything in our path; axed and corporate regional authorities and they will find a placebo burnt, logged and crushed; consuming timber as fast, as to divert the remnants of the Wellington centralist lobby. frantically, as wastefully, as any exploitative group of 'free They will not be so politically naive as to believe that they enterprise', `get-rich-quick-boys', 'why should we worry will have much influence on Parliament Hill, pragmatists to about the future, whatever did it do for us?' people the a man (and woman) and not a futurist in sight. No harm whole Western world over. would be done, then, if they were to look beyond the politi- In place of the wonderful diversity of indigenous, sub- cians and seek to fire our imaginations with utopian vis- tropical forest, we planted English grasses; covering the ions. hills and valleys with carpets, holed and frayed with ero- They could always reassure themselves by quoting Oscar sion, but green in winter and golden brown in summer. We Wilde's dictum: stocked them with sheep and cows to clothe and feed our- a map of the world that does not include Utopia is not selves and any in the world who could afford the luxuries of even worth glancing at, for it leaves out the one country at meat and butter and wool. which humanity is always landing... Given the pressures of world population and the rush to For New Zealand, and the world, are at a turning *point affluence, the exchange was inevitable and if we were more and we could make a virtue out of necessity. ruthless than we needed to have been, we were less so than The planning profession could help if it could learn to we could have been. abandon the narcissism of introversion and give more of its Then we sought to plant and cultivate industry as assidu- collective time to the community. It, at least, should be em- ously as we did grass and with the same end in mind: to phasising that trend is not destiny; that the future does hold meet our own modestneeds and then to export. It seems a alternatives. But we cannot change only one thing and little strange that we should seek to compete with the mas- leave the rest constant; we cannot change the physical en- sed factories of Japan and Europe and the USA, but we vironment without changing also the economic and social must export in order to import and we have to export quite environment. Such statements of the obvious need con- a lot in order to be able to bring in such important items as tinuous re-statement. Rolls Royce and Mercedes cars, air-conditioning units and Let us hope that the silence of the planning profession on wastemasters, 450 hp outboard motors and electric tooth- such matters is the silence of contemplation and not the brushes. silence of those who have nothing to say. J.R. Dart 4 -Town Planning Quarterly 46

Letter from Britain. were the 1947 Act still in use, would have removed most of the bureaucratic costs, development delays The Community Land Act and unfair allocation of development benefits so Robert Riddell. apparent today. But this point is academic. The Tories will, in all probability, tinker with the corporation, land and development gains tax instruments, but in a way which will keep the total The Community Land Act 1975 is a very political tax haul below an 80% threshold. Future Labour piece of legislation. It represents the third attempt by administrations might well give up their claim that all the Labour Party in Britain to draw a large proportion land development gains should come into public of the windfall gains from land use allocation coffers and we might enter a period of greater decisions into public coffers — the two repealed legislative stability where the principal statute precedents to the Community Land Act being the remains intact and only the tax threshold is chopped well-known Town and Country Planning Act 1947 and changed — hardly an ideal administrative which was designed to expropriate all development solution, but a common political compromise in this value to the state, and the relatively less happy Land country. Commission Act 1967 which was intended to strike a Abroad it is frequently suggested that the betterment levy and secure land for community Community Land Act and the Development Land Tax development purposes. put Britain in an advanced position, but this I doubt. The Community Land Act is having a very rough First, there is the proven Scandanavian (especially passage. This arises partly because it is relatively Swedish) experience with the virtual nationalisation maladroit and partly because if (and most impartial of urban land; and second, there are North American observers would say 'when') the Tories return to (notably United States) successes with land and power it will be repealed. The kernel of the Act is development taxation instruments. In the final Section 17 which outlines Local Authorities' general analysis, the proportion of windfall gains a nation duties' to acquire, but even this crucial component takes into its exchequer from land planning lacks thrust because the first 'duty period' has not decisions is a reflection of political commitment and yet begun. Here, there are administrative as well as community care. From the New Zealand standpoint political incumberances. Expressed in another way, there may be more to learn in both regards from an even if the Labour government were returned at the analysis of Swedish and United States experience next election, it could drastically amend the than from the now rather ritual variations on a administration of the Act. A further point is that the formerly lively theme in Britain. Act duplicates some of the admittedly rather cumbrous powers already available for obtaining a Robert Riddell, Ph D (Newcastle), Dip TP (Auck), supply of land for development purposes. Indeed, MNZ1S, (M), is a senior lecturer in the Dept of Land though differently worded, the powers of acquisition Economy, Cambridge University. available under Section 212 of the Town and Country Planning Act are the same as those found in Section 15 of the Community Land Act. But apart Urthfersit PuNications from these operational failures the Community Land Act has been financially hamstrung as an instrument Available from the Town Planning Department for land supply by the recent withdrawal of £100 m of the University of Auckland, limited numbers of funds formerly earmarked for land acquisition purposes. of the following special studies: All-in-all, the Community Land Act is proving to be a less than influential instrument of Socialist policy G.E. Nahkies (1976) Environmental Decision- in relation to land. It has not done much good or Making: a critical evaluation of the contribution of harm because the land market and the construction environmental impact reporting in the USA and industry is already naturally depressed. So far only a New Zealand. 52 pp. miniscule 250 acres have been acquired with the aid of its provisions— which about equals the record of K.W. Williams (1976) Liquor and the Planner: a study its precedent, the Land Commission Act 1967. Also it of the land use implications of hotel development. has added very little to existing planning and 91 pp. development control powers. The question most raised in British development From: The Secretary, planning circles now is 'Have the Tories not yet seen Town Planning Department, the need for a compromise with the Socialist and University of Auckland, popular demands for a large proportion of land Private Bag, development gains to accrue to society as a Auckland. community benefit?' The answer is a qualified yes. The Conservatives will never embrace land Price $3.00 each nationalisation, the ultimate Labour aim, and which, Town Planning Quarterly 46 -5 Local government and urban development G.W.A. Bush

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6 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 The brief of the paper is to examine the nature, realized. One can understand both the performance and prospects of local government in preoccupation with removing allegedly objectiona- the urban context, but the first question that could ble clauses from the 1974 Local Government Act be asked is what is the connection between the two, and the detailing of various proposals relating to the between the development of our cities and their local reform of finances and rates. But these apart, the government system? There is an appealing manifesto impresses primarily as a recommitment to argument, not wholly specious, along the lines that the status quo. The philosophy as stated has been local government exerts relatively little influence on subscribed to on a non-partisan basis for decades; the overall shape and development of a city, although there is a slight swing back towards the particularly in its economic plane, and particularly as supremacy of the local viewpoints. the urban area grows and becomes an ever-more interactive dynamism. This is despite the planning powers conferred on local bodies. We are, however, venturing into deceptive quicksands if we attempt to pontificate on urban cause and effect. For example, the Auckland Regional Authority may say no to the sewage reticulation of an area which the urban fringe Waitemata City Council wishes to develop as an industrial zone, but as an explanation of industrial location this only scratches the surface. It is safer to take ,the standpoint that we do have thriving, exploding cities, especially in the North, and to make this the starting point. Recognition of the Significance of Urban Development Census after census has documented New Zealand's inexorable transition to an urbanized Local Government usually has to cope with the nation, but only in 1975 was a political party consequences of urban motorways. prepared to afford this fact recognition in its election While it must be remembered that election pledges manifesto. The mini-manifesto of the National Party often remain unfulfilled, it is educative to recall these offered three pledges in respect of urban particular pledges. They were: development: to limit urban sprawl; to save what 1. Regional Finance. National will investigate the beauty already exists; to ensure that all new possibility of empowering regions to raise buildings contribute to an improved environment. regional finance. These slogans trip pleasingly off the tongue, and 2. Welfare Facilities & Programmes. National will may have more meaning in the stating than in the investigate the possibility of giving grants-in-aid implementing. Nevertheless, all three, and some of to approved schemes. the other matters of concern referred to in the 3. Housing. National will encourage own-your-own manifesto: — inner city housing, and social units built by local authorities. Realistic loans to problems, are organically associated with local local bodies will be made available for their government. These noble but nebulous sentiments housing projects. must be converted into negotiable currency — the cold cash of legislative and financial support which local government rightly sets such store upon. The Government must stand and deliver in terms more concrete than "planting trees" and "creating new beauty". It must, by legislation, aid and abet those planning authorities that wish to save trees and the natural contours, rather than coldly see them entrapped in the turmoils of unhelpful statutes. It must pay more than lip-service to inner-city redevelopment by putting its money where its mouth is. It must positively encourage housing schemes more innovative than the standard one-fifth of an acre carve-up. It must not leave local government to manage aggressive, selfish urbanism with nothing more compelling than an outmoded Town and Country Planning Act clutched in its hand. Hopes that, in the local government section of the manifesto, would be found the supports to buttress The Central Business District and the local body within the excursion into urban development have not been which it Has are natural allies. Town Planning Quarterly 46 -7 4. Environment. Incentives will be provided for local authorities to increase tree planting. National will assist with urban renewal programmes and with qualified planning advice. Fully adopted and operative, these policies would undoubtedly help local government to place a more purposeful guiding hand on urban development. Even so, an undertaking "to investigate the possibility of" can be as valuable or valueless as a promise to "take into consideration". What seemed to be absent is definite, tangible policy and any think-tanking about the allocation of functions between the two arms of government, or about invigorating — or is it reinvigorating — local government, or about the processes as opposed to the outward forms of local government. Of course, it can be argued that some of these programmes have had to be sacrificed in the greater The large central library is a traditional facility which services the whole metropolis. interest of the national economy, and that they have not been permanently abandoned. On the other Auckland has 24 territorial bodies, 11 licensing trusts, and, since the recent demise of the Metropolitan Fire Board, only 8 ad hoc bodies, but among these are 7 different kinds. Where the strong contrast lies is in the discrepancy between Auckland's 24 territorial bodies — "real local government", as we're often told — compared with the more modest numbers of 8, 7, and 7 that Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin respectively seem to survive with. The only time in almost the last half-century that one of Auckland's boroughs agreed to forgo its separate identity was in 1965 when Manurewa Borough merged into Manukau County to form Manukau City. This, together with the 1974 dismemberment of Waitemata County, are the only practical results after decades of talking and reports and literally dozens of schemes. Branch Libraries spread throughout the urban area are The patchwork quilt pattern of urban local becoming the expected thing. government which Auckland exemplifies has a hand, local bodies in urban areas may well be willing number of strong characteristics. The first is to forgo the assistance of "qualified planning diversity — or to be more precise — disparity. About advice" in return for being given revised town the only equality that exists is legal status. Their planning legislation to work. Local governments boundaries often have no reality in contemporary have a continual struggle to keep any rein on the terms — one can pass from jurisdiction to tearaway forces behind urbanization, let alone being jurisdiction without observing any discernible able to impose some overall urban strategy. Help change in features such as the landscape, housing, from the Government has to date been extremely roading patterns, shopping facilities and the like. modest, perhaps underscoring the philosophy that The only thing marked off by the boundary is local cities can look after themselves perfectly well body status. Local bodies in a fragmented urban without being shackled by the supposed pettiness system can be big or small, wealthy or poor, and petty-fogging of local government. progressive or stagnant, well or badly governed, Local Government in the Urban Setting conscious of their wider responsibilities or as is Large and thrusting metropolises conjure up often the case, sublimely ignorant. visions of gigantism — economic, physical, fiscal The second characteristic is diversity of services and political — yet the opposite is often true of their and financial well-being. Some urban local bodies governmental arrangements. Chicago, for example, tend to be providers to the metropolis, while others has 1160 separate local government units to manage offer very little of which citizens of the wider its 3,370,000 inhabitants. By comparison with this metropolis wish to avail themselves. Libraries and ratio, Auckland could be claimed to be severely municipal swimming baths are cases in point. under-governed with its miserly 43 units for the Similarly, while some local bodies enjoy a veritable urban census area. rating feast off large industrial or commercial 8 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 centres within their boundaries, others cannot avoid conducted research into the assessing of a council's the disagreeable choice of battening almost record. Recent articles in Public Management, May exclusively onto residential ratepayers. That one 1976 ("Council Evaluation") and the National Civic citizen has to pay twice as much as his neighbour for Review, January 1976 ("Rating Cities' Perfor- a basic service like a rubbish collection simply mance") suggest that assessment is still far from because a local body boundary line intervenes is a being an exact science. Although quantitative data hard fact to justify. can be fed into a programmed computer, the A study of the Auckland Region revealed that no problems of qualitative data and the relative fewer than six distinct types of organizations were weightling assigned to different criteria still have to responsible for the provision of thirty-six major be surmounted. Quite apart from all this, there is the services. Territorial local bodies had some political angle — how do you explain to your citizens involvement with 21, ad hoc boards with 10, the ARA and ratepayers that your placing among the bottom, with 11, Government departments with 12, trusts instead of the top, ten of local bodies is of no with 8 and private companies with 5. For less than consequence and very misleading? half the services was only one type of authority While occasions occur quite frequently when responsible. The confusion and alienation which this "one-off" judgements of unerring accuracy can be creates in the minds of the public is painfully made of a Council's capabilities, the possibility of obvious. converting these into any sustainable, overall conclusions about a Council is very remote. The slings and arrows of misfortune hit councils often The performance of local government in the cities enough, without falsely elevating subjective and unverifiable opinions into unchallengeable writ from A useful assessment of performance implies the on high. Truly judging a Council without the availability of suitable measuring instruments, of intrusion of personal values such as the relative valid yardsticks. About these there is likely to be weight given factors like efficiency, progressiveness, earnest dispute. Certainly the beloved criterion of social conscience and economy, is an exercise in the rate increases proves something, but exactly what is "Mission Impossible" class. At the present stage of another matter. A calculation of the ratio of staff to the study of local government, we are on much surer inhabitants or to rates collected is meaningless in ground when we remain in the area of needs, itself. The trouble is that attention is all too apt to be unsatisfactory though this undoubtedly is. focussed on financial inputs—the rates —which are Structural and functional needs of course, outgoings to the ratepayer. Even Central Government politicians love to strut outcomes as tangible as community centres, sealed around proclaiming that they want to "strengthen" roads or pensioner housing units can be a snare and local government, but they shy away from specifics. a delusion. Such examples of "bettering" the locality Henry May, the Minister of Local Government in the may conceal sorry stories of extravagance, Labour Administration of 1972-75, talked in this vein short-sightedness, sheer bloodymindedness and and baited the hook with musings about enhancing other failings which it is so popular to pin on local government's functions. In our system, the councils. allocation of functions has, since 1876 (when the As might be expected in a country where such a provinces were abolished), been a relatively premium is placed on success, the Americans have straight-forward if not always comprehendable exercise. Public duties shall be placed at either central or local governmental level, either exclusively or partly, and if at the local government level, be given either to territorial councils or to special purpose boards. While it would be manifestly impossible for local government to be made responsible for foreign policy, it is not impossible for central government to be given the job of undertaking every single activity currently within the local government ambit. Undesirable and insane, perhaps, but administratively and politically feasible. What functions then does central government assign to its partner down the line? In the United States and United Kingdom urban systems, education, social welfare and law enforcement are the three major additional spheres of local government activity which are centralised in New Zealand. To some extent, housing must be included in this category too. A case for increased municipal Effective town planning is perhaps the most important housing activity can be assembled, but there is little demand placed on urban local bodies. advocacy for any wholesale and jurisdictional Town Planning Quarterly 46 -9 embracing of the other three. Fragmentation of cities assume momentum in a certain direction, traffic control in any large urban area is undesirable accomplishing a definite shift or even emphasis in but this is not to assert that the Government course faces overwhelming adverse odds. Take any Transport Department should take over the first-rate major New Zealand city and the motor car: the Traffic Department operated by the Auckland City built-in capital investment marshals our transport Council. Apart from two exceptions, then, the system inexorably along this path. Cities are too vital allocation of functions may benfit from some minor to be left in the discrete hands of a cluster of adjustment but no major overhaul is warranted. autonomous councils, whose concern is all too apt The first exception is the clouded and vexatious to stop at their own boundaries. The interests of a area of social welfare. Responsibilities in this area particular borough might well be safeguarded —too have crept up on local government almost well safeguarded — by the present planning unbeknown to it, and while the more traditionally arrangements, but who is properly guarding the minded Councils can disown any obligations in this interests of the entire city as.an entity? Perhaps the field, they sound less and less convincing. For the solution is twofold: first, either to give central last few years the Auckland City Council, with its government a meaningful role in the planning corps of fulltime community advisers, has annually process as it unfolds, or to remove it altogether; spent over $250,000 on welfare and community secondly, to invest the planning authority for the activities. Few local bodies can match this, even on a region with the power to enforce the adoption of an pro rata comparison, but even the expenditure of a integrated planning scheme. Some might find the few dollars on subsidizing voluntary groups involves concept of a master hand anathema. Is any planning a principle. At no stage has there been a full-dress better than no planning? But so many atomic, debate as to whether local government should economic forces are pummelling, stretching and become a co-partner with central Government and shaping the city that, at the very least, it must be charitable groups, the traditional dispensers of welfare. The conscience of the councils and Government exhortation rather than funds have gradually shepherded local government into this arena. The future role of local government could very properly embrace this function, but it should not be shouldered casually. As United States cities have learned, the urban poor, the urban unemployed, the

