Impact of Energy Development on Water Resources in Arid Lands: Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

The Impact of Energy Development on Water Resources in Arid Lands: Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

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Authors Bowden, Charles

Publisher Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona (Tucson, AZ)

Download date 04/10/2021 05:21:56

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/238692 Arid Lands Resource Information Paper No.6

University of Arizona OFFICE OF ARID LANDS STUDIES Tucson, Arizona 85719

1975 ADDITIONAL PUBLICATIONS ON ARID LANDS

Office of A rid Lands Studies: Seventy-Five Years of Arid Lands Research at the University of Arizona, A Selective Bibliography, 1891-1965 Arid Lands Abstracts, nos. 3, 1972- to date J ojoba and Its Uses, An International Conference, 1972 Remote Sensing Conferences, Proceedings of the 2d (1971) - 4th (1973) Arid Lands Resource Information Papers Nos. 1-5

University of Arizona Press (*= OALS Authors): *Deserts of the World *Arid Lands in Perspective *Food, Fiber and the Arid Lands Coastal Deserts, Their Natural and Human Environments Polar Deserts and Modern Man *Arid Lands Research Institutions: A World Directory Arid Lands Resource Information Paper No. 6

THE IMPACT OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

ON WATER RESOURCES IN

ARID LANDS

Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography

Charles Bowden

Research Assistant Office of A rid Lands Studies University of Arizona

The work upon which this publication is based was supported in part by funds provided by the United States Department of the Interior, Office of Water Research and Technology, as authorized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964, as amended.

University of Arizona OFFICE OF ARID LANDS STUDIES Tucson, Arizona 85721

1975 CONTENTS Page

Foreword Author's Preface

Abstract iii

A cknowledgments iv

I.Water and Energy in the Past 1

1.Ancient Energy Systems 1

2.Energy Appetites and Resources 7

3.The Problem of Aridity 16

II. Water Needs of Various Energy Systems 20

1.Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas 21

2.Oil Shale 30

3.Solar Energy and Its Variants 32

4.Fission, Fusion, and Geothermal 36

III. The Colorado River 51

IV. The Missouri River 83

V. Conclusion 98

Supplementary List of References 103

Bibliography 123

Author Index 263

Keyword Index 267 LIST OF FIGURES Page

1.U.S. Energy Consumption Growth: Hydro, Coal, Oil, Gas, Nuclear 8

2.U.S. Energy Consumption Growth: Population vs. B.T.U. 9

3.Fossil Fuels in Human History 14

4.Epoch of Industrial Growth in Context of Longer Span of Human History 15

5.Coal Fields in WINB Member States 22

6.Principal Uranium Producing Areas for 87% of U.S. Production43

'7.Potential Geothermal Fields in the West 48

8.Colorado River Water Shortage (in acre -feet per year) 53

9.Southwest Energy Study: Energy Use Area; Energy Production Area (Colorado River Basin) 58

10.Southwest Energy Study: Load -Centers 1970 59

11.Southwest Energy Study: Total Primary Pollutant Emission Estimates, Phases I -IV 61

12.Black Mesa and the Peabody Mining Area 63

13.Effect of Rate of Shale -Oil Production on Spent Shale Output 77

14. Upper Colorado River Basin Water for Energy 1974 to 2000 80

15.Navajo Strip Mines near Four Corners 86

16.Stripping and Reclamation on Federal and Indian Leases 89

17.Northern Great Plains Power Development 92 FOREWORD

The Arid Lands Resource Information Paper presented here is the fifth prepared for the Water Resources Scientific Information Center (WRSIC) of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Water Research and Technology, on Grant No. 14- 31- 0001 -4258, to the University of Arizona, Office of Arid Lands Studies, Patricia Paylore, Principal Investigator.[A sixth (No. 5 in the series) was funded by another Federal agency.] Of the four preceding this one, most are out -of- print, attesting, we like to believe, to their timeliness and popularity.

Like the others, this review addresses itself to an issue of considerable import in this year on the eve of our bicentennial celebration. While we do not offer hard - and -fast black -and -white answers, we do present the facts about the demands of energy developments on a diminishing water resource in the arid lands of the western United States, as they are revealed in a massive study of the literature cited in the nearly 500 references displayed herein, including a number of environmental impact statements and Federal reports. We gratefully acknowledge National Science Foundation support in the development of the computer program that enabled us to manipulate successfully this substantial bibliography.

The author travelled extensively throughout the states concerned with these potential developments, attending meetings and briefings, visiting plants, and discussing with technicians, scientists, managers, and environmentalists the problems of energy developments as they relate to our water supplies and their demands upon this resource. The resulting interpretation, as it evolved from this nearly year -long task, and as expressed herein by Mr. Bowden, is one that in no way should be con- strued as the official view of either the U. S. Government or the University of Ari- zona's Office of Arid Lands Studies, but is rather a synthesis of views held with some conviction by him, as the author, and by myself, as the Principal Investigator.

Mr. Bowden, in the Preface following, admonishes us to recognize the almost daily changing events that often determine policies in this fast -moving arena. Yet the reader would do well, we believe, to acknowledge the overriding constraints of our water resources here in this arid land, that persist throughout the variables of weather, politics, discovery, public opinion.If this cautionary view can prevail, perhaps in the decade ahead events themselves will be shaped on the basis of information, knowledge, application, rather than the reverse.Such is the motivation of this paper. Patricia Paylore Assistant Director Office of Arid Lands Studies University of Arizona January 1, 1975 Tucson, Arizona 85721

-i- AUTHOR'S PREFACE

In August 1974 the Federal Energy Administration held Project Independence hearings in Denver. Although John Sawhill, the Agency's head, participated in the discussions, Project Independence was little mentioned, its target date of 1980 all but ignored.The Project as earlier mandated by President Nixon was by then dead.Instead, the talk turned to the problems of exploiting energy resources in the Rocky Mountain region, especially coal, coal gasification, and oil shale. By late fall of 1974, all had changed again.Oil shale had been shelved, by inflation among other things.Coal gasification was in limbo as companies debated whether the method could pay back its cost.Mr. Sawhill had been dismissed by a new president.Project Independence had issued its long - awaited and quickly- forgotten report. Such are the swift changes facing discussion of energy in this nation.For there is no real policy, there is only an appetite.

The nation and its leaders are committed to maintaining what is called the American way of life.This means Americans will continue to consume one -third or so of the Earth's energy resources.In the hope of feeding this hunger for power, various ideas are periodically floated and periodically punctured. For years nuclear power was touted as an endless source of cheap power. Now the atomic industry is at best a troubled industry, and the Atomic Energy Commission has been divided into two separate, perhaps weaker, parts.Currently, bills in the Congress are pushing solar energy, geothermal resources, wind power.Fusion reactors continue to have their champions.In this manner policy makers lunge toward some magic resource that will replace petroleum. And replaced it must be, for it is growing scarce and expensive. Such pivots of Federal thinking have a limited effect on the basic elements of water and energy in arid lands.The same problems always remain. Arid lands in the United States are pretty much dry, empty, pollution -free.Energy exploitation usually demands water, moves in human beings in numbers, threatens to dirty the air, land, water.Thus, while a paper such as this faces the prospect of being outstripped by events and proclamations, the prospect is often merely a mirage. The basic facts and problems of exploiting the arid lands remain, like the deserts themselves, waiting. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Research for this paper gave me the opportunity to visit many mines, powerplants, institutions of higher learning, libraries, environmental groups, and government agencies, both Federal and state. Without exception, I was always shown what I wanted to see, and my questions were always answered.I especially want to thank the Peabody Coal Company, Tucson Gas and Electric Company, the Tucson office of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Colorado Plateau Environmental Advisory Council and the Lake Powell Proj- ect of the Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff; and Kathy Fletcher of the Environmental Defense Fund, Denver. The University of Arizona Library documents staff protected me from much peril by guiding me through the jungle of Government publications.

To those members of the staff of the Office of Arid Lands Studies involved with me in the preparation of the paper: Kathleen Stanley, Nancy Ferguson, Mary Michael, and Julie V. Garrettson, who struggled mightily to bring sense and order to the bibliography I fashioned and who suffered through many a conversation about water and energy in arid lands; Lynn Lybeck, Systems Analyst, who masterminded the computer program that produced the bibliography; and Cecilia Chavarnwho typed the final version with such care and interest, I owe more than can be expressed. Patricia Paylore, my editor and counselor, while giving me a great deal of freedom in putting this paper together, also periodically saved me from myself.