Not all metropolitan local bodies have followed a policy of allowing the Government Transport Department to control traffic. sheltered by a no-nonsense referee guided by a fair set of rules. For various reasons, attention has centred more than is healthy on the structure of city government. Some mysterious magic, or malevolent evil, is City dwellers would be very hostile to the return of the era attributed to any proposed changes in the territorial of chronic water shortages, but often do not appreciate the structure. This is plainly absurd, but it does indicate cost and complexity of ensuring and adequate supply. the emotionalism with pervades this topic. In combination, the status quo and history are almost urban misfits, the urban unhappy, can easily be an invincible, and it is on this, in the final analysis, that endless drain on the revenue. While New Zealand local bodies base their right to exist. Some local local bodies have so far steered clear of having to body members blanche at the mere mention of terms pay out monetary welfare benefits, they are moving like "amalgamation" and "consolidation". They closer to the periphery of this particular sphere. totally equate "the local community" with "our local Local government must beware of being blarneyed council", when, in fact, the ties that bind the two may into buying a pig-in-a-poke. be a mere thread compared to the links that do not The second exception is town planning. Once connect the two. Amalgamation pros and cons have 10 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 been thrashed to pieces times without end, and there Rather it is to abandon prejudice and a blind is no point in joining in the flagellation. adherence to the status quo as the ultimate Although in theory both major political parties expression and guarantor of community virtues. If, subscribe to the need for structural reorganization, for example, smallness is an unsurpassed virtue, why the National Party has laid more emphasis on the not cut up many of the suburban boroughs which are right of each locality to be the arbiter of its own local adamant that "bigress' is a blight on our urban local government arrangements. The Local Government government system. It should be recognised that Amendment Act 1976 watered down the poll local government structure is but the means of provisions and the strength of the authority invested providing for local needs and that if it is modified, in the Local Government Commission by the 1974 the ends can still remain in view. Act. This certainly gives effect to the election undertaking that in the restructuring of local government the views of the local community should prevail", and ensures the primacy of each council's interests, but in the urban arena they do not stand alone. In concert they make up Auckland, or Wellington, or Christchurch, and what, it must be demanded, of their interest on a metropolitan plane? The anticipated report — that's what the Auckland Regional Authority or regional government is for — would meet the case only if the regional unit directed all matters of area-wide significance. This is far from true. Plainly on functions such as planning, roading,

1.

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Civic crests from the Royal College of Arms dignify local bodies without glorifying them.

While local bodies can do little but bend before the A major report on The Challenge of Local suburban sprawl, they do have the powers to ameliorate its Government Reorganization published in 1974 by effects. the United States Advisory Commission on transport, atmospheric pollution, it falls short of Intergovernmental Relations goes further than ever such imperial status. Furthermore the optimum before in identifying criteria which should be applied catchment areas for the various services provided by to the shaping of a metropolitan system: In summary local councils and boards are not naturally these are: coterminous with present local body boundaries or 1. Economic efficiency. Jurisdictions should be even with each other. Evidence of voluntary large enough to exploit economics of scale and cooperation among local bodies is not that plentiful. small enough to avoid such diseconomies. Certainly the ACC Library Division man's Mt.Albert 2. Equity. Jurisdictions should be large enough to Borough's new library and there are some functional compensate for disparities of benefit and cost. joint endeavours on Auckland's North Shore. They They must be compensated for the benefits they are exceptions though to the practice of local bodies provide others and be liable for cost imposed on "doing their own thing" because they are sovereign, others. They must also promote the goal of and insist on their inalienable right to go their own equalisation of services and fiscal capacity. way. 3. Political Accountability. Jurisdictions should be My appeal is not for a single-government controllable by, and accessible and accountable metropolis or even fora four or five cities' solution to to, their residents, and should maximize the messy structure of our local government system. opportunity for fruitful public participation. Town Planning Quarterly 46 -11 4. Administration effectiveness. Jurisdictions least explore such techniques as corporate should be responsible for a wide range of management. And the last denoted adherence to the functions and can thus balance competing creed that in the overall performance, effective interests; should encompass a geographic area administration ranks very highly, but must be worked sufficient for the adequate performance of a for. function. Jurisdictional boundaries should bear Political Needs some relation to optimum service boundaries. As used in this context, "political needs" refers to These criteria are far removed from constituting a the practices and practitioners of politics. Three watertight formula. Sometimes they are manipu- fundamental needs suggest themselves: Primarily, lated to produce an urban government structure that coherent parties whose platforms are known in is severely polycentrist; at other times, the answer is advance and who can be held accountable by the a centralised consolidated system; at others a electors. i.e. exactly parallel with the National Party. two-tier federation; and again, a voluntary It works well at the national level; indeed is cooperative framework. The permutations are absolutely indispensable, yet it is often and prolific. We should not be mesmerized by one irrationally considered anathema in local politics. particular solution nor should we be wedded to a This is not advocating the intrusion of national frozen feudal status quo. If it is unrealistic to expect political parties into local government. The plea is extant local bodies to surrender their parochial goals for a system which will give the electors definite in the interests of the metropolis, it is not alternatives and spotlight the elements promoting unreasonable to demand an intensified awareness of these. But, thinking of dyed-in-the-wool indepen- and sensitivity to, policy ramifications which extend dents like Auckland's mayor, Sir Dove-Myer beyond their boundaries. Robinson, there will always remain a legitimate role Administrative Needs for both the group and the loners. The diversity of our urban local government units The second political need relates to the public. makes it very difficult to identify needs of general You will not find me urging any embrace with the relevance, but three broad goals should be pursued: more extreme forms of public participation. 1. Better qualified staff. However, it is in local government's own interests 2. Greater exposure to contemporary management to improve communication, which is usually tools and practices. elementary and feeble—it will if nothing else reduce 3. Commitment to the science — not mystique — of the potential areas of misunderstanding and friction. administration. What should be cultivated is the attentive section of The first presupposes something akin to a national the public — both quantitatively and qualitatively — for it is they who normally constitute the audience, local government career service (not a subordinate wing of the civil service), and its corollary of a and on a few occasions the arbiter, before whom planned local government training system. The local issues are debated and resolved. recent study under the auspices of the Vocational The general abolition by the 1976 Local Training Council of existing training is heartening Government Amendment Act of the right to establish evidence that this question is at last being seriously community councils in truly urban areas may prove considered. The second assumes a willingness to to be a mixed blessing. American experience tends look beyond a complacent self-sufficiency and to at to suggest that neighbourhood levels of government will become a permanent feature of the urban political system. Thirdly, we need more competent and more diverse breeds of councillors. With the latter, less outdated meetings allowances could be a help. The former implies councillors being left less to their own native wit, and being strengthened by various informational and secretarial aids. Financial needs When the Minister addressed the Auckland Local Bodies Association early in 1976 the message was respectfully rammed down his throat that local government could no longer be fobbed off with promises of yet another committee to investigate the short-comings of local body finance and report on alternative sources. Patience and gullibility were exhausted. Cynicism was not. In fairness, the 1975 National Party manifesto did pay much attention to the financial side of local government, but neither of Local bodies have always found it difficult to exercise the two main planks, the tax deductibility of rates control over the visual urban environment. and regional finance, directly foreshadowed the 12 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 augmenting or supplanting of rates by any other proportions. Compulsion is being exercised on and alternative source of revenue. by local bodies in countless ways every day without a Because of overriding national economic single voice being raised in protest. Hundreds of priorities, the introduction of tax—deductible rates Acts herd local bodies along a strictly-charted path. has been postponed until, probably, 1978. Likewise, Just reed the Municipal Corporations Act. a new source of regional finance has stayed hidden Local body bylaws utterly depend on the concepts behind the smokesceen of a surfeit of alternatives. of negative and positive compulsion. At the very Local bodies need a form of revenue which has a heart of the legal rights of local bodies is the wider base, is less inequitable and contains fewer juridicial principle of ultra vires: "unless local bodies anomalies than does rating on real property. In possess statutory rights to the contrary, they are urban areas the skyrocketing cost of providing compelled not to perform any function." The welter services makes the hapless ratepayer, inevitably, the of permissive powers bestowed on local bodies does target of a great annual rip-off. not dispose of this point. There must be also progress towards fiscal parity In this light, the heartrending picture of local throughout the urban area. How can one defend a feeling being crushed by an authoritarian, ruthless system where two properties of similar valuation and Local Government Commission starts to look receiving similar services, pay rates varying by as implausible. Without any redress or right of appeal, much as 100%, merely because they are located on local government is instructed to do all manner of opposite sides of a local body boundary? things, its powers and duties altered, its course Another financial need has been highlighted by seriously deflected. Countries like Australia and the the prolonged, crippling freeze on local authority United Kingdom, where local government finance. To quote the report of the 1973 Committee reorganization is imposed by statute or authoritarian on Local Authority Finance, there is "need to commissions, would find our extreme deference to guarantee an adequate and regular flow of capital the structural sanctity of existing local bodies rather finance". Yet Government (1) expects local bodies to plan for an orderly unfolding programme of development (2) for long imposed artificially low ceilings on local body interest rates (3) drastically curtails the source of funds which make up the open market shortfall. Without doubt these three demands are incompatible. Maybe in February 1976 there was justification, but to saddle local government with such a handicap as a normal rule betokens a haughty indifference to its problems. Centralism, compulsion and democracy Torrents of words, in instances accompanied by buckets of crocodile tears, have venerated local democracy and inveighed against the cancers of centralism and compulsion. Perspective, balance and relativity are here all too easily forgotten — as the whipping boys are given the treatment. In itself, our local government system stands as moderately Is the swing to home swimming pools making municipal effective machinery within a centralised representa- facilites like swimming baths less necessary? tive democracy. As a general principle, its activities puzzling. Any Government has to have regard for the must be dovetailed into national economic policies. condition of the entire body politic: consultation of Institutions like the National Roads Board, Local local, opinion is both pommendable and advisable, Authority Loans Board and Government Audit might but to refrain from all institutional reform unless it be irksome or at times deliberately obtuse, but their has the explicit sanction of the local level is to trifle raison d'etre cannot be questioned. Though local with the engine of our political system itself. government has no inherent sovereignty, it has been in many respects allowed to free-wheel along, surprisingly immune from governmental scrutiny Charging Ahead or Changing A Bit and interference. But no licence to jeopardise Incrementalism is in our blood and we are unlikely national well-being has ever been granted. The trick to embark on any revolutionary innovations in local is in central Government being dextrous enough to government unless the case is proved twice as use its immense powers to keep local government in conclusively as it ought. Consider the timid way harmony with national aspirations without crushing urban councils have tiptoed closer to social welfare its life spirit. functions, always ready with a sheaf of excuses why Likewise, the ogre of compulsion, so often caste in they won't join in the dance, but drawn ever closer by the exploitive mould of local body amalgamation, instinct about what must be done. Consider the should not be allowed to assume frightening timelag in arriving at the realization that rubbish Town Planning Quarterly 46 -13 Should local bodies be blamed or praised for urban street scenes like this? disposal in a metropolis can only be dealt with on a scale. Central Government must realistically proper long-term basis by a regional body. Consider acknowledge this and create the structures, sources urban sprawl, so castigated yet so utterly tenacious. of revenue and other facilities which will enhance Consider the Auckland urban motorway network, the prospects of the ultimate objective being one portion of which has literally ripped the heart out attained: governing the cities to the benefit and of one inner suburb, Newton. Change for its own betterment of the whole nation. Only thus can the sake is rarely productive, but then it is at such an divergencies of an urban population and an incalculable disadvantage compared with the status agriculture-based economy continue to cohabit and quo. All too easily, the trammels of the status quo produce their blessings. can be welcomed as constituting an excuse for inaction and irresolution. Metropolis can never be G.W.A. Bush, MA(NZ), PhD (Bristol), DipEd, is a Senior equated with country in terms of local government Lecturer in Political Studies at the University of Auckland and a Waitemata City Councillor. needs. Social problems, passenger transport, basic This article is a revised version of a paper presented to a physical services, spatial planning, the effects of National Party Seminar on Urban Development in April traffic, and so forth, all exist on a totally different 1976.

14 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 The Second Transport Study: A Review Reviewed. Richard Thompson.

In July 1975, the Canterbury Regional Planning city. Christchurch's Master Transportation Plan Authority adopted Report 210, the summary and reflected this prevailing view. The authors of the plan conclusions of its second transport study. This was put their faith in increased investment in new roads the culmination of six years work at a cost of more (including motorways) and parking areas to meet the than $170,000. Those responsible for producing and needs of the predicted increase in the number of car promoting the report spoke highly of it; the Press users. The Second Transport Study found that traffic commended it and the Professor of Geography at the flows in Christchurch had increased since 1959 at a University of Canterbury applauded it. faster rate than had been forecast and The first transport study was carried out during the recommended a reduction in motorway building, at period 1958 to 1962. It led to the outline of a road least until the end of the century. network for urban Christchurch published in 1962 as Fundamental Weaknesses the Master Transportation Plan. The second The second transport study is a research project of transport study was carried out in the period 1969 to considerable importance and it is both proper and 1975. It was designed to: "(i) review the basic desirable that it should be subject to critical assumptions of the previous 1959 study; (ii) evaluation. There are two fundamental weaknesses determine what alterations may be required to the in Report 210. proposed transportation plan under the present and First, the report fails to set out clearly what was foreseeable development policies; (iii) study the done in carrying out the transport study, the transportation implications of possible future limitations of the techniques used, the results development policies that appear feasible." (1) obtained and their implications for policy. The failure At the time of the 1959 study, British transport to provide such a record makes it difficult to see how planners regarded restrictions on motorists as the conclusions were reached and how to assess politically unacceptable and the solution of the their merits. urban transport problem was seen to lie in building There is no mention in the report of the serious to accommodate the maximum number of cars in the limitations in the transportation modelling process

Public Transport - Christchurch Town Planning Quarterly 46 -15 and how far, if at all, these limitations were section of the community benefitted most from the overcome. There is no mention of what have been master transportation plan and which bore a called the "fakes and fudge factors" in modelling, disproportionate share of the costs. The inequity of though there is evidence that such factors exist as, the existing plan has been the subject of critical for example, in the adjustment which increased the comment. The charge that an unfair burden was time taken by the average motor vehicle passing placed on the less affluent section of the community through the Lyttelton tunnel from one minute to is not examined. eight minutes. Again, there is no study of the impacts of the It is interesting to note in this connection the present road network on either the environment or recommendation of the second report on Urban the people. No use was made of the kind of tests Transport Planning by the House of Commons offered by Buchanan in the Greenwich and Expenditure Committee in the U.K. that: "The Blackheath Study. Undesirable side-effects of motor assumptions made and the methods used in the vehicle use such as noise, accidents and pollution transportation studies should be made more are treated as nothing but indications of the need for comprehensible to the layman." In expressing road ing improvements and an increased traffic flow. approval, the White Paper commented: "This will No consideration is given to the degree to which require a clear definition of the range of options to alternative policy strategies might minimise such be tested, a statement of the limitations of the problems. methodology for the examination of the particular Untested assumptions problems, and a statement of the impact of different The uncritical chracter of the second study can be options on other community objectives."(2) seen in its approach to the first aim, to "review the Second, in so far as the strictly limited, technical basic assumptions of the previous 1959 study". exercises are reported, this is done within the Those reponsible for the study were under a context of the Authority's policies. As a result, the misconception about the nature of these empirical, the ideological and the speculative are assumptions and this did not become apparent until intermingled in such a way that it is impossible to tell 1973. (3) In consequence, the assumptions to be where the policy-mix ends and the transport study reviewed were not identified at the beginning of the proper begins. study, but after it was virtually complete and the time The master transportation plan comes within the had come to write the report. In August 1974 regional master plan, a plan for the "total reference was made to two basic assumptions. By environment of the region". The recommendations the time Report 210 was drafted the number had of the second transport study "make up a whole plan increased to seven. and all the parts are inter-related. It is not possible to One of these assumptions is of crucial importance. select some pieces and reject others ..." The It states that: "There would be no direct constraint requirements of such comprehensive planning go upon, or interference with, the use and mobility of far beyond the empirical evidence. No doubt much the motor car throughout the urban area." Such a work of value has been done, but it is difficult to constraint, the report states, is unlikely to be "either determine from Report 210 where and how far the practicable or acceptable" in Christchurch. In any recommendations are justified by faith rather than by event, it would make "a questionable basis for evidence. planning." No attempt is made to explain why In this mixture of technical exercises and constraint on city car use would make a more comprehensive policy, matters of belief are stated questionable basis for planning than non-constraint. dogmatically as matters of fact, issues are obscured Nor is any attempt made to consider how far such by emotive language, references are made to reports constraint is practicable nor how far improved and on urban form which express a grossly oversimple additional roading generates traffic and accentuates view of the relations between man and his urban the problem it is supposed to solve. environment, and political and value judgements The basic assumptions so belatedly identified are appear in the guise of technical decisions. inadequately stated. Although the report does not No cost — benefit analysis say so, it is clear that the master transportation plan In the introduction to Report 210, the Authority did have unforseen consequences. It was earlier chairman states that: "The existing plan has now assumed that a plan designed specifically for motor been reviewed and the basic concepts are vehicles would have no effect on bicycle use and endorsed." But if the review was intended to test the would benefit public transport by providing a adequacy of the master transportation plan, then free-flowing road network. The element of important opportunities to do so were missed. competition between the modes was overlooked and There is, for example, no cost-benefit study by between the earlier study and the review the use of which alternative proposals might be compared. both bicycles and public transport showed a With all its limitations, the cost-benefit study, substantial decline. properly executed, introduces an element of Report 210 concedes (in brackets) that there has objectivity into planning studies. been "a decline in the use of public transport" but There being no cost-benefit study, no gives no indication of the extent of the decline. The consideration is given to the question of which introduction to the report refers to the inter-study 16 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 increase in the use of cars and goods vehicles and urban areas and a measure of restraint on the use of states that: The contributions made by other modes the private car. There is no evidence in Report 210 of of travel have remained static." The statement is not any attempt to examine either the adequacy of the borne out by the Authority's own reports. The earlier ideas imported as the basis of the Master unexpected consequences of the existing plan are Transportation Plan or the relevance of more recent not examined but minimized. evidence and experience. The second transport study did not test the Like its predecessor, the second transport study adequacy of the assumptions of the earlier study; draws on the general body of planning literature for without making them explicit, it simply incorporated its ideas and techniques. This is less obvious in the assumptions in the structure of the review. Thus Report 210 than it might be, because no sources are a whole range of policy alternatives outside the given or borrowing acknowledged. • roading-motor vehicle theme were automatically At one point, for example, reference is made to the excluded. Report 210 does not make this clear; the views promoted by Buchanan in "Traffic in Towns", stress on the comprehensive character of the study but no mention is made of Buchanan, the study or diverts attention from the narrow framework within the criticisms since levelled at those views. The same which the study was undertaken. page contains a paragraph plagiarised from a more In the introduction to the report, the regional recent article by Buchanan. No attempt is made to planning authority chairman states that "no explain why some contributions to the literature are evidence has come forward to suggest any radical used while others are ignored. change in the problems or their solutions." The As a political document Report 210 is no doubt claim would carry more weight if there had been a suited to its purpose. As a planning document it greater willingness to examine potentially negative should be professionally unacceptable. evidence. An opportunity to consider such evidence was 1. C. Barclay Miller, Master Transportation Plan: missed when no review of the relevant planning Second Transport Study. Christchurch Reg- literature over the last two decades was included in ional Planning Authority, 1971. the second study. A review of the literature would 2. Department of the Environment, Urban Transport have made it possible to compare the thinking Planning: Government Observations on the behind the earlier study against the trends in Second Report of the Expenditure Committee. planning since that time. The absence of the review London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1973. p. removes the safeguard against the practice of 10. selecting from the body of planning literature 3. Richard Thompson, The Second Transport Study whatever supports a particular case and ignoring in Progress. University of Canterbury, whatever is inconvenient. Department of Psychology and Sociology, The Christchurch Master Transportation Plan Research Project 26, 1975. pp. 10-14, 23-25. reflected the views prevailing amongst transport planners, especially those in Britain, during the Richard Thompson is Reader in Sociology at the fifties and early sixties. More recent experience has University of Canterbury and Deputy Chairman brought a change in emphasis. Policy in Britain and of the Heathcote County Council. He was a elsewhere has moved away from motorway building Member of the Canterbury Regional Planning to favour the encouragement of public transport in Authority from 1968 to 1975.