Charles Bowden

Tucson, Arizona December 11, 1974 SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS \ / / INPUT TRANSACTION FORM / ÿ

THE IMPACT OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ON WATER RESOURCES IN ARID LANDS,

Bowden, C.

University of Arizona, Office of Arid Lands Studies, Tucson OWRT 14 -31- 0001 -4258

Arid Lands Resource Information Paper No. 6.January 1975. 278 p,17 figs, 492 refs.

Water is basic to energy conversion systems, naturaland man -made. This paper explores the consequences of energy extraction and conversionin arid lands where water is scarce. The historical past is utilized as a record for casting moderndevelopment plans into perspective; the worldwide growth in energy consumption rates isconsidered as the motive force behind many current energy projects in arid lands.Energy sources (coal, oil, gas, oil shale, solar energy, alternative energy sources,fission, fusion, and geothermal) are reviewed in terms of their consequences on the air, land, water, and inhabitantsof such regions. Two rivers, the Colorado and the Missouri, provide small -scalemodels of the rewards and hazards of heavily exploiting water -short areas.In both instances, it is found that energy development plans, as now proposed, will seriously deplete the water supply,alter the quality of the water, land, and air, and increase the human population.The paper concludes that a great deal of energy can be extracted from arid landsbut that the consequences of such extraction on the environment are but sketchily known because more energyhas been poured into development plans than into environmental impact scholarship°(Bowden, Arizona)

*Bibliographies, *Arid lands, *Water demand, *Water shortage, *Energy, Stripmines, Strip mine wastes, Oil shales, Coals, Great Plains, Colorado River Basin,Missouri River, Rocky Mountain region, Southwest U0 S. , Environmental effects, Social aspects,Water allocation (policy), Water quality, Energy conversion, Geothermalstudies, Nuclear energy, Nuclear wastes

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WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WASHINGTON. O.C. 20240 Charles Bowden University of Arizona Granted that they did not find the riches of which they had been told, they found a place in which to search for them, and the beginning of a good country to settle in, so as to go farther from there. Since they came back from the country which they conquered and abandoned, time has given them a chance to understand the direction and locality in which they were, and the borders of the good country they had in their hands, and their hearts weep for having lost so favorable an opportunity ...

-Pedro de Castañeda, chronicler of Coronado's Expedition of 1540, commenting on the conqueror's conquest (Watkins et al, 1969 *). I. WATER AND ENERGY IN THE PAST

1.Ancient Energy Systems

The arid lands have always won. They have become crypts for man's ancient energy systems.

Today, millions of humans are walking south from the Sahara's transitional underbelly, the Sahel.For half a decade the rains have failed. The tufts of grass are gone, the nomad finds no water at long -used holes, twigs are scarce for the fire, flocks and herds die and mummify under the sun. A simple wander- ing life that seemed proved and traditional is fading, from Mauritania to Ethiopia. The people had collected solar energy in the branches for their fires, in the flesh and milk from their animals. Now the rains have stayed away and the bones of flocks, families, and nations dot the map. A folk migration has put thirteen million humans and eighteen million goats, cows, and sheep in peril of starvation. Eight nations go on the block.

Death and flight in the sub -Sahara are but man's most recent experiences in exploiting arid lands. His energy systems have often failed because the water has failed. And the water has failed for various reasons more suited for study than for argument. The cause could be climatic change or short -term climatic fluctuations or the activities of humans, or all or some of the preceding in combination (Sherbrooke and Paylore, 1973 *). ++ Water is the key ingredient in the energy -converting processes of all forms of biological life.The people of the Sahel need water to sustain the plants that sustain the livestock that sustain them: or the solar energy will kill.Other humans need water for irrigated agriculture, for cooling nuclear reactors, for oil shale processing plants, for the boilers of coal -fired electric generating facilities. But the rains ultimately and repeatedly fail in arid lands. ...There is a stretch of country whose history is pregnant with greater promise than perhaps any other equal expanse of territory within the confines of the Western hemisphere.Following the times of occasion- al rain, this line of social advance rose and fell with rain and drought, like a mighty tide beating against the tremendous wall ... And every such wave left behind it a mass of human wreckage in the shape of broken fortunes, deserted farms, and ruined homes (Webb, 1936 *).

++Each citation in the text with an asterisk ( *) following the date refers to the supplementary list of references and not to the computerized bibliography.

-1- -2-

This description by A.M. Simons in 1906 records the efforts of nineteenth century Americans to settle the Great Plains.It shares much with the twig - burning, goat- herding residents of the Sahel.The question of water and energy in arid lands spans continents, races, millenia.

Humans have made the Rajasthan Desert grow in India (Bryson and Baerreis, 1967 *; Joshi, 1969* ).They witnessed and perhaps triggered the arroyo cutting and dimunition of the grasslands in the American Southwest (Hastings and Turner, 1965* ).Land abuse and the drift of climate toward a drier era have brought ruin to past settlements in northwest China, the Peru- vian coastal desert, Mayan Mexico, and the great Sahara (Academia Sinica, 1958 *, 1962a -b *; Lowdermilk, 1935*).The vanished peoples of the Colorado Plateau and Sonoran Desert bear names that are signatures of defeat: Hohokam - the people who have gone; Anasazi - the old ones; Sinagua - without water. If a modern Pima Indian has a flat tire, he is liable to say "Hohokam," meaning the tire is all used up (Ceram, 1971*).

Because of past climates and geologic shifts, the arid lands, holding a third of the earth's land surface, are underlain with massive amounts of fossil energy in the form of coal, natural gas, petroleum, and oil shale.This bonanza that required hundreds of millions of years to evolve to a form of energy usable by human beings will be totally consumed in one, two, or three centuries (Seale and Sierka, eds.,1973*). When people today talk of water and energy in arid lands, this vast reserve is why they speak of it and what they speak of.It means Arab nations holding a mortgage on western Europe, it means 30,000 megawatts of electric generating plants sited in the emptiness of the Four Corners, it means 200,000 to 400,000 people migrating to the sparsely inhabited spaces of eastern Montana (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974 ). In the past, arid lands have been largely empty. A veritable charnel house, they hold remnant ditches and colonnades in the Tigrus- Euphrates valley, pyramids along the Nile, giant earthen messages in the deserts of Peru and Chile sent by a people now vanished and addressed to parties unknown. While the current surge of exploitation will not be directed by pharoahs or result in hanging gardens, moderns will have to contend with the same basic facts as the ancients. They must confront the shortage of water, the excess of solar radiation, the fragility of the vegetation, the erodible nature of the soil.

Arid lands are bombarded with solar energy, but this rich bath (due to the paucity of cloud cover, 85 -90 percent of the possible radiation strikes such regions' surface) in the main spills unused on the ground (Hodge, ed.,1963* ). Life requires water to convert this outpouring to forms assimilable to the food chain, and the water is often not there.So the deserts are sparsely populated with tufts of grass, scraggly trees and struggling animals, beggars at a potential banquet.Vegetation breaks into two groups: drought resisters, and drought -3-

evaders.In the Sonoran desert, plants that resist have the capacity to store water like the saguaro, or find it like the mesquite by sending roots down to a depth of forty feet.The evaders lie dormant until the seasonal rains come (if they come), many types casting down seed that can wait several years for the right amount of moisture, and then in the brief weeks of wetness acting out a hurried but typical version of life in a more humid climate. The limited amount of photosynthesis in turn checks the number of animals that can graze off the terrain (Farb, 1963 *).Since animals of the desert tend to die at about the same body temperatures as animals of the tundra, they must compensate by moving nocturnally or by conserving water in their tissue.Thus, life is limited because the potential for energy conversion is limited because water is limited. This shortage confronts modern man. Whether his technology be geothermal, coal -fired electric plants, nuclear reactors, some suggested conversions of solar energy, or coal gasification (1), he is usually seeking toheat water to steam in order to spin a turbine.The various systems are in a sense merely different ways to heat a tub of water; the tub and the turbine are pretty much unchanged over the decades. Water scarcity severely controlled earlier energy systems in arid lands, those of the American Indian for example.

Two of these, the Shoshoni and Pueblos, show the strengths and weaknesses of different responses to this limitation.The Shoshoni lived in the Great Basin, roughly Utah and Nevada, and parts of Colorado, Idaho, and Arizona.

(1) One power source not discussed in this paper is magnetohydrodynamic power, a method that converts heat from coal combustion gases directly into electricity. MHD has several possible advantages: it would pollute much less than current coal -fired plants, and by operating at a higher level of efficiency require less fuel, thus lowering the amount of land that must be stripmined.However, MHD generators, operating at very high temperatures (2, 000 to 2, 500 C), thus far have not proved practical, though scientists working in the field believe the problems can be overcome if more money is spent on research (Hammond, Metz, and Maugh, 1973*).Like many potential power sources - solar, tidal, wind, fusion, etc. - MHD falls outside the basic province of this paper because whatever its ultimate successes or failures it cannot make a significant contribution to the nation's energy mix for decades because of the time and money required to move a power system from the laboratory to commercial application. Nuclear powerplants are far behind schedule and the reactor designs are plagued with unforeseen problems. Even an old and accepted technology like coal -fired steam electric plants consumes years in translating a plant plan to a plant. -4-

The land was arid, the food spotty and erratic.They moved in small family units searching for game, roots, grasshoppers, and edible foliage. When the rabbits' cycle of births peaked, several families would briefly join together for a rabbit hunt, the women and children driving the game into woven nets, the men waiting with clubs.This, at least for the southern Shoshoni in the driest part of the Great Basin, was their highest form of social organization. So simple was the Shoshoni world that early whites perceived them as models of human degradation. Jedediah Smith, the great mountain man, saw "the most miserable objects in creation." Mark Twain argued they might be descended from the Darwinian "gorilla, or kangaroo, or Norway rat. " And Hubert Howe Bancroft, the early western historian, was convinced they hibernated like bears, "lying in a state of semi -torpor in holes in the ground during the winter, and in spring crawling forth and eating grass on their hands and knees ..." (Farb, 1968 *).

The Shoshonis were victims of a limited energyconversion capability because of a lack of water.Eating 100 varieties of plants, each family - not a band, just one family - needed 115 to 150 square miles to achieve bare subsistence. Moving constantly, they built no permanent housing. And because they dwelt on the rim of destitution, they reacted in a unique manner to a revolutionary European tool, the horse. The relatively affluent northern bands living in a region of more rainfall learned to ride.The southern Shoshoni saw the horse as a grazing competitor for the range they themselves grazed. As late as 1850 they displayed the same reaction: they ate the horses (Hodge, ed., 1963 *).But by the time the Shoshoni had been done in by an invading migration of whites from the east, bearing their gifts of alcohol, prostitution, and usurpation, they had already persisted for ten thousand years in the Great Basin, solving the erratic and sparse supply of usable energy by diverse sources of food and by never concentrating their population.

The people of Chaco Canyon in northern New Mexico did concentrate their population, produced an abundance of food, lived on an arid high plateau (6, 200 feet), and have been extinct for seven centuries.Their language is dead, their buildings embalmed in drifting sands, their descendants dispersed or perished. The canyon today harbors sagebrush, a deep slashing arroyo, and hundreds of ruins.Pueblo Bonito stood four or five stories, had more than 800 rooms, and covered three acres: about the size of the United States Capitol Building.It was built of stone, and foundations suggest a 300 -room addition was in the works when the Anasazi, the old ones, disappeared. Across the way lies Casa Rinconada, a kiva sixty -four feet in diameter.Everywhere the stone is neatly cut, the walls six feet thick at floor level, the doors plumb. Remnants of irrigation ditches trace the valley floor; stone pathways out of the canyon mark trade routes which led to places now only guessed.The Anasazi treasured shells found near San Diego, parrot feathers native to jungles south of Mexico City. -5-

Obviously, it is an organized society that can undertake the construction of stone buildings with 800 rooms, that can hew with stone axes 90, 000 roof beams, that can launch 300 -room additions, that can live in apparent peace in intricate stone structures.And Chaco Canyon is but one of many pueblos, occupied and abandoned, that stud the Southwest:Mesa Verde, Wupatki, Canyon de Chelly, the Hopi mesas, the Zuni towns,the string of communities along the Rio Grande, the dead villages now sheltered in Bandelier National Monument (Ceram, 1971 *; Colton, 1960 *; Farb, 1968 *, Judd, 1964 *).

For those interested in water and energy in arid lands Chaco holds two insights: the way it evolved, and the way it probably died.Chaco represents a prodigious commitment of energy; the Anasazi could store energy (food), and organize energy (commit humans to special tasks for long periods of time). Also, they could fail.

Man came to Chaco Canyon in bands six or seven thousand years ago, digging roots and killing animals. About a hundred years after the birth of Christ, crops were planted on the valley floor.This led to villages, pit houses burrowed in the earth, and population growth. By the 800's a new culture had emerged: people began above -ground houses. A century later the houses joined together, and what Spaniards later dubbed the pueblo started its sprawl in stone and stucco. Moderns can only guess why the people joined together in more complex buildings and a more complex society. But the probability is that it was the water. The canyon around the time of the first millennium had grass, bulrushes, and pine. Water percolated down the wash just beneath the surface. Floodwater farming was practiced.This entailed damming, ditching, and controlling runoff from the seasonal rains so ant crops were watered just the right amount and a layer of silt was laid down, an agricultural practice which continued along Egypt's Nile until the A swan Dam choked off the river's life - giving alluvium in the last decade. Such agricultural work required organized labor; perhaps the necessity of maintaining the farming system induced a highly developed society.For the Shoshoni, permanent housing and a sedentary population meant starvation.In Chaco Canyon, it spelled success and surplus (Farb, 1968 *; Judd, 1964 *).

By the 1100's the people were leaving, by the 1200's they were gone. Seven thousand years of human exploitation and two centuries of intense pueblo building terminated in Chaco Canyon. Some blame the climate.The area has about ten inches of rainfall per year now, and one expert believes one more inch would bring back the springs, another inch the grass and bulrushes (Judd, 1964 *).But drought was nothing new to Chaco Canyon's inhabitants.Tree rings record one in 920, another in 980, a stretch of subnormal rainfall from 1005 -1044, and a severe drought between 1090 and 1101. The Anasazi had vanished before the great drought of 1276 -1299. Drought is the normal event -G-

in arid lands, and biological life, be it plant, animal, or man, only proves its viability by surviving over the long haul. Evidence suggests that the climate did shift from dry to more dry. But the lethal blow to the Anasazi was probably a direct consequence of their presence. They cut down the trees for roof beams and this led to erosion and silting. And then, perversely, a heavy rain led to arroyo cutting, and the channel dropped five or ten feet lower. Such an arroyo cut its swath of destruction in the twelfth century.Ignorant of hydraulic devices and well digging, the community perished. Chaco Canyon, denuded of its plant cover by the Anasazi, bore heavy loads of eroded dirt in its seasonal floods.It buried the prehistoric world of the pueblo builders under layers of the soil they had overexploited.

What really doomed the Anasazi of the Canyon was not a shift of climate, or the ravages of the arroyo.It was their energy system. They became heavily dependent upon massive extraction of energy from the canyon, and water was the key to mining the solar riches. True to the region, the water supply was erratic.Operating on a slim margin, they were eventually put to the wall. Standing on the floor of a simpler life, the Shoshoni found it difficult to fall.

Chaco Canyon did not remain empty of human life.Sometime after its abandonment but before the seventeenth century, Navajos invaded the area. They hunted animals, other Indians, and harvested wild plants.For centuries they picked up bits and pieces of more advanced economic activities from the surviving pueblos and from the Spaniards, but they kept their culture mixed and nomadic.They never succumbed to the temptation of occupying the Anasazi buildings. Rather they used the roof beams for firewood. And they thrived.

It is impossible to work out an equation that will weigh and measure ancient energy systems against those of moderns. The ancients were hindered by a lack of technology and a poverty of innovation.They were blessed in being spared the burden of modern numbers as the statistics on recent population growth and energy consumption point out.They wrestled with the same patches of ground where humans now hope to extract such large amounts of energy that a better world will come to pass - ground which citizens of the United States are promised will bring them independence two centuries after the efforts of General George Washington's army.