Modal split -Christchurch style. Town Planning Quarterly 46 -17 (4) To Keep Out Fences in the The opposite of containment. Sometimes the fence is for the protection of those who might try to Countryside: get in for example, the security fence around an an evaluation of the fence as electric substation, or the fence around a bull a design feature in the paddock. (5) Protection New Zealand landscape Climate Protection: Wind breaks and snow fences to give shelter to animals and buildings. John Chivers Physical Protection: Seawalls, sand dune control fences, bridge and guard rails on roads. Noise and Visual Protection: Walls or fences used to protect environmentally sensitive areas from From a study of the literature it does not appear unsightly views or obtrusive noise. that fences have commonly been considered as design features in the rural landscape. And yet Common Physical Forms almost any view of the New Zealand landscape in developed or semi-developed rural areas contains a Forms of fence commonly 'found in New fence or fences as distinctive and often important Zealand are: visual elements. The majority of such fences are associated with farming but there are also other uses particularly associated with public works such as Post and Wire (fig. 1) — by far the most common. roads, recreational areas, and hydro-power Timber post and railing or paling (figs 2, 3, 4) — developments. visual quality depends on relative proportions of This paper discusses the function and form of rails, posts and the spaces between. fences in the New Zealand landscape and considers Hedges — some require trimming (gorse), some their visual impact, their changes overtime, and their do not (hawthorn). future use as landscape design features. Windbreak Trees — the only effective means of Functions providing a fence of significant height (5-30 Fences in New Zealand have been, and are likely to metres). continue to be, built for predominantly functional Walls — not common because of the prohibitive reasons. Only rarely are they built for visual or other cost. environmental purposes. This is in contrast with Special Purpose (figs 6, 7) — also electric fence England, where walls and hedges have often been for stock control which has advantage of constructed as part of a conscious overall landscape mobility. design. Visual Effect On The Landscape The principal functional classifications of fences follow, but note that a fence may serve more than The strength of the visual effect of fences on the one function: landscape varies widely. It depends particularly on (1) Boundary Definition Since the time when men agreed on the allocation of land to groups or individuals, the fence has probably been used to define boundaries. Thus the 1 um shapes, orientation and patterns of land subdivision I11111111111111111111111111111N111.1110"11111 are physically represented by the construction of 11111111111111111111111111111111101."111 fences. (2) Containment 1111111111111•1•111111M1111 Fences are used to physically contain things 1111111111P111111MIMINI normally domestic livestock, but also wildlife if that is desirable (e.g. deer and rabbits). _ININIMIPMIWIIIIIIIIIIi iii...... They are also used for visual containment (e.g. the i IP"' fences and trees surrounding a homestead on a broad or inhospitable landscape in which the views .:. • , lirIF'Aidill7 ,, .. to the outside world are deliberately cut off or .,.. • v.,)• restricted). ... " • - : ' ';1•:'s (3) Separation , .. Fences are used to physically separate land areas , -, -•••. • , for the singular or mutual benefit of the forces ... , • •..• . separated, for example, by keeping different groups .. • , • -, • • • •-.' --' •:'• :..!' ' • -,;,, of stock apart or keeping stock away from growing feed or crops. Such fences are basically used for land management. Fig 1: Details of a typical post and wire fence. 18 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 from the top of a hill or from an aircraft) the fence may become subservient to the patterns of land use which it defines. The patchwork of ground colour patterns produced by intensive and diverse agricultural activities is likely to dominate except where high and extensive shelterbelt fencing is provided. The topography of the natural landscape is a complex three-dimensional shape fashioned by the effects of climate and earth movement over time. This form tends to be predominantly curved to a greater or lesser degree and is infinitely variable. Land is traditionally subdivided in a series of straight lines in the horizontal plane, and the imposition of these straight boundaries through the physical medium of the fence produces a strong contrast with Fig 2: Timber paling fence at a roadside rest area north of the softer form of the natural landscape. Even where Auckland. Note the even width of spaces and palings fences do not follow legal boundaries they are.still and the location of horizontal rails which make this normally constructed in a series of straight lines fence visually unattractive. both for simplicity and because of the physical construction of the common post and wire fence. the vertical scale of the fences, their frequency and Also one has the feeling that man in his attempt to the patterns they create on the land form. master and control the natural countryside for his The effect also varies depending on the position of own use feels comforted and more secure by the use the viewer (at ground level or elevated) and whether of the straight line which forces a formality on to the the viewer is stationary or moving (as in a car). When unruly land form. In the settlement of the great plains fences are viewed from close at hand the detailed (e.g. Canterbury) the straight-sided grid pattern form is important; but when viewed from afar (e.g. dominates, only broken by the sinews of the great rivers from which the plains have been formed. In the

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Fig 3: Timber railing cattleyard fencing; in the South Island. Town Planning Quarterly 46 -19 Fig 4: Shows attractive proportions and construction details of timber rail fence; compare with Fig 2. planar (2 dimensional) situation this pattern may well be best, provided that there are variations within the theme. This is not unlike the variations in the gardens at Versaille within the overall formal structure. The use of the straight line fence in hill country can be either attractive or damaging. Where the land form is rolling, the fence can emphasise the vertical curvilinear form (fig 8). However, if the hills are steeply eroded with sharp ridges, the construction of fences along these ridges, which are often in skyline view, seems harsh and arrogant (fig 9). Unfortunately these ridges are often the only practical location in which to construct the fence. Fences often convey a message of settlement and welcome. The wooden paling fence, the neatly trimmed hedge, and the tall macrocarpa windbreak can, together, be an indication and a promise of a secure, warm and, as yet, unseen homestead. For the general public, as distinct from the people who inhabit the rural land, much of the impression of fences is gained by moving across the landscape at speed — by air, road or rail. Both roads and railways follow transportation corridors owned by the Crown and almost invariably are separated from the adjacent privately owned land by some kind of fence (fig 10). Variations to the form and scale of these fences are important if visual monotony is to be avoided, particularly where roads are straight and hills are distant. For example high windbreak trees Fig 5: Walls in hill country (not NZ). 20 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 on both sides of the road can cause a feeling of enclosure and promote tunnel vision, which in turn will increase driver fatigue and the risk of an accident. Likewise driving between regularly spaced white painted fence posts can be distracting and tiring. An advantage of the post and wire fence, provided that the posts and battens are of some natural and light colour, is that, at speed, the fence is essentially invisible and the landscape may be seen through it.

Fig 7: Steel highway guard fences. As with much of landscape, colour is most important. With the wire fence, if the posts are of natural colour, then the visual sparseness of the fence can be in character with "open" country. If, however, the posts are either dark or white then the fence becomes visually dominant. In fence construction generally, unless some special effect is being sought, natural or bleached timber colours are to:be preferred — and the pinks, blues and greens often used in the past by road authorities for bridge handrails should be avoided like the plague. Changes With Time Like the natural landscape, fences change with time. They are built, they degenerate and they are repaired or replaced. This cycle may be as little as Fig 6: Timber fences to control sand dune movement at ten years for a timber fence or as much as a hundred Muriwai, Auckland. years for a shelter belt.

Fig 8: Fence reinforces rolling countryside Town Planning Quarterly 46 -21 Fig 10: The continuous fence parallel to the road.

with the golden colour of tussock vegetation. Unfortunately, this type of fence appears only to be used where access is difficult and stock loading is light. Concrete fence posts are unattractive in both colour and texture. Apart from fracture by impact they have a long structural life, although tanalised pine posts probably last just as well.

Fig 9: Example of fence construction on a ridge.

The functional efficiency of a fence is highest when it is new, shiny and straight, but its visual attractiveness is often greatest when it has sagged, twisted, faded and rusted (fig 11). Fences made from hedge or trees are essentially natural from new and therefore do not suffer from the problems of formality of man-made fabricated fences. However, they have other disadvantages. They take several years to grow to a sufficient size to be useful and their ultimate life, although planned to be long, may terminate unexpectedly (e.g. blown over in a storm, individual trees such as macrocarpa may die off, or trees such as pine may be drowned when their roots penetrate to the watertable). With timber fences, or the timber components of fig 11: Deterioration of post and wire fence. fences, the useful life is determined by the point at which rotting or other deterioration causes partial (fig 12) or complete structural failure. For timber above ground, painting or staining will prolong life; Future Uses As Landscape Features for timber below ground, the quality of the timber The following extract represents a desirable and its treatment and the ground moisture approach to the design of rural fences: conditions will control. "Fences play an important part in the appearance The life of steel fences is determined by their of the landscape and should always be chosen for resistance to corrosion (rusting) above and below their suitability in relation to existing features as ground Galvanising extends life. The typical high well as functional efficiency. Not only do they country sheep fence has only a few major timber define boundaries and protect property and posts (strainers) and flat iron standards driven into livestock, but they form an important part of the the ground as intermediate posts. This type of fence total visual effect of the buildings and character of when oxidised is brown in colour and blends well the countryside". (2) 22 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 In practice, the greatest proportion of fencing in References: New Zealand is associated with farming and it would (1) Elizabeth Beazley (1960); Design and Detail be idealistic to expect such fences to be more than of the Space Between Buildings. the lowest cost solution necessary to achieve the (2) Monmouthshire County Council (1974); required function. Any landscape quality they have Fences in the Countryside. will happen by chance. However, where fences abut transportation corridors or other public land uses, such as Acknowledgements recreation, opportunities exist to improve the visual Figures 1 & 9: quality of these fences in the total landscape at P.R Earle (1559) The Sheep Farm Wellington, Government probably very minor additional cost to the total Printer project. Some of the mistakes of the past by public Figures 3 & 4: authorities indicate the need for a greater awareness C. Wheeler (1968) Historic Sheep Farms of the South Is- of form, detail and colour in such fencing. land Dunedin, A.H & A.W. Reed. Another important opportunity for change exists Figure 12: R. Graham & A.G. Lister (1969) Where Man meets the Sea through the wise choice of property and other Dunedin, J. Mclndoe. physical boundaries. If rural land is subdivided in a manner sympathetic to the physiographic features of the region, then the fences which identify the boundaries will be less in conflict and more in J.R. Chivers, ME (Cant), MNZIE, is a member of the firm of harmony with the natural environment. engineering consultants, Brickell, Moss, Rankine & Hill.