Traditional methods of energy conversion are water based; arid lands are water short (Engelbert, 1973; Fairchild, 1973; Stork, ed. ,1973).Historical experience indicates that this chronic scarcity of water can be lethal in such regions (Cloudsley- Thompson, 1970).This hazard is being overridden in a twentieth century energy rush because the fuels for traditional technologies exist in arid lands, and because the world's appetitefor fossil forms of energy -7-

is growing at a fast rate. A consumption of unprecedented scale is pushing man into the dry lands where problems are viewed as challenges not limits.

2.Energy Appetites and Resources Human appetites for energy are unique. The earth is bombarded with solar energy, yet only one -tenth of one percent of this radiation is utilized by plants through photosynthesis, two -thirds on land, one -third in the seas.Mil- lions of species compete for this elemental source of energy, a mere one thousandth of the mathematical potential from the sun. Man and his herds harvest one percent of this biological treasure made possible by plants.This miniscule amount is a stupendous one when the competition from other creatures is considered. But it is not enough to sustain human life as it is now lived. Humans are dependent upon the legacy of the geologic past: coal, oil, natural gas (Holdren and Herrera, 1971*).Put simply, it required perhaps 700 million years to convert the cells of plants and animals to usable fossil fuels.The best estimate is that humans will consume this legacy in three or four centuries (Seale and Sierka, eds. , 1973 *).

A quick look at the American past will show how this demand for fossilfuels evolved (Figures 1 and 2). Until after the Civil War, ours was a society based mainly on burning trees for energy, an indirect but short -cyclesolar conversion.From 1880 to 1969 this consumption pattern shifted radically in two bursts of growth separated by a slack period from 1920 -1940.In the year 1880, the nation got abort one -half its energy from wood, most of the rest from coal. But by 1900, wood had slipped to 20 percent, coal had risen to 70 percent, and oil, natural gas, and hydropower made up the remaining 10 percent. One generationsufficed to shift the country from renewable energy to fossil energy (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).Thousands of human beings crawled into holes in the ground and chipped at the remains of dead life:coal. Or sank pipes into the earth and sucked the liquid residue of another world: oil.Natural gas, being unwieldly without pipelines, was often burned at the wellhead as a nuisance, or sometimes a little carbon black was salvaged from the burn. By 1920, fossil fuels comprised 90 percent of the nation's energy mix. Following 1940, liquid and gaseous forms began to increase their share as electric consumption doubled every decade. Not just the mix changed, the rate of increase of consumption surged upward. Between 1880 and 1920, consumption grew 3.5 percent per year for a doubling time of a good two decades. Since 1940, electricity, increasingly a more significant part of the nation's energy appetite, has achieved a doubling time of ten years or less.Today, the United States is a nation which consumes one third of the planet's energy output, dependent on fossil fuels for 95 percent of its energy and 82 percent of its -8-

Figure 1

U.S. Energy Consumption Growth: Hydro, Coal, Oil, Gas, Nuclear

160

150

140 4.5

130

120

GAS

2.5

.()ii. .. .5 40

COAL 10 WOOD `., HYDRO ï ti:rP: `.. i o :iïfs:i;ï::i..'í, :1:..ï - -.,...e.bX.y!. . . .' LS.S.filakc:d.:11i."is..,t.,,,='. s.' .- . _ _ 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 2000 U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION has been multiplied some 30 oil and natural gas had climbed to 55.5 percent. Last year coal ac- times since 1850, when wood supplied more than 90 percent of all counted for 20.1 percent of all energy consumed, oil and gas 75.8 the energy units. By 1900 coal had become the dominant fuel, ac- percent, hydropower 3.0 percent and nuclear energy .3 percent. counting for more than 70 percent of the total. fifty years later Ceergyconsumption figures are from the U.S. Bureau of Mines; coal's share had dropped to 36.5 percent and the contribution from

Figure 2

U.S. Energy -Consumption Growth: Population vs B.T.U.

ban

10,/'1 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

U. S. Energy- Consumption growth has outpaced the growth in population since 1900, except during the energy cutback of the depression years.

electricity. At the rate of growth exhibited between 1965 and 1969, the republic's consumption of electricity will increase 9.8 times by the year 2000.This growth will take place in a world with an awakening energy need of its own, and a possible growth rate of 4 to 6 percent per year, a doubling time of possibly twelve years (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).

This is part of the past which has sent humans plunging into the dry - lands in quest of fossil fuels.But predictions of future consumption and population are an even greater stimulus. (2) One scholar sees the world's energy consumption tripling by the year 2000:if the world at large achieves a standard of living comparable to the United States, consumption will increase 100 -fold (Starr, 1971 *).The Rand Corporation warns that there is no short- or medium -term solution to the energy crisis and that conservation is imperative (Rand Cor- poration, 1973 *). Some industry representatives see coal by the year 2000 at

(2)It should be noted that predictions about energy consumption have a mixed record for accuracy, as witness the following:

... We cannot long maintain our present rate of increase of (coal) consumption ...The check to our progress must become perceptible within a century from the present time...The cost of fuel must rise, perhaps, within a lifetime, to a rate injurious to our commercial and manufacturing supremacy...-W. Stanley Jevons, The Coal Question, 1865, reprinted 1965, Augustus M. Kelley, N.Y., p. 274. ... The United States may be able for the next few years (five or ten) to meet the increased demands for petroleum and...thereafter the production may remain stationary for another short period, during which production will decrease from year to year, while consumption increases, causing greater and greater imports from foreign fields and higher prices, culminating in acute shortage. -M. L. Requa, 1916. ... Reservesof such 'low cost'...fossil fuels are small by comparison with the maximum plausible demands... New sourcesof low cost energy must begin to carry some of the load by A.D. 1975 or sooner and much of it by A.D. 2000, if we are not to run the risk of seeing economic systems throughout the non -communist world falter in the face of steep- ly rising costs of energy.-Putnam, Palmer, and Cosslett, Energy in the Future, D. VanNostrand, N.Y., 1953, p. 252.

All three quotes from Sheldon Novick, The Careless Atom, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1969, p. 173. two to three times its 1970 price, with electricity charges to large industrial customers doubling (McCarthy, Jr. and DeMumbrum, 1972 *).The Batelle Memorial Institute envisions a bleak year 2000 with depleted and increasingly expensive reserves of coal,gas, and oil (Snyder and Chilton, 1972 *).Such jeremiads have become almost a basic industry for a very simple reason: the world's population and its consumption of energy have been growing; fossil fuels have not been increasing at all, they have shrunk.In human terms, they will never grow. Since the people of the planet depend heavily on fossil fuels, the word crisis has been invoked. A limit on available energy implies a limit on population; at least one analyst believes there is an absolute limit on energy consumption, fossil or otherwise (Chapman, 1970 *).But such estimates are plagued by uncertainty when it comes to picking the day the energy runs out, or how many centuries of such and such a fuel exists in present reserves.

Coal provides a good example of this problem.If one takes the world's known coal reserves as of 1966 and pits them against the 1966 rate of consumption, they offer to last 1,440 years. Should the rate of consumption increase at the pace it held between 1940 and 1966, 90 percent of the reserves would be devoured in 122 years. Yet a third forecast is possible by calculating the effect increasing scarcity and higher prices will have on the rate of consumption. Looked at this way, it should take 450 years to consume 90 percent of the reserves (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).Probably the last scenario is the most likely. Many factors threaten all predictions.Pollution (thermal, aquatic, air, etc.) may intervene suddenly and put a ceiling on energy consumption. Population may experience a new stabilization or a massive kill -off.Cost may rise dramatically and temper consumption. Breakthroughs in exotic forms of energy conversion (breeder reactors, fusion, geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, et al.) may swiftly retire fossil fuels as a source. But these are all maybes. Realistically, dependence on fossil fuels will continue for decades, and this points toward the exploitation of arid lands.Probably the most even - toned and likely forecast of the rate of exploitation of man's energy sources is by M. King Hubbert, of the U.S. Geological Survey (Seale and Sierka, eds., 1973 *).

Straight projections of energy consumption and doubling rates tend to go off the graph as sketched human appetites accelerate and bend a curve of growth into an almost vertical line racing upward.Hubbert notes that however mathematically pleasing this image, it is probably false.In its stead, he substi- tutes a different scenario of consumption.First, an energy source is developed, and over a long period of time 10 percent of its potential is consumed.Then technology succeeds in lowering the price of the source per unit, and the next -12-

80 percent of the reserve is rapidly mined and expended. The last 10 percent of the source is utilized slowly because scarcity forces price up and deters consumption. (3) Given this perspective, Hubbert reviews the energy resources of the planet. Coal has an initial period of development of centuries.Then in the late 19th century, it takes off for a projected middle span of centuries. The bell curve will race down toward the low level of earlier consumption between the years 2000 and 2400. Being a fossil fuel, that will be the end of coal.Thus, coal reserves world -wide,though often estimated as sufficient for a thousand years, will last in Hubbert's projection three or four centuries. American oil and gas reserves will experience a middle span of only 65 years and be gone early in the 21st century, a period of depletion less than a human lifetime.The Alaskan reserves are only enough to supply the nation for a few years, hence, a detail. World oil exploitation should peak around the year 2000, with a mid -span from 1968 to 2032. Natural gasworld -wide will go at the same rate.Oil shale and tar sands under present technology are inadequate to replace coal and petroleum.

Since fossil fuels will be rapidly depleted, Hubbert also examines alternative energy sources. Solar power at first appears limitless and forever renewable. But Hubbert is skeptical of its potential because of the high cost per unit of energy and he wonders if the planet has metallicdeposits adequate for fabricating the needed collectors. Water power "has the appearance of being an essentially inexhaustible source of energy, or at least one with a time scale comparable to that required to remove mountain ranges by erosion" (Op. cit. ).Only 8.5 percent of the world's water power potential is now developed. But Hubbert sees two problems limiting exploitation of this source. For one thing, the largest remaining hydroelectric sites are in Africa and South America; to exploit them would take enormous amounts of metal for the power unit and the resulting industrial communities built nearby to utilize the power.It is unclear if the planet's reserves of metallic ores are adequate for such an expansion.

(3)Something similar to this scenario has recently occurred in the electric power industry. After decades of steadily lowering prices per unit of energy (Berlin et al. ,1974), things have suddenly reversed and the charge per unit rapidly risen (Foster Associates, Inc. ,1974).This has led to proposals to enlarge energy sources through changes in government policy (Brannon, 1974) and to conserve energy in various industries (Gyftopoulos et al. ,1974).Thus, while fuels shrink in supply they promise to last longer as the nation retreats from the growth rate of the sixties. -13-

Secondly, no one has yet solved the silting problem which threatens to backfill dams and eventually, perhaps in a century or two or three, render them use- less.These two factors suggest that water power may be a transient phase in the history of human energy consumption.Tidal power also appears a slender reed.Only two percent of the energy in the tides can be harnessed by all possible and feasible sites.This meager two percent in turn equals only two percent of the world's potential water power, which has limited prospects itself.

Geothermal energy is a fixed and depletable resource.It entails tapping and mining radioactive heat stored in the earth.Given a 60, 000 Mw (megawatt) consumption over the next fifty years, this resource will be swiftly depleted, perhaps gone in a century. Reserves in Hubbert's estimate are only equal to two percent of the earth's potential water power. This leaves nuclear power, and its future is a question mark. Uranium ore reserves are not large and when this fact is coupled with the reactor's low efficiency (only one to two percent of the potential energy in the fuel is converted) and with the current and projected expansion of the number of reactors, useable fuel could be gone in as little as fifteen years.

Without some breakthrough in fuel efficiency, nuclear power could be a brief episode, a tale of a century.Two escapes from this impasse, fusion and the breeder reactor, are currently unavailable.Proved successful, they could expand the theoretical energy reserve enormously.If a mere one percent of the ocean's deuterium could be coaxed to release its energy in a fusion reaction, it would equal 500, 000 times the planet's original fossil fuel supply. Fossil fuels are a brief episode in human history (Figure 3).A large hump in the passage of millennia, they have fostered what is often called the civilized world, and they have enabled one species to overwhelm much of the planet's diverse biomass. Because hundreds of millions of years ago some plants and some animals perished in conditions lacking oxygen, a short spree has been possible for one form of life, humans, between the 19th and 21st or 22nd centuries.Possibly just some such fortuitous circumstance permitted the pueblo dwellers to harvest briefly a surplus of energy in a few select areas.

Various options remain when the fossil fuels are gone.One is that human communities, especially in the Western world, will simply collapse to a low level of existence.Success in exploiting solar or nuclear energy could maintain life at current levels (Figure 4).The experience of the last few centuries, however, has generated the idea that growth is essential for pros- perity and survival.This is understandable since it is with a society characterized by growth that humans have marched out of privation, disease, and hunger. Now this idea is colliding with the increasing knowledge of the rest of the bio- Fossil Fuels in Human History Figure 3 200 ..O 100 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 Time before and after (10' years) 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 Source: M. King Hubbert, "Energy Resources for Power TheNeedsin Robert University and L. the Seale Environment, of Arizonaand Raymond Press, Tucson,A. Sierka, copyright Editors, 1973. p. 32. By permission, Production," Energy -15-

Figure 4

Epoch of Industrial Growth in Context of Longer Span of Human History

" ... As indicated in [this] figure, the future period of stability could be characterized either by a continuation of a technological culture with a high level of energy consumption, or by a cultural decline to a primitive low -energy level of existence. Regardless of which of these possible courses may actually be followed, it is clear that the episode of industrial exponential growth can only be a transitory epoch of about three centuries duration in the totality of human history.It represents but a brief transitional epoch between two much longer periods, each characterized by rates of change so slow as to be regarded essentially as a period of nongrowth."

ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER UNIT TIME i Z -.I SOLAR ENERGY II

FOSSIL FUELS Jy \\ SOLAR ENERGY 4 6 a -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2

HUMAN POPULATION

/mt\ \ \

I \

_L- 0 2 4 6 t O -8 -6 -4 -2

ENERGY PERCAPITA PER UNITTIME

jIi i 1 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 TIMEI THOUSANDS OF YEARS)

Source: M. King Hubbert, "Energy Resources for Power Production," in Robert L. Seale and Raymond A. Sierka, Editors, Energy Needs and the Environment, p. 50. By permission, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, copyright 1973. -16-

logical community (Heller, 1971 *).There is undoubtedly a limit to energy consumption because the resultant thermal pollution could alter the climate (Meyer -Abich, 1972 *; Newman, 1971 *; Seale and Sierka, eds. , 1973 *). The bounty of power from breeder or fusion reactors will have to confront this ceiling.

3.The Problem of Aridity In the latter part of the 20th century, arid lands are merely a pivot point in this saga of human energy consumption. The large reserves of fossil fuels they hold, being compatible with existing devices for converting and consuming energy, are attractive because their exploitation requires little or no research, demands no major scientific advances, and promises tosustain billions of dollars of existing investments .The question is what will happen to these regions, which comprise one third of the earth's land surface, during their brief moment of exploitation.

What has happened in the past is clear: devastation.All over the planet,the dry lands have recoiled from human encroachment with salt buildup, waterlogging, dust storms, erosion, loss of fertility, and alowering of the water table.In the American Southwest, Indian, Spaniard, andAnglo in turn have marked and been marked by the arid lands.The prehistoric Indians suffered drought and wrought erosion and salt buildup. The numerous irrigation ditches of the Hohokam at Phoenix probably led to saline soil and depletion of fertility.The Spanish barely exploited the region,barely penetrated it. Americans in little more than a century, allowed their livestock to overgraze, saw the grasslands deteriorate, streams go dry, banks give way to savage channel cutting (4). The same degradation occurred on the Great Plains (DiPeso, 1971; Fireman, 1971; Hastings and Turner, 1965 *; Polzer, 1971; Webb, 1936 *). This has been the fate of many deserts and steppes in Asia, Africa, South and North America (Sherbrooke and Paylore, 1973 *).In the western United States this story of Anglo occupation, energy extraction, and subsequent degradation of the terrain has happened in the recent past.It is the barren

(4)It is possible to argue (Hastings and Turner, 1965 *) that climatic change was as responsible as grazing for this decline of the grazing potential. Over- grazing makes man the cause, climate the victim.But either or both causes (and others suggested) merely underline the hazards of arid lands where water resources are minimal. -17-

fruit of an idea - wasteland. Where barbarism was the justification for any manner of exploitation or extermination to a 19th century imperialist, the idea of a wasteland (or a "howling wilderness" or "dismal swamp" or "badland" or "God- forsaken desert ") has rationalized any action undertaken by American society against the land (5).