Fig 12: Deterioration of timber paling fence. Town Planning Quarterly 46 -23 Multi Unit Housing Calgary: Rosemary Barrington 1. The condominium. Calgary, the oil capital of Canada, with a population of almost half a million, has been undergoing a period of rapid growth for the last twenty years. A further growth rate of at least 3% annually is expected unitl 1980, then a decline to 2% by 1996 when the estimated population will be 778,000. This has meant a net annual population increase of approximately 12,000 - 13,000 people per year over the last few years requiring 5000 - 6000 new Riverbend Village Condominium. A few carports and dwellings annually (c.f. Wellington required 1560 staggering the town houses a few feet helps to break up the new homes annually for the years 1971 - 1976 to long line of twelve houses, which would otherwise look accommodate its population growth). more monotonous. The houses on the right have a view There hasal so been a high rate of new households across their front yards to tree-covered hills. formed within the community itself. The city has predominantly a young population with a high proportion aged between 20 -34 (in 1976 28% of the population) — the household formation years. The demand for new homes has therefore been high; and the result is a highly competitive housing market, unlike anything that exists in New Zealand. The Calgary Plan of 1973 (the equivalent of the operative district scheme) set the standard density for residential development at 54 persons per hectare, but in many of the new areas developed within the last five years this has not been achieved. and as a result densities of only 37 - 42 persons per hectare have been realised. However because all utilities and other facilities are based upon the higher figure of 54, lower densities represent a waste of resources and, if continued, would greatly increase the annual rate of absorbing rural land into Riverbend Village Condominium. No attempt is made to the city, thereby keeping the cost of housing very separate vehicular and pedestrian traffic; nor are footpaths high. Medium density housing has therefore become provided, but residents can bring their cars right to the an important means of increasing overall city front door. This 7.6 metre roadway is internal to the densities, and in new housing areas, particularly, condominium, and is frequently played on by children. some form of multi-unit housing is now usually incorporated in the design briefs. a yearly average of 30% for the previous five years.1 It Multi-unit housing has taken different forms: is interesting to compare this with the Wellington duplex (two units with common wall), fourpl ex, town Region where, in 1975, 42% of all building permits house developments which may be row houses, or were for flats, and in Wellington City the proportion based around a courtyard or cluster, and high rise rose to 59%. There does appear to be a greater apartments. Most people in Calgary continue to live diversity of housing types in Calgary, than in New in single family homes: 56% of the popluation in Zealand cities such as Wellington, and this diversity 1975; and 78% of all new units completed in 1975 appears to be expanding. were in this category; but this may be changing. In The Development of Condominiums the first six months of 1976, 58% of all building Where these multi-unit housing developments are permits were for multiple family units compared with being built they are increasingly being organized as condominiums. A condominium is a form of Rosemary Barrington, BA(Hons) (WUV), M Sc ownership, not a particular type of building, so it may (London), is an urban sociologist and a partner in the apply to any of several different residential forms: Wellington consultancy of Urban Research Assocs. townhouses, or several units arranged in a group. It She recently spent six months living in a may vary in size from a four-unit apartment block to a condominium of 99 town house units in Calgary, 100 town house devlopment or it may even be larger Alberta, Canada. From a planning point of view it has the advantage 24 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 Riverbend Village Condominium. The 1.5 metre high fence demarcates the edge of these houses' front yards - their exclusive use areas. The pathway and lawn in the foreground are common property. As these houses were in the centre of the condominium none of them would have had a view or an outlook on to anything other than more town houses. that it is developed as a comprehensive unit and often in close conjunction with adjoining private or public recreation space. The term condominium simply means co- ownership. "It is a legal arrangement whereby you (the owner) can own outright an apartment, semi-attached house, town house or free-standing house in a multi-unit development. You, (the owner) hold a recordable deed free and clear, and may lease, sell, bequeath, modify, furnish and occupy the premises independent of other unit holders"2 Condominiums are usually run as non-profit University Village. A more imaginative arrangement of town corporations and do not have to pay taxes. The houses (2, 3, and 4 bedrooms) for married students, around owner of the condominium unit is the sole owner of a courtyard. Constant variation in angle and pitch of the that unit, but a joint owner of all the common roofs helps break up the visual impact, which would be property that belongs to the condominium. The somebody else's living room view. Underneath the snow is condominium approach to housing allows for the a sand pit and lawn, all common property. division of the total complex into individual units which retain their own exlusive use areas, and into courts, sauna, swimming pool, roads, and parking common areas. The Cressey Circle development of spaces. houses in Churton Park near Wellington, is a New It is usual for owners to have to pay a monthly Zealand example close to this form of ownership. condominium fee to cover the costs of general An administrative framework is usually provided maintenance and periodic repair of these common through a condominium corporation which enables property areas. In Calgary, this may be as little as $18 the owners to jointly manage the property. This $20 monthly, but the average in the city was framework does get over the problems that Nahkies approximately $45. It is obviously more where there encountered in his survey of Christchurch multi-unit are extensive facilities to upkeep. This fee also dwellings. He found that under the Unit Titles Act of covers the cost of liability and fire insurance for the 1973 there was an "absence of clear definition as to entire group. which part of the property 'belonged' to each household and the necessity to obtain agreement with other households in the block concerning common maintenance hasbeen an added source of discontent."3 Under condominium legislation The Role of the Board of Managers confusion of this type does noy arise. The responsibility for managing the condominium The property defined as common depends upon and administering the financial resources lies with the type, size and resources of the condominium. the residents themselves. A board of directors or But it may include stairs, elevators, hall lighting, board of managers is elected by the residents at the footpaths, outside lighting, lawns, shrubs, tennis annual general meeting which all condominium unit Town Planning Quarterly 46 -25 holders are entitled to attend. The board nearly provincial governments in Canada. In Alberta the always employs a manager, sometimes full-time with Condominium Property Act of 1970 and subsequent an office on the site, but more commonly in Calgary amendments was the subject of a governmental a firm of property managers is employed. Their study group report presented in April 1976, and a responsibilities then include collection of all the new Act is expected this session. Condominium monthly fees, payments of expenses which may be legislation is very complex, of a technical-legal incurred such as snow removal, liason with nature and new, and the 1970 Act has not proved organisations such as gas boards, the local author- entirely adequate to cope with some of the problems ity, adjoining property owners, and some regular that have arisen in the building of condominiums. maintenance work such asrepl acing burnt-out street lights, fertilizing and mowing lawns. The property manager is, ideally able to provide the skills of both an administrator and an accountant which may not be available to the condominium from amongst its own members. The elected board of managers acts as a policy body directing the activities of the property manager. In many ways, it is a new form of political organisation — the "condo-mocracy". It is an identifiable unit at the neighbourhood level, in which people have a say in determining the characteristics of their most immediate environment. The board of managers' role and power can be defined very broadly indeed. Their position is supported by the bylaws of each condominium which may cover such subjects as:- the need for access to individual units for inspection of such University Village. Tree planting on the common property common services as sewerage and wiring; the gives added privacy to some units. Flexible design helps to create an interesting roof line and this perspective will be allocation of responsibility for exterior and interior somebody else's living room view. maintenance. In most condominiums, the individual owner is responsible for all interior maintenance, A very precise and intricate process has to be and he may restructure the house internally. But a followed between the land developer's registration provision is usually made that load-bearing walls be of a condominium plan and the eventual successful kept intact. The owner is also responsible for the running of a condominium by a board of managers. upkeep of his exclusive use areas which may include As it is usual for some unit holders to move in before front and back yards and a driveway. These must be th complex is fully finished, particularly, of course, maintained up to a standard set by the board, and if with a large development, problems can arise such they are not the board may incur costs, for example as to whom do they pay their monthly fee? Initially, graSS cutting, which will then be billed to the the developing company, as owner of unsold or individual owner. unfinished units, must be involved in the running of All exterior maintenance, such as replastering, the condominium; but at what point does the repainting, or reroofing is the board's responsibility. developing company cease to be involved? What A major expense such as reroofing is provided for by happens, for example, if the developer goes the accumulation of a reserve fund which boards are bankrupt part way through the project when only required to build up to provide for such some of the units have beensold, or, as has occurred contingencies.The erection of any permanent struc- in Calgary, when all the units had been sold, but the ture within the individual's exclusive use areas, final landscaping, laying of driveways and fencing e.g. a dog kennel or garden shed, must usually be had not been completed? In this instance, the agreed to by the board, although this may be owners had to organize themselves very quickly and simplified by stipulating that agreement need only be virtually "cease ownership of the condominium' in obtained for those objects which are higher than a order to safe guard their own individual investments. fence line. This meant the final completion of the project was The bylaws may also cover matters such as board their responsibility, but with little collective assets to elections, the amount of the condominium fee, accomplish it! An examplesuch as this involves parking, whether businesses are permitted in units, complications that Joe Brown does not have when noise, keeping of pets, erection of signs, disposal of he decides to lay a concrete driveway and erect a 1.5 garbage, leasing, the letting of contracts for metre fence on his own 600m2 section. landscaping, operating recreational facilities, and The main basis of many of the recommendations common area upkeep. resulting from the Alberta Study Group Report of Legislation 1976 is to ensure "that purchasers of condominium Condominium legislation is the domain of units receive complete disclosure of all important 26 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 details relating to the condominium that they are layout of the houses into long strings of up to 12 purchasing or intend to purchase."4 Consumer units mitigated against this. Overall, the layout of the protection is to be incorporated into the new Act in houses on the 2.3 hectares was designed to a much more substantial way. Because of the maximise the number of units, and therefore the newness and the rapid expansion of condominiums profit accuring; rather than to create an aesthetically there is obviously a need for public education in this pleasant environment or increase consumer area. In mid-1974, it was estimated there were two satisfaction. The design deficiencies of long row million units in condominiums in the U.S.A., and that housing included a uniform look that was visually 25% of all new housing for sale was in unappealing. There was no attempt to separate condominiums.5 vehicular traffic from the housing, although a The need to be fully informed about the whole roadway with a width of 7.6 metres restricted the condominium, not just one individual unit, is speed of traffic. stressed in reference to American condominiums by The condominium had been built three years ago Patricia and Lester Brooks.6 They recommend that and it was one of the first in Calgary, which shows intending purchasers should examine the the recent nature of this type of living. It was built for prospectus which every condominium should have low income families, mortgage money being produced; and should ask such questions as: provided by the Central Mortgage and Housing "Where has the finance come to build this Corporation, the Canadian equivalent of the Housing development?", and "What is the economic position Corporation. This may have enabled low income of the condominium corporation, if it is already , families to move in initially, but in December 1976 established?" units were reselling for approximately $48,000 after Riverbend Village: One Condominium. having reached a peak resale earlier in the year of For six months of 1976, the author lived in a town $55,000. (In comparison, a slightly above-average, house unit within a condominium, Riverbend Village new, single-family house was selling from between in Calgary. Riverbend consisted of 99 units, all of $75,000 to $80,000.) Condominium units elsewhere which were three bedroom except for 12 end units in the city were selling for as much as $70,000, which were four bedroom. It was situated on 2.3 ha, including "Executive condominiums in lovely Will which, with an occupancy rate of 3.357, gave an Tree Village ... Close proximity to Will Park Gold overall density of 144 people per hectare. However it and Country Club." So condominiums are not just a is likely that the actual occupancy rate in 1976 was form of low income housing! higher than 3.35, which was the 1975 occupancy rate Occupier attitudes for row house dwellings in Calgary: it may have been Riverbend Village was built for owner occupancy as high as 3.8 people which would give a density of and approximately 40% of the units had been resold 152 people per hectare. Either way, quite a high at least once. There was no problem obtaining density for two storey row houses which all had finance for condominium units, because of ground level access. Riverbend Village was located favourable economic conditions, and the land tenure about six miles from the centre of the city, so this arrangements were so clearly stipulated in the density was being achieved in an outer suburb. legislation that htis did not present a problem as it One American study5 suggests that a density of may with some condominiums. fewer than 17 units per hectare is considered The board of managers of Riverbend described reasonable, and that discontent mounts when the apathy as the greatest single impediment in getting density exceeds 22 units per hectare: Riverbend has co-operation from the residents, some of whom even 45 units. But it has also been found that densities as refused to pay condominium fees. The high level of high as 42 units per hectare are acceptable to apathy may have been due to the relatively low townhouse buyers if there are open spaces, views socio-economic status of many of the owners, and and green areas. The owners need the feeling of the new experience of living in condominiums. An space when looking out form their own unit. In Albertan government pamphlet on condominiunms Riverbend half of the units would have had this asks: "is a Condominium lifestyle very different?". It felling of spaciousness; so perhaps for half the is to the extent that you are sharing the organisation residentsthedensitywas manageable, butthisisan of your immediate environment with other people. area where further research is needed. You are sharing space. Each of the three bedroom houses in Riverbend The apathy may also have been related to the had 1000m2, excluding the basement area of design of the condominium itself. American research approximately 51m2 which some owners had studies9 have shown that residents of ribbon like developed themselves into recreation rooms, row houses such as those in Riverbend, have poor additional living space or studies. Each house had attendance records at home owners association front and back yards of approximately 5.5m x 7.6m meetings, they are notorious grumblers and and 5.5m x 9m although there was some variation. generally go to meetings to air gripes rather than The total individual land holding was approximately participate positively. Developers have found that 150m2. With 1.5 metre high fences around all the the resale rate is also faster in row houses. By front yards, there was some privacy, although the contrast, housing units clustered around courtyards Town Planning Quarterly 46 -27 promote a sense of community; residents of such developments are significantly more active in community affairs; and complain less frequently. The projects where owners are the happiest are those with loose clusters; short rows of houses with space around each row, arranged around cul-de-sacs, or circles, or open squares. The board of managers at Riverbend played the role of arbitrator between residents if required. For instance, complaints about noisy neighbours could be made to the board which would, after a number of complaints, speak to the offenders. Some units were leased out and the board could ask the owner to give tenants notice if they proved a nuisance. Partly because Riverbend was built as low income housing, the condominium did not have the "extras" that are often associated with University Village. Garbage disposal can create problems. condominium living. The only common areas, apart In this town house development a large disposal bin is from roads, and small grassed areas, were a placed alongside the centralised car parking area. vehicle storing area for trailers and recreation vehicles; and a 'tot lot' yet to be built. The complex was located adjacent to a city playground which provided welcome open space for the large number of young children. The residents of Riverbend were primarily families with children under the age of 15; and this reflects studies which have explored the question 'Who buys condominiums?' Purchasers have been found to be predominantly young families, who benefit from the 'extras' if they are provided, the sense of community, the companionship for the young children, zero population growth families, the divorced or widowed, and the elderly are frequent purchasers. The Advantages The reasons for buying condominiums vary, but the two most basic ones are probably the freedom from maintenance chores, and economy. Con- Chateaux on the Green. A more luxurious condominium, note balconies and double garages for these four town dominiums cost less than the average house on a houses. None of the units in this condominium would be section. The amount varies, but a saving of between exactly the same, and all would have some private outdoor 10% and 44% over the cost of conventional housing space. The condominium also has an indoor swimming can be involved. There is also considerable saving to pool and tennis courts. the total community; less land is used, less roadway needs to be provided and utility lines are much shorter. Heating costs during the Canadian winters should also be less with houses with adjoining walls. Some young families had bought into Riverbend as a first home, and would later move on to the more conventional house on a separate lot; but there were others for whom this was definitely their permanent home, and they were in a position to choose. The advantages of condominium living, in addition to price and low maintenance, are the use of common facilities such as swimming pool, sauna and tennis courts where such facilities exist. Rates are often lower due to lower servicing costs, yet there is still the opportunity for an owner to build equity into his property. There may also be the opportunity for a feeling of community to develop. Chateaux on the Green. A pleasant path winds between This could be a particularly attractive form of living houses in this more expensive condominium, in which no for families with young children where women units would be exactly the same. The fences separate the wished to share child-minding. exclusive use areas from the commonly owned land: 28 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 The Disadvantages Review. 1976. p.2. What are the disadvantages? There may be 2. Brooks, Patricia and Brooks, Lester, How to Buy a difficulties in obtaining title to an individual unit Condominium. Stein and Day, New York, 1975. p.17. 3. Nahkies, G.E. "The Flat boom: characteristics and because the condominium plan as a whole has not consumer reaction in Christchurch." Town Planning been registered. Any legal question concerning a Quarterly, 41, December 1975. unit becomes more complicated because 4• Alberta Department of Consumer and Corporate Af- condominium living must be considered as a whole. fairs, Report of the Condominium Study Group. 1976. And if the legislation governing condominiums is p.10. inadequate there may be difficulties. 5. Brooks, Patricia and Brooks, Lester, op. cit. p.23. The community life style may be a disadvantage. 6. ibid. 7. The amount of privacy is reduced and the noise level City of Calgary Planning Department, Housing in Cal- gary. Background Paper No. 4. An occupancy rate of in a high density condominium could be severe. The 3.35 is given for row house dwellings units in 1975, but success of the condominium and the future value oi the number of four bedroom units and the young the propertydepend largely on how well neighbours population in Riverbend may have increased this rate. get along and how well they care for the common 8. Brooks, Patricia and Brooks, Lester, op. cit. p.46. property. It is necessary to co-operate and to work 9. Norcross, C. Town houes and Condominiums. Resi- together to run the property, and this is not always dents' Likes and Dislikes. Urban Land Institute. 1973. easy. The individual does not have complete 10. Grant, Joy. "Multiple Housing and Planning". Town freedom to do exactly what he or she wishes with Planning Quarterly, 39, March 1975. theoutside space or exterior of the unit; there may be restrictions regarding pets; and parking of extra cars, such as visitor's cars, often causes problems. Some of these drawbacks can be overcome by sensitive design and by not attempting to maximise the number of units on the site. Medium density housing can be achieved without sacrificing low rise housing but the one detached house on a section' approach has been discarded in favour of a planned community development with common areas of open space. Conclusions The condominium is a form of ownership and housing style which has become accepted by families in Calgary, as in other parts of Canada, although perhaps initially it was forced upon them by economics, and the need to conserve land. Although the nearest New Zealand equivalent to the condominium, the two house, has undergone a boom in the last five years, it is still more frequently purchased by childless couples or the elderly. The Auckland Regional Authority's survey on multi unit dwellingsl° suggests that the reasons for the rapid Edito ii 1 increase in this type of housing include: changing demographic patterns (increase in the number of 117:4 lit elderly and thetrendto smaller household s), housing 17.61)114'79 economics, and a changing life style which includes 1,1,7 more mobility, more flexible working hours, and a F/10r) ' 13D- "L greater proportion of women working; all factors ,O;VZ — which together create a demand for dwellings with less maintenance or smaller grounds. Although 14.9 17 'there is a trend to medium density housing for fl ‘, ac)11171-- families in Auckland', it is probable that the preferred `,A'alj--- alternative for the New Zealand family with children 47- 4D%:k1OFFII:Th fj(7} is still the detached house on a section. But as our 11..="furi;La,-- lifestyle continues to change, and the pressures on space increase, we may more readily come to accept ack Number a condominium form of ownership of multi-unit dwellings. Most back numbers may b .'9)H.y4fiQd71;,, Footnotes: by writing to TPO: P.O. B 1. City of Calgary Planning Department, Housing in Cal- gary. Background Paper No. 4. for the Calgary Plan Town Planning Quarterly 46 -29 Planning conflicts within tourist centres: A comment R. V. Welch.

Trans Hotel, Queenstown. It is questionable whether the phenomenon of Capital investment needed to provide the tourism has ever been of more than marginal infrastructure of tourism is considerable. Returns on economic benefit to any community. In social terms invested capital may be slow to materialise and be benefits are frequently outweighed by disadvan- determined by, or determine the form of, a particular tages. The need for a theoretical base to planning in proposal. Few centres are equally attractive to existing vacation centres, and for those centres tourists in all seasons of the year. Even centres aspiring to develop a major tourist function, is clear. which have complementary summer and winter The present comment briefly explores this planning tourism functions experience intermediate quiet problem area. periods. Planning by private interests, therefore, is Tourism evolves from the common human need to focussed on the problem of intermittent facility experience periodic short-term changes in physical usage. Such planning is reduced to benefit-cost and cultural landscape; if landscape were evaluations — the results of which 1) determine homogeneous, tourist movement would be minimal. whether the tourism function will be established, or In the heterogeneous landscape, the tourist centre is expanded, and 2) suggest ways in which the function seen to possess extra qualities of scenic beauty, can be developed to maximise returns. As such, the guaranteed climatic conditions, phenomena of (private) planning mechanism largely ignores special interest, or some combination of the three. questions of wider physical and social planning The more extreme the positive values recorded, the within the centre, and rarely regards the centre as a greater the perceived potential returns from tourist (permanent) social organism with specific needs. In activity. The essentially exploitative character of the absence of local authority planning, such needs tourism generation thereby reflects the nature of the may well go unsatisfied. beast as well as those who seek to manipulate it. Even where a broader planning view is taken, 30 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 Mt. Ruapehu Ski-field. fundamental conflict is apparent; between planning incorporate value statements and directives into for a centre's tourism function, and planning for the initial planning whenever this is feasible; to ensure centre in its role as the activity space of a permanent that if the labour force is to increase, :ow-priced population. Three principal conflict areas can be housing for permanent inhabitants is constructed in isolated; 1) competing demands for scarce a tourism centre at all (time) stages of development. resources such as land and housing, 2) conflicting In smaller uni-functional (tourism) centres, conflict needs in terms of facility provision, and 3) the impact between tourist and permanent inhabitant may be of intermittent population inflows on the social acute in the more general field of facility provision. organisation of permanent residents. (2) Tension develops in one of two ways; 1) through Characteristically, the cost of land and housing congestion of facilities during the peak vacation rises in a centre with tourism potential, both as a periods, and 2) through fundamental differences in result of competition between new uses and the the type of facility required by tourist and permanent continual reduction of the amount of land available inhabitant. Congestion at peak periods is largely for development. (1) Such high costs, together with unavoidable whatever planning action is taken. resulting high rental accommodation rates, inhibit Where tourist-oriented facilities can (profitably) be the free flow of lower salary and wage earners into made available to permanent inhabitants during the the developing tourist centre; manpower which is off-season, peak period congestion is regarded as a needed in increased quantities both to serve the necessary evil. No such compensating factor is needs of the tourist and to provide normal urban usually available in the field of retail activity. Here services. There are several possible planning tourist demands are both more limited and have little responses to this problem. These include the incommon with the needs of permanent inhabitants. provision of low rental (subsidised) family housing; Cyclic periods of heavy sales interspersed with the encouragement of selective (short-term) labour periods of neglible activity are not, in any case, in-migration; and the acceptance of (quantitative) conducive to extensive retail development, and in labour deficiencies. The planning response made small (tourism) centres, the retail sector tends to be depends partly on the extent to which central extensively specialised in favour of the tourist. As a government (through State housing), local authority result, permanent inhabitants find many goods and (rate payer) and (private) tourism developers will services unobtainable locally, and highly priced accept financial responsibility for the construction of where they are available. Clearly, at the initial lower-priced accommodation. This does not, planning stage considerable thought needs to be however, remove the planner's responsibility to given to ways of better providing for the retail and Town Planning Quarterly 46 -31 other service needs of both tourist and permanent inhabitant. Once again, value statements need to be incorporated in the planning equation. Probably most important, although difficult to define, of the three conflict areas is the impact tourism has on the social infrastructure of tourism centres. (3) In larger centres, social connectivity at all age and status group levels may continue largely unhindered even during peak vacation periods. In the smaller uni-functional centre, however, the potential for teenager social constructs (in particular) to be interrupted is considerably enhanced. The implications of such temporary suppressions of 'normal' social activity are sufficiently serious to warrant the search for 'protective mechanisms' which can be incorporated, as a matter of course, into the physical (social area) planning of tourism centres. The preponderance of tourism facilities such as hotels, motels and vacation homes, and their distribution within the tourism centre, can serve to suppress the development of other social constructs. In particular, Lee (4) has noted that neighbourhood constructs are related in lawful ways to the physical environment; that certain phenomena, such as pathways, aid neighbourhood development whereas others have the reverse effect. A preliminary study (5) has suggested that tourism facilities may act as 'absorbing resistances', effectively isolating some permanent inhabitants, and thus impeding social contacts in local (physical) space. These conflict areas require closer examination to determine their true dimensions. Their very existence, however,suggests that even where planning has been undertaken, the community component of tourism centres has tended to be displaced by understandable pressures to serve the needs of the tourist. A more balanced approach to the planning of tourism centres, therefore, would appear desirable. References (1) For useful discussion of this point, see Barr, J., 'A two home democracy?', New Society, No. 258, September 1967, 313-315; Ashby, P., G.Birch and M.Haslett, 'Second homes in North Wales', Town Planning Review, 46, No. 3, 1975, 323-333; Forrest, D.J., 'The impact of hydro development in small urban communities', unpublished B.A.(Hons) dissertation, University of Otago, 1976 (2) Discussed by Ragatz, R.L., 'Vacation housing: a missing component in urban and regional theory', Land Economics 46, 1970, 118-126. (3) Briefly examined by Ashby, Birch and Haslett, op.cit. p. 329; and by Clout, H., 'Second homes in the Auvergne', Geographical Review, 61,4, 1971, 530-553. Above: Coronet Peak Ski-field, Queenstown (4) Lee, T.R., 'Urban Neighbourhood as a Socio-Spatial Schema', Human Relations, 21, 1968, 241-267. (5) Welch, R.V., 'Aspects of the Impact of Tourism on Queenstown' in P.J. Perry (ed) I.G.U. Conference South Island Excursion, 1974, 84-97. Mr R.V. Welch, BA (Hons), (Sussex), MA (Hons) (New England) is a lecturer in Gpography at the University of Otago.