During part of the 19th century, land west of the 100th meridian was cursed as the Great American Desert fit only for Indians and Mormons.It was a wasteland because it could not be exploited.Then came mining, ranching, irrigation, dryland farming, tourism, retirement communities.Success- ive waves of dreams wore down the land in their search for fulfillment. Now energy beckons more into the arid lands.

At one time it was believed that tree planting brought rainfall, and so trees were planted in the West. Another notion which gained currency was that dryland farming was superbly suited to arid lands because it generated rain clouds (Smith, 1950 *).But the plains, their sod broken by the plow, brought only a dust bowl.For most of this century irrigation has been seen as the magic method to make the West a garden spot (Kollmorgen, 1969).These past efforts in agriculture were systems of energy extraction in arid lands.

Much of the West has answered the cattle industry with erosion and the

(5) The continent is strewn with examples of this belief. A recent expression of this attitude is the following statement by then Governor John Vanderhoof of Colorado, speaking of the oil shale lands of the Piceance Basin:

" ... As my wife says, what difference does it make if they move that God -forsaken earth around? It couldn't look any worse. " -Wall Street Journal, October 24, 1974.

To the extent that language is an emblem of a culture's ideas, American English is rich with notions about land. A person finds land that is "profitless" and attempts to turn it to "account." It is the custom of the American people to consider land not exploited by human beings as vacant (ergo, the typical pioneer refrain that before settlement "there was nothing here." Sometimes this claim is followed by a list of negative features of the terrain, flora, and fauna such as "except rattlesnakes, or cactus, or Indians, or lizards, " etc.) Perhaps the greatest charge that can be leveled by an American against a patch of earth is to find it "worthless" or "good for nothing" or, as the Governor notes, "God- forsaken. "It would be interesting to compare this language with Indian vo- cabularies about land. -18-

replacement of grass with less desirable vegetation.Dryland farming has been confronted by drought, wind -borne dust, and ruined crops. The policy of federally- backed irrigation projects marking the twentieth century has harvested crops and produced saline soils and silting, plugged rivers with dams that collect sediment and evaporate precious water, and encouraged the migration of some crops from the Southeast to the Southwest (Berkman and Viscusi, 1973).

Energy extraction now being discussed and argued must be seen as part of the same experience, sharing both the past's problems and its promise. Three hopes recur in this new projection: irrigation is defended as offering food to a starving planet; vast water importation schemes are boosted as solutions to water -shortage problems; and modern planning is pushed as an answer to the boom -bust syndrome of past migrations into the arid lands.

There are huge aquifers under the Sahara which could be pumped to the surface for food production (Ambroggi, 1966). Massive surveys are suggested to plot the availability of water in relation to farmland in arid regions (Simons, 1967).The Ganges Plain could be made an Asian San Joaquin Valley given certain conditions. And the conditions are simply fossil energy: fertilizer to enrich the fields, petroleum to run the pumps, gasoline to power equipment (Op. cit. ).These hopes collide with the stony facts of shrinking reserves of fossil fuels, and with the large energy consumption of modern American -type agriculture. Should the rest of planet's people emulate the farmers of the United States, eighty percent of the world's energy expenditure per year would go toward growing food (Steinhart and Steinhart, 1974 *).The irrigated agriculture typical of arid lands is the most energy -intensive method of all.

Water importation is also presented as a way to deliver the essential ingredient for extracting energy from dry regions.But the wisdom of such shifts of water is beginning to be doubted. A recent comparison of Australian and American interbasin transfers finds the benefits of such projects questionable (Loeffler, 1970). Whatever the doubts, potential worldwide food shortages force such proposals into consideration (Thomas and Box, 1969). Master plans such as the North American Water and Power Alliance are now being discussed. The NAWPA would take water from Canada to Texas and Mexico (Poll, 1969). Like increasing irrigated agriculture, such augmentations of supply have real merit only if consumption is stabilized. A plethora of studies seeks methods to escape unforeseen growth and consequences through planning (Awady, 1968; Bassler, 1968; Bender, 1969; Cloudsley- Thompson, 1970; Dick -Peddie, 1969 *; Garnsey, 1969; Gates, 1969 *; Lewis, Jr., 1969*; Madsen, et al., 1973 *; Max- Neef, 1971; Quinn, 1971; Vickers, 1969 *; Weiler, 1969 *; Wilson, 1969 *).

The arid lands were beset by problems of water shortage and environmental degradation long before the current interest in them as a source of fossil -19-

fuels and as sites for various generation facilities.The impact of this type of energy exploitation is a sudden intruder amongthe factors which have bewildered humans in their efforts to turn such regions "to account ". Whether arid lands should be exploited for energy is a question not to be answered by this paper. What will be explored is simply the cost to land, air, water, and inhabitantsif such regions become major energy sources for the rest of the planet. II. WATER NEEDS OF VARIOUS ENERGY SYSTEMS

Human beings do not produce energy. Nor do plants. Or fish. Or insects. Or any known form of life.Life means converting one form of energy to another.It means consuming energy. This conversion process is accompanied by a degradation of energy and by the formation of by- products (heat, solid waste, etc. ). By an accident of language, produce is a word that falls all too easily into an English sentence.It is said that the Atomic Energy Commission produces nuclear power, the Bureau of Reclamation produces hydroelectric power, Peabody Coal Company produces coal, Exxon produces oil, Project Indepen- dence will produce more energy. This is not so. All these organizations harvest energy, energy launched into being at some distant creation of the universe, energy steadily and inevitably dissipating.In the case of the universe, the exhaustion of energy will not come for at least 100 billion years (Scientific American, 1971 *) and so humans can ignore this destiny.But in the case of conventional fossil fuels, the pace is faster, measurable even, and some will become scarce in less than a man's three -score- and -ten (Seale and Sierka, eds., 1973 *).

Since the year 1700, the power output of energy conversion devices has increased about 10,000 times (Scientific American, 1971 *). A simple example is in order: In 1918 this nation held a horse and mule population of 25 million. It required one -fourth of the harvested crop acreage that year to fuel these conversion devices. When these four -footed units were replaced by devices fed with fossil fuels - tractors - American society changed to a higher level of energy consumption (Op. cit.).Between 1971 and the year 2000, the people of the United States will devour more energy than the entire sum of their previous history of consumption. In maintaining this level of consumption, they will deplete much of the planet's reserves and be obliged to depend on older technologies. In short, they will continue to focus on non -renewable sources of energy, use large amounts of water, and try to survive until the day when fusion or direct solar conversion or the breeder reactor will liberate them from coal, gas, and oil (Op. cit.). -21-

This is the energy crisis.This is the reason for the sudden interest in the energy resources of arid lands. Because the time period is so short - fifty or one hundred years - humans so water -dependent on energy conversion systems in the past, will doubtless remain so in the future.The water needs of various energy resources and the water consequences of extracting these resources vary.The only constant is that water is at a premium in arid lands.