32 - Town Planning Quarterly 46 Letter from Britain. Alice Coleman, dynamic Director of the Second Land Use Survey is more concerned with the direct Development Control. negatives resulting from development control and Robert Riddell writes to tell us that the post-war planning effort is tantamount to failure. Her article 'Land Use Planning — Success or Failure' appeared in the Architect's' Mr George Dobry QC visited Cambridge to address Journal on 19 January 1977, and has raised a furore. The Georgics", a Land Economy student society, Some of her comments are emotive (p. 96):- on the evening of the day (15 February) that he Here the failure to make farming pay was due to received a CBE for 'Services to Development a different cause: the invasion of the countryside Control'. The Queen was on tour in the South Pacific by a diffuse urban sprawl. Destructive urban at the time so Charles, Prince of Wales, had given out pressures added to the farmer's costs ... and the gongs. also detracted from his returns through lower Prince Charles "Development Control — yields from trampled crops or fruit pilfering; what is it?" sheep deaths due to dog-worrying; picnickers' Dobry "Oh it's to do with planning". fires; or careless smoking in haystacks, etc. "Does it work?" Prince Charles Even the house sparrows that came with a new Dobry "No!" building estate could devour up to half the grain Prince Charles "does it cost anything?" in an adjacent wheatfield. Dobry "No". Others are arresting (p.97):- Prince Charles "That's all right then, congratulations". The Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 In fact, given time and better circumstances, Dobry enacted that henceforth no change of land use would have qualified both his negative answers. Of would be legal without planning permission and course development control 'works' in a variety of this is probably the largest non-emergency ways, both for and against the interests of transference of power from individuals to the developers, communities and the nation; and it does state that has ever occurred in this country. cost something. This second question, of cost (and efficiency) can On the whole, one realises when reading Dr be set aside first, as it is the lesser. The facts are that, Coleman's article that these are the thoughts of a despite a lull in building activity, there are about half visionary who is directly familiar with the most a million planning applications each year, and it has perfect body of information about land usage in been variously estimated that it costs between £80m Britain; and having studied the facts she is now and £120m for local authorities to process them — saying her piece. One discord twangled by Dr which works out at about £200 for each application. Coleman is SLOAP (spaces left out after planning); When one takes into account the degree of another is to review the awesome consequences fora particularity by which the British system requires nation that is the largest importer of food in a world developers to lodge planning applications for minor with only two substantial net exporters (USA and works (which will often cost less than £200 a piece!) Canada) left; and another is a lament for the passing the societal value-for-money ratio can be away of agricultural land (particularly first class land) questioned. into urban use — 'The First Class Disappearing Act'. An increase in the size of the mesh allowed in the All this leads one to wonder why those in the General Development Order net would give planning service have not continuously assessed automatic 'deemed approval' to a greater variety of land use efficiency? After all, the planning data and development proposals, but would save very little development plan formats are very much the same in from the total bill simply because redundancy is a scale and depiction through-out Britain and it would word only whispered in local government circles. have been relatively easy to collate this information. However, the processing of fewer applications by the What defence can the town and country planners same numbers of staff would certainly lead to put up? One consistent claim is that they are quicker results in the same way that a vast increase emasculated by a negative system which styles them in the Inspectorate has cut the time (and cost of as Inverted Micawbers — 'Waiting for something to delays) in relation to Appeals. So much for temporal turn down!' Yet an enormous, if regulative, transfer and fiscal efficiencies. of power did take place when the post-war planning "Does it work?", the first question put to Dobry by machinery was legislated for; and there is a planning Prince Charles, cannot be as easily answered. profession. The problem appears to be that the Consider the control of housing density. Post-war power has been used to police rather than to create, Britain (southern and Midland England in particular) and the planners have been trained to respect would by now have been trowelled over with Victorian notions of professionalism rather more detached bungalows were it not for the 1947 Act and than land as a finite resource to use and conserve. its antecedents. Yet the bungalows are not there, Thus, although the post-war planning system has which is a clear if an indirect plus for development really served British society quite well, the need, control. indeed the imperative, now is to:- Town Planning Quarterly 46 -33 (1) Be critical of urban bias within the planning These claims lean away from aestheticism, service; arguably the most readily identifiable bulwark to (2) Press for a more fundamental and total post-war planning effort; and toward the resource (biospheric) resource perspective for the determinism now dictated by nutritional and planning endeavour; utilitarian energy constraints for the less-industrial (3) Move the professional orientation from Britain of the future. regulative to creative effort; and (4) Launch Dr Coleman's proposal for a monitoring system which could score the land utilisation Robert Riddell Dip TP (Auck), Ph D (Newcastle) MNZIS, competencies of local authority plans for land (M), is a senior lecturer in the Dept of Land Economy, use change. Cambridge University.