1.Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas A stone. A liquid. A gas. Left in the earth, the three alter water in a minimal way. Sometimes in the American west, coal seams break to the surface and become limited polluters of runoff.Petroleum occasionally can be seen in seeps: Prudhoe Bay, the Canadian tar sands, the La Brea pits.Natural gas is clean, and increasingly scarce. Coal has the greatest capacity for altering the amount and quality of water in arid lands, especially in the American west, because it is often mined and combusted on site. There are four points of possible influence: in the mining, especially strip mining; in the reclamation of mined land; in the conversion of coal to electricity or gas; and in the population influx essential for achieving the first three. Of the world's coal reserves, a goodly amount (more than 77 percent of the United States' strippable reserves ) lies in the American west (Hiatt, 1974) (Figure 5). Arizona has a small deposit at Black Mesa, and neighboring New Mexico and Colorado hold 200 billion tons at depths up to 4, 500 feet (Fassett and Hinds, 1971; Shoemaker, Beaumont, and Kottlowski, eds., 1971). Seven Wyoming sites hold 23 billion tons strippable (Smith et al, 1972). The Fort Union formation of Montana, Wyoming, and the Dakotas weighs in at 35 billion tons strippable, nearly a trillion tons total reserve (Barnes, 1973; Pollard et al, 1972).This treasure trove occupies about 250,000 square miles of the four states (Josephy, Jr. ,1973).(6) The initial water problem is simple: often the coal beds are the area's aquifer (Op. cit. ; McCaull, 1974 ). Remove the aquifer where the usable water now collects and it is an open

(6) All coal deposit estimates are of limited accuracy because many tracts have been only partially surveyed.The National Academy of Sciences (1974) notes that recent surveys have often vastly increased a tract's estimated reserve. -22-

Figure 5

COAL FIELDS IN WINB MEMBER STATES

LEGEND

;;;;;,,,, /,,,,,,. ,,,.,,,,,.Bituminous Coal

Sub -bituminous Coal

. : Lignite Coal Source: Lawrence E. Wilkinson, Energy Resource Development in the West. Western Interstate Nuclear Board (WINB), Lakewood, Colorado. January 1974.p. 26. -23-

question what will happen to the springs and wells that sustain local ranchers and farmers (Vanvoast, 1973). Since the coal will in most instances be stripped, and since strip mining extracts more than 90 percent of the coal seam (Hiatt, 1974), clearly the present aquifer will be expropriated.

Strip mining is not a complicated affair.The coal seam is usually at least five feet thick, and is covered by no more than 120 feet of earth (Smith et al, 1972).The earth which hitherto has sustained photosynthsis for millennia is now called overburden.Colossal draglines remove the overburden - the renowned Gem of Egypt which toils in Ohio has an electrical power requirement equal to a town of 12,000 (Hiatt, 1974). Then the coal is scooped out by power shovels.In the past, several different options could be exercised at this point.One was to do nothing. A second was to fill in the hole, and then contour the fill to fit surrounding terrain. Also, through planning and effort, the filled and contoured mine could be replanted with seed and thus reclaimed, meaning restored to its original condition, subject to the wear and tear of the mining operation. The wear -and -tear proviso took note of the fact that a large strata of the land had been mined, shipped and combusted and hence the land could never quite be the same as before mining.Until quite recently, little or nothing was done to reclaim stripped terrain. Reclamation successes were few. As of 1971, about 1. 8 million American acres had been disturbed by strip mining.In total, 56,000 had been reclaimed. The Department of the Interior estimates projected about 5 million acres to be disturbed by 1980, an area roughly the size of New Jersey (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d session, 1972b). As Edwin Phelps, the head of Peabody Coal, has testified (7), "We have made mistakes ... " (Op. cit. )

(7) There is some question as to who will pay for past mistakes in the mining of coal (both stripped and deep mined ).The following exchange came from the Senate's Surface and Mining Hearings of 1971 (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d session, 1972b): Senator Frank E. Moss (Utah): One final thing I did want to ask was about these orphan spoil banks which exist in many places. Whose responsibility is it and how are we going to deal with them rather than just deal with the prospective return to surface mines?

Edwin Phelps:I could at least state an opinion on this.I would suggest a comparison with the urban development programs in the cities. When the buildings become decrepit, the Government acquires At first glance, reclamation of strip -mined land appears a problem capable of being overcome by cooperation between government and industry (Morton, 1972; Munn, 1973; Peluso, 1973). Pessimists stake out a position best expressed by the titles of their protests: "Hello Energy - Goodbye Big Sky" (Anonymous, 1971); "The Rape of Black Mesa" (Brown, 1970); "Cheap Coal and Hollow Promises" (Greenburg, 1973); "The Agony of the Northern Plains" (Josephy, Jr. ,1973). Past reclamation failures in the East are one factor in feeding critics' doubts. They ask if the coal companies will spend the necessary money to reclaim the land. (8)No one knows

(7) con't.

and removes them.In the early days of mining, the mines were kept in operation selling coal as cheap as possible.Following the urban development comparison, it would be for the public's benefit to reclaim orphaned land and it would not be out of line to expect some type of public participation in returning it. Senator Moss: Well, I thank you for that response and for your appearance. Carl E. Bagge, President of the National Coal Association, had some thoughts on the same question at the same Hearing:

President Bagge: They [the Administration] have acknowledged the fact that the public benefits which accrued from the mining of these so- called pre -law lands make them a responsibility of the bodypolitic. The American public benefited from cheap power. Electric rates were cheaper because such social obligations as landreclamation were not required as part of the mining methods in that period.I think the Interior initiative reflects a recognition that, since the American public benefited in a period of time when we were not environmentally sensitive, the adverse environmental results are a public responsibility. (8) "The following article estimates that during the years 1970 -2000 human and environmental costs - what might be called social costs - will total $0. 8727 per ton for deep -mined and $1.0028 per ton for surface -mined coal. No charges for damage to miners or environment prior to 1970 are included. If these costs had been added to the average selling price of coal in 1972, the price of deep -mined coal would have gone up to $10.57 per ton (an increase of 9 percent) and surface -mined coal would have cost the consumer $6.65per -25-

exactly how much money is required. Federal agencies vary in their estimates, and actual expenditures on reclamation range from $500 to $15,000 per acre, efforts that have been made in the more humid, more easily reclaimed eastern fields (Dials and Moore, 1974). Great Britain and West Germany, having less land to waste, spend an average of $4,000 to $6, 000 per acre (Op. cit. ; Greenburg, 1973). Whatever the successes and costs in the East and in Europe, the question asked by critics is: Can land stripped in arid regions be reclaimed, and if so, with what degree of difficulty and expense? The Big Horn Coal Company of Sheridan, Wyoming, has announced a triumph through use of fertilizer and irrigation (Rulli, 1971).The Company's high plateau tract is now considered adequate for grazing (Oberwager, 1973). Dr. Ronald Hill of the Water Quality Office, Environmental Protection Agency, believes that strip -mined land in the West can be reclaimed at a reasonable cost (Science News, 1971).Thus while reclamation efforts to date have used water and fertilizer to produce a microclimate unlike that of the surrounding terrain, and plants placed in this microclimate have thrived, they are too recent to demonstrate their capacity to survive untended by man.

The National Academy of Sciences' study (1974) concluded that given a major and unprecedented effort, much of the western coal lands couldbe reclaimed. The cutting edge for success was seen as a rainfall of at least ten inches per year. "The potential for rehabilitating any surface -mined area in the West," the study warned, "is critically site specific."This emphasis on rainfall, and this caution about sites varying in reclamation potential mean that the National Academy of Sciences is dubious that fertilizer and a sprinkling system are sufficient to guarantee revegetationand stabilization of strip -mined land. Deserts, the study argues, are pretty much hopeless.The sagebrush foothills are a long shot.Only in sites of pine and mountain brush, and in the grasslands, are the odds worth the risk.Critics such as Dr. Robert R. Curry of the University of Montana consider even this sobering estimate as wildly optimistic.Curry argues that total rainfall is not as important as the timing of the rainfall; he views soil as the product of decades, centuries, sometimes millennia, and not as something that can be whipped up like a cake from bags of chemicals and manure (Op. cit. ; U.S.

(8) con't. ton (an increase of nearly 18 percent). With recent skyrocketing coal prices, the addition of social costs would be less in percentage terms " (Dials and Moore, 1974 ).Presumably, there is some point where reclamation costs will raise the price of coal to such an extent that coal sales will fall; it is at this point, where cost makes coal a less desirable fuel, that coal companies will likely become highly reluctant to spend money on reclamation. -96-

Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1973b*).(9) One is left with varying possibilities. Western coal lands will be restored, or some western coal lands will be restored and some, in areas with low rainfall, will not, or, taking Dr. Curry's positionwestern coal lands can only be restored if one realizes that soil development is the work of at least decades (when it is possible at all).All positions grant that the arid West will prove more difficult than the East to reclaim. And if the land if not reclaimed, mine spoils will pollute runoff, barren tracts will erode, and areas so exploited will, in the words of the National Academy of Sciences, be National Sacrifice Areas. On the basis of present evidence, it is difficultto determine what parts if any of the western coal lands can be reclaimed, and what degree of usefulness the lands judged reclaimed will have.The answer to these questions is important for both the quality and quantity of western water.