Preliminary Announcement — Seminar for Planners on Urbswi De15 ru nt Model

31st August - 2nd Sept models in New Zealand, commissioned in 1975 a preliminary report from Over the last two decades considera- engineers and a town planner on the ble interest has been taken in Europe, staff of the University of Auckland on North America and elsewhere in a the current state of the art. This report quantitative planning technique known completed in May 1976 is now to be as "Urban Development Modelling". published as a forthcoming Road Much of the work was experimental, Research Unit Bulletin. expensive and time-consuming. The It was a recommendation of the stage is now being reached, however, University report that a seminar should where the methods and usefulness of be organised for the purpose of urban nodels are sufficiently estab- 1. acquainting New Zealand planners lished for them to be regarded as with the latest state of the art in urban practical devices for helping to grapple modelling; with the problems of urban planning 2. discussing possible New Zealand and development control strategies. As applications. such, urban development models could The Road Research Unit of the be complementary to the urban traffic National Roads Board has now agreed models which have provided the basic that such a seminar should be held over techniques of the transportation three days 31 August — 2 September. studies which have now been carried The venue will be the University of out in all major New Zealand towns and Auckland and the seminar will be run as cities. a professional course by the The Road Research Unit of the Department of Continuing Education. National Roads Board, in recognition of Persons seeking further information the potential role of urban development should contact: Centre for Continuing Education, University of Auckland, Private Bag, Auckland. 34 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 seas, and it is important to the - planners among them that they ----- PERMIT No 940---- are graduates of a proper and recognised chosen field. This - POSTAGE 7.- matter is obviously less important * iTZ PAID to Council members, most of whom I suspect are well established in New Zealand and Poc 14,7 E whose only interest overseas is the periodic whistle-stop tour. In addition, there is the matter of the "alliance" agreements and espe- cially the agreement with Au- LIttSir stralia involving reciprocity of membership. It would be a pity to Doo ieview I note with some concern that loose such an advantage by T.K. McDonald. Urban Transpor- the Council of the Institute inac:vertently supporting the ran- tation and Land Use, N.Z. appears to be attempting to dom establishment of planning Institute of Economic Research, persuade the universities to courses. Inc., 1974. 230 pp and Appen- establish planning courses when A better "planning" approach dices. there appears to be little or no might be for the Institute, through This book, the result of a study demand for such courses. Victoria its "situations vacant" mailing list by NZIER for ' the N.Z. Urban University is certainly to be to produce some statistics on the Passenger Transport Council, commended for its refusal to be numbers and types of staff provides basic data, previously stampeded by the Institute. required. It should also be lacking, of assistance to those Compared with overseas, emp- possible to complete a short study engaged in the planning of land loyment opportunities for plan- on the demand and supply of use and transportation. The study ners in New Zealand are certainly "planners", the "type" of planner was primarily concerned with the not great and promotion to most required (I suspect there is an costs of intra-urban passemger senior jobs appears normally to abundance of surveyor/planners transport and the manner in be "into a retired man's seat". If, on the New Zealand scene, and which these were influenced by however, there becomes an include a forward projection. I variation in urban form and established need for more assume that the Auckland structure, residential building planners not apparent at the University Town Planning De- types and densities. moment, then surely the best partment could assist with such a The results and workings cover approach would be to properly task if asked. a wide range of land use and plan a course in association with On the basis of the statistics transport characteristics of New an appropriately located univer- and "demand and supply" study, Zealand cities. Historical perspec- sity. The approach that appears to a proper assessment could be tive is given by a description of have been adopted so far is hardly made on the need for additional trends in population, motor what one would expect from a planning courses. If the need for vehicle growth and public planning institute. extra capacity on the existing transport usage. A close and lam also a little surprised by the planning course, or, alternatively, comprehensive look is taken at Council's apparent willingness to another course if demand is the relative economics of the main accept a planning course tacked warranted, was established, then urban passenger transport onto a base degree course, be it in the Council should, with assiS- modes, both public and private, economics, geography, surveying tance from Auckland University with particular emphasis on the or engineering. (Certainly "town (and perhaps overseas) prepare a kind of information useful for the planning units" should be a proposal for endorsement by the planning and operation of urban recognised or even compulsory Annual Meeting of the Institute, passenger transportation. option, in any of these courses, before negotiating with the The study also looks at land use but that should be the limit. A appropriate university body. I characteristics and the costs of "tack-on course" would be a recognise that there will be all urban development in relation to retrograde step especially in sorts of objections to the density and urban area size. terms of maintaining, as at suggested course of action, but Finally, an assessment is made of present, a comparable standard of believe the general approach to the effects of urban form on urban planning education with other be the best if we are all truly passenger travel costs. countries, although of course it concerned about the standard of No consideration is given in the would matter less on the New planning education in New book to the movement of goods Zealand scene. Zealand. in urban areas. Also, the author Many graduates of the New R. B. Smyth acknowledges the thin empirical Zealand universities travel over- Canberra data base to some of the Town Planning Quarterly 46 -35 conclusions reached. These limi- primarily concerned with some The application for a Part A pro- tations apart, the study makes a source control, secondary control cess is through the local authority very substantial contribution to the could be exercised under the but it is sent on to the Director knowledge and understanding of Town and Country Planning Act General of Health for decision. As the transportation of people in through the control of locations. regards Part C processes, specific New Zealand urban areas. The The ability to control the siting licensing procedures depend on author has put together a and segregation of industries is the local authority passing bylaws compendium of facts which specifically recognised in the 4th to this effect under S.24. In the indicates clearly the potential for Schedule of the Regulations absence of such bylaws, an ap- a comprehensive data base to where four suggested industrial plicant only needs to apply for the promote the more rational and zones are contemplated in terms consent of the local authority and, detailed appraisal of land use and of Appendix I and II. unless he receives a negative re- transport alternatives for New The Appeal Board in the N.Z. sponse within one month of first Zealand cities. It is to be hoped Particle Board case assumed that informing the local authority in that the book will not only be because of the provisions of S.29 writing, he can proceed. drawn upon by those wanting (3), emissions into the atmos- The licensing authority, in issu- factual information upon which to phere from a proposed land use ing any licence, can impose con- formulate policies and make can be a relevant town planning ditions under S.26 of the Act. decisions, but will also privide a consideration, that undesirable These must be related to the pur- focus for further research effort air emissions in a neighbourhood poses of the Clean Air Act or the so that the data pile' it represents could provide grounds to refuse a Health Act and are in addition to will be added to, kept up-to-date planning application, and that a any imposed under the Town and and made even more useful. Only planning authority has the power Country Planning Act. Licences through increased knowledge and to impose a condition in its plan- are generally issued for a period understanding may land use and ning consent that requires a more of one year, but even during the transport policy making become stringent standard of emission currency of the licence, the licens- relevant and responsive enough than that which would be imposed ing authority may very or delete to meet the challenges which lie under the Clean Air Act. conditions. ahead. Morris Taylor, The Board noted that this would Because local planning au- Auckland. result in planning authorities, and thorities have dual functions the Board itself, having substan- under the Planning Act and the tial control over those scheduled Clean Air Act for Part B and Part C Casebook processes under the Clean Air Act processes, they should be in a Peter Horsley which require planning consent. position to set and maintain de- Any condition of the planning sirable standards of emission Air Pollution and Town authority's consent regulating or common to their obligations Planning Controls limiting discharges into the at- under both Acts. Difficulties in re- New Zealand Particle Board Ltd v mosphere could negate the conciling provisions in the two Rodney County 6 NZTPA I consi- licensing and appeal provisions of Acts should thus be minimised. dered some of the difficulties the Clean Air Act, particularly Similarly, on an appeal by a licen- raised by S.29 (3) of the Clean Air where an annual licence could be see against the terms of a licence Act 1972. The central concept of renewed on less stringent terms set by the local authority under the Act is a general duty imposed than those considered necessary the Clean Air Act, the planning au- on all occupiers of all premises to or desirable by the planning au- thority, as respondent in the ap- adopt the best practicable means thority. The Board felt that the peal, would be in a position to to collect, contain and render provision of the Planning Act and substantiate its stand for a string- harmless, air pollutants defined in the Clean Air Act were accord- ent standard of emission. The ap- the First Schedule. Anything that ingly in need of being reconciled peal provisions would not neces- is a scheduled process under the by appropriate amendments to sarily be negated by a stringent Act must prima facie be licensed. one or both of the Acts. planning condition because the S.29 (3) provides that no licence The licensing procedures of the Director General of Health in his can be issued, renewed or trans- Clean Air Act bestow extensive role as the appelate body would ferred if the scheduled process powers on local planning au- probably be willing to accept the would contravene the Town and thorities. There are three classes standard set by the local authority Contry Planning Act or any regu- of process contained in the Sec- or the Appeal Board. lations or the provisions of district ond Schedule of the Act (Parts A B Even though it is possible to or regional schemes or any local & C). With the exception of Part A, vary the terms of an annual li- bylaws. The basis of this provision an application for a licence is to cence to make it less stringent, lies in the Board of Health Report the local planning authority in such a possibility would hopefully that expressed the hope that, whose district it is proposed to be remote in an era of increasing while the Clean Air Act was conduct the scheduled process. environmental concern. Further- 36 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 more, a stringent standard of on an appeal. M. J. G. Garland, BA, Dip TP emission set by the local authority The Board of Health Report that L. J. A. Gow, BA, MTP or Appeal Board on a planning gove rise to the Clean Air Act in- A. J. Grant, B.Sc, MTP application would tend to protect tended that the Planning Act T. A. Izzard, BA, Dip TP the public interest, even if it had should work in tandem with the H. T. van Roon, MA, Dip TP the effect of predetermining some Clean Air Act. There are adequate of the terms of the licence. appeal procedures under both Recent Movements Part A processes, such as the Acts and it is suggested that the D.R. Anderson, BArch, DipTP, particle board plant, present grea- most stringent standard of emis- ANZIA, (M), from Dunedin City ter difficulties because the terms sion that can be set under either Council to a partnership with of the licence are set by the Direc- Act should be accepted as being Johnston, Hatfield and Partners. tor General f Health. However, any necessary and desirable to pro- Planning and Surveying Consul- conditions set by the local author- tect the public interest. A co- tants, Mosgiel. ity in a planning consent could no operative approach by local au- Ruth Bookman, MA, DipTP, (S), doubt be referred to the District thorites and the Health Depart- from JASMAD, Auckland, to Medical Officer of Health (to ment would also resolve the dif- Lecturer in Sociology, University . whom all communications bet- ficulties perceived by the Appeal of Melbourne. ween the local authorities and the Board. Despite the cumbersome I.T. Brownlee, BA, DipTP, (M), Director General of Health must nature of the procedures under from Manukau City Council to go in the first place — licensing the two Acts, do we really have to Planning Officer, Public Works Regulations SR 1973/303) and legislate to ensure further co- Department, Hong Kong. such conditions could thus be in- operation? cluded in the terms of the licence. P.G. Horsley, LLB, is a temporary New Student Again, if the Director General re- lecturer with the Town Planning newed the licence on less string- Dept., University of Auckland. Members ent terms than those which the local authority deemed desirable, E. J. Barwell, Dip TP, MNZIS the local authority could appeal to Institute Affairs S. H. Bell the Supreme Court to substan- A. G. Bruce, BTP tiate its stand. The air emission Membership P. Constantine, BA.BTP controls being exercised by the The following were recently B. A. Cross, BA,DipTP local authority under its town elected to membership of the H. M. Jeffery, BA planning procedures would not Institute: J. L. Holloway BSc,DipTP doubt be taken into consideration J. Crawford, BA, Dip TP E. E. R. Merwyn, BArch, DipTP

Town Planning Quarterly 46 -37 3%,u Zeuiand P armiog Instill_ le Professional Cards

These notes are inserted for the general information and guidance of the public. The consultant firms listed have one or more Members of the New Zealand Planning Institute amongst their part- ners.

Auckland M.B. Patience, P.O.Box 3548, Wellington Principal: Patience M.B. Dip C.D. (L'pool) Dip TP, RIBA, Billson, E.A., Dip CE & TP (Lond.), MRTPI, MNZPI, 11 FNZIA, ARIBA, MNZPI Maungarei Road, Auckland 5. Porter and Martin P.O. Box 5029, Wellington. Curtis B.J. Dip. TP, ARICS, MNZIS, MNZPI. 10 Takutai Partner: Porter, D.G. B.Arch, ARIBA, FNZIA, MRTPI, Ave, Bucklands Beach, Auckland. MNZPI Russell Dickson, BE (Hons), BSc, Dip.TP, MICE, MNZIE, MNZPI. 17 Peter Terrace, Auckland 9 David Dodds Associates 245 Parnell Road, P.O.Box Christchurch 37-223, Auckland. Davie, Lovell-Smith & Parners 198 Hereford St, Christ- Principal: Dodds, D.A. Dip Arch, Dip. TP, MNZPI, ANZIA. church P.O.Box 679. Fraser, Thomas, Gunman, Shaw & Partners 152 Kol mar Partners: Bryce, D.A. B.S.c., Dip TP, MNZIS, MNZPI., Rd, Papatoetoe Thompson B.W. MTCP (Sydney) BA. MNZPI. Partner: Parton A.O. Dip TP, MNZIS, MNZPI Associate: Graveson, J.F., BE, Dip TP, MNZPI. Gabites, Alington & Edmondson, P.O.Box 130278, Harrison and Grierson and Partners Cathedral Court, Christchurch Parnell, Auckland 1. Planning Partner: Douglass M. M.S.c (Birm.) BE, Dip TP, Principal: Coldham, R.F., Dip TP, MNZIS, MNZPI. MNZPI, MNZIE, MIHE. Jasmad Planners 2 Whitaker Place, P.O.Box 6648, Au- Royds, Sutherland & McLeay P.O. Box 870, Christ- ckland 1. church. Director: Davies R.J.P. Dip TP, Dip Arch, MNZPI, FNZIA, Associate: M.R. Simister, BA, MTP, MNZPI. RIBA Assistant Directors: Clarke J.R.P. BA, Dip, TP (Lond), MNZPI, MRTPI. Streatfield R.L. M.S.c, Dip TP, MNZPI, MIS (Aust). Dunedin Beaumont W.L. Dip TP, MNZPI Jones, F.W.O., BE, MNZIE, MICE, MNZPI, Murphys Rd, Johnston Hatfield & Partners. 4 Glasgow St, Mosgiel Papatoetoe R.D. Partner: D.R. Anderson, B Arch, Dip TP, ANZIA, MNZPI Kingston Reynolds Thom & Allardice Ltd 44 Wakefield St, Auckland P.O.Box 5348, Wellesley Street, Auckland. Principal: Reynolds I.B. B.Arch, FNZIA, MRTPI, MNZPI North Island Owen McShane, B.Arch Dip TP (Auck) MCP (Berkeley) Grove, T.G. Northland Harbour Board, Annex Building, MNZPI 24 Arney Crescent, Auckland 5. John St, Whangarei. Murray-North Partners Ltd P.O.Box 821, Auckland. Murray-North Partners Ltd. Principal: McIntyre I.G. Dip TP, MNZIS, MNZPI P.O. Box 9041, Hamilton. Partner: Westwood, L.G. ED, Dip TP, MNZIS, MNZPI Senior Associate: N.B. Lewthwaite BA (Hons), MPhil, MRTPI Wellington Murray-North Partners Ltd, P.O.Box 553, Rotorua. D.E. Barry-Martin & Blake Suite 437, DC Building, Wel- Principal: Withy, A.L. Dip TP, MNZIS, MIS Aust, MNZPI, lington MRAPI Barry-Martin D.E. B.Arch, Dip TP (Lond), ARIBA, ANZIA, Eileen Von Dadelszen 903 Norrie Street, Hastings. FRTPI, MNZPI Principal: von Dadelszen, E.H. BA, Dip TP, MNZPI James Beard & Company 59 Aurora Terrace, P.O.Box 5070, Wellington. Principal: Beard J.A. MLA (Harv), B. Arch, MRTPI, South Island FNZIA, ARIBA, ASLA, MRSH, MNZPI Ernest New & Associates, 170 Dee Street, Invercargill Calder, Fowler, Styles & Partners, Prudential Building, Morven House, Frankton Road, Queenstown. 332-340 Lambton Quay, Wellington, P.O.Box 2692. Principal:New E. N. MNZPI„ MRAPI, MRSH, FFB, FG of Partner: Cockburn D.., MSc (Edin), Dip Arch, ANZIA, S, FBSC, AFNZIM. ARIBA, MNZPI Gabites, Alington & Edmondson, P.O.Box 5136, Wel- lington. Planning Partners: Gabites A.L. A.A. Dip (Hons) (Lond), ARIBA, FNZIA, FRTPI, MNZPI. Edmondson D.J. Dip TP (Manch.) FRTPI, MNZPI. Stroud R.G. Dip TP, MNZIS, MNZPI. Douglass M. M.S.c (Birm.) BE, Dip TP, MNZPI, MNZIE, MIHE. Associate: Rushforth D.A. B.S.c, Dip TP, MNZPI 38 -Town Planning Quarterly 46 FOR OVER 30 YEARS A LEADER IN TECHNOLOGY EQUIPMENT and EXPERIENCE

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