Once mined, the coal is converted to more usable energy, and this step also leaves its mark on the available water supply.Mainly, the coal is burned to fire electric powerplants, or it is processed into gas. Both conversions require large amounts of water.Coal -fired electric powerplants convert coal to heat which converts water to steam which in turn spins turbines and results in the ultimate conversion, electricity.If in the year 2000 all new electric plants (including nuclear) use once- through fresh water cooling, they will require 40 -60 percent of the yearly runoff in the United States (Oregon State University, Corvallis, Water Resources Research Institute, 1971 *).The Federal Power Commission estimates 1990 powerplant cooling requirements at one -sixth the flow of all the rivers in the United States (Seale and Sierka, eds.,1973 *).The Sports Fishing Institute estimates that during the two -thirds of the year when water flow is low, electric powerplant cooling needs could require one -half the total fresh water runoff (Op. cit.).

(9) For example, Curry's testimony before the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, March 15, 1973: Curry: ... What these data mean, in effect, is that the ground surface, once disturbed in the West, cannot recover to its present state of succession or subclimax vegetation without extremely long periods of geologic time - many times longer than we might expect man to inhabit the Earth.

Senator Metcalf:...Do you mean... itwill take longer than we expect man to inhabit the Earth?

Curry:I am a geologist and I look at man as a very temporary species on Earth. -27-

Besides using water, powerplants heat it (Lof and Ward, 1970). A 1000 Mw plant, by no means unusually large in future plans, operating at a 40 percent efficiency (a level 5 -10 percent above most current coal -fired facilities) would warm 30, 000, 000 gallons of water per hour 15° F (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).This is thermal pollution.Water so heated if immediately returned to a river or stream can radically alter aquatic life or kill it (Parker and Krenel, 1969 *).

Various methods can diminish this voracious appetite for water. Western plants now on -line generally use cooling ponds, or wet cooling towers, and recycle the water.After being heated to steam and after having imparted its energy to the turbines, water is condensed back into water and put in a large pond to cool.Having cooled, it is reused. Ponds vary from 1, 000 to 3, 000 acres, depending on plant size.Evaporation plagues water cooling systems. A 5000 Mw plant, such as one now planned for the Kaiparowits plateau in Utah, could suffer evaporation losses up to 35, 000 gallons per minute (Oregon State University, Corvallis, Water Re- sources Research Institute, 1971 *).

Since the cooling water is heavily polluted in its odyssey from pond to boiler to pond, it can never be returned to the watershed but must be completely used up through recycling. A 1000 Mw plant using a cooling pond will consume ten to thirty thousand acre feet of water per year (Shirazi, 1972; U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d Session, 1972c). By removing water from the streams and river in arid lands, such plants not only diminish the supply for other uses but also increase salinity by reducing the amount of water availabledownstream for diluting the salt (Op. Cit. ).Stack emissions can alter water quality.Sul- phur in the burned coal can become sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, and raise the acidity of rainfall (a possible boon for the alkaline soils of the West). Already in the eastern United States rains have fallen to earth with the acidity of a lemon (Likens and Bormann, 1974). The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare estimates sulphur control through pollution abatement equipment could cost 2.5 billion dollars nationwide (Business Week, 1971).In addition, the plants generate an enormous amount of waste in the form of flyash; 10 -20 percent of western coal is ash.If emitted via stacks, this ash pollutes the air; if trapped by pollution devices, it presents a large - scale disposal problem at the plant site (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d Session, 1972e).(10)

(10) Helen Cannon, a geologist with the USGS, recently completed a study which indicated that fly ash emissions from the Four Corners powerplant -28-

Several ways have been suggested to cut the water consumption of powerplants. A spray system in the cooling ponds might reduce summer evaporation as much as 20 percent (Bregman, 1971; Scofield, 1971). In some arid regions of higher and cooler altitude, the warm effluent from powerplants could be utilized in warm -water irrigation (Carter, 1969). A major hope is that dry cooling towers will replace the current wet towers and ponds (Cecil et al, 1972; Leung and Moore, 1971; May and Kube, 1973; Rogers, 1972; Shirazi, 1972).Such air cooled systems cost more to operate and thus have been little used; the United States has only two on- line.The Atomic Energy Commission is presently constructing a pilot plant in Wyoming (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1973a *).

The conversion of coal to gas (gasification) mirrors many of the features inherent in converting coal to electricity.Both enterprises require a strip mine (or underground mine) for fuel, both use large amounts of water to alter the coal to a more usable form, and both methods have the ability to pollute the land, air, and water (Commerce Business Daily, 1972). A

(10) cont'd. are beneficial to the region's plant life.The fly ash, she concluded, provides minerals normally absent in the nutrient -deficient soil ( "Fly Ash Effect Praised."-Associated Press, November 20, 1974).

The Four Corners powerplant has been widely criticized for its lack of environmental planning, and the suggested virtues of fly ash pollution do not answer such criticism.This useful addition to soil chemistry is a happenstance.As Mrs. Cannon notes,"I think Four Corners was once the dirtiest powerplantin the United States.But now the plant has installed millions of dollars worth of anti -pollution equipment and is doing a much better job. "Thus, whatever the unexpected benefits of fly ash emissions, the powerplant management is spending millions to reduce these emissions and presumably the benefits.Also, there is no evidence that fly ash is a useful addition to human lungs.

Mrs. Cannon's study illustrates the point that any change in an environment aids some forms of life and hinders others.Debate over the Four Corners plant has centered on the fact that the facility's environmental effects were hardly planned or predicted, and to this date, are largely unknown. Subsequent plants in the region have been forced to meet a much more rigorous environmental criterion. -29-

gasification plant with an output of 250 million cubic feet of pipeline gas per day will use anywhere from 7500 acre feet (Rensch, 1974) to 10, 000 or 15,000 acre feet (Josephy, Jr. ,1973; U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials and Fuels, 92d Congress, 1st session, 1972a).El Paso Natural Gas Company is constructing a facility south of Farmington, New Mexico, which will totally consume 10,000 acre feet per year (Op. cit.).

An additional feature of this new exploitation of western coal is the number of workers it brings to sparsely settled areas. Up to 3000 men have been employed in building the Jim Bridger powerplant near Rock Springs, Wyoming. El Paso's gasification works in New Mexico will set thousands to work in an area presently occupied by Navajos and their sheep (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1974).Such population growth will end the sense of isolation and space characteristic of many areas of the West, and will result in oases - energy cities such as Farmington, New Mexico, Rock Springs and Gillette, Wyoming, and many others scattered about the coal fields and oil shale deposits. Coal gasification has been hailed as the "Fuel of the Future" (Linden, 1974; Mills, 1971).Actually, it is the fuel of the past.Until cheap oil and natural gas drove it out at the end of World War II, coal gas was a common energy source for urban electric power companies. For the last two or three decades, it has hung on in places such as Turkey, India, South Africa, Scotland, Morocco, Yugoslavia, and Korea. However, in a study by Dr. C.Y. Wen (1972) for the U.S. Office of Coal Research one gets a glimpse of future gasification features that set it apart from past endeavors. Dr. Wen sketched the needs of a plant producing 250 million cubic feet of pipeline gas per day (El Paso for example has hopes of pushing output to 750 million cubic feet per day at its Farmington facility) .Such a capacity would require 21, 600 tons of coal daily, or 7. 5 million tons per year.Each day the plant would gulp 2. 8 million gallons of non -recoverable water, and 21 million gallons of reusable water for its cooling system. During this typical twenty -four hour span, the works would emit 450 tons of pure sulphur, 2000 tons of ash, 13, 900 tons of carbon dioxide. Wen noted that one such plant would consume 25 percent more coal daily than was then being produced by the largest mine in the United States. Such emissions and such thirst are something new for the arid West.

Coal, whether in the mining or the combusting, has consequences for water (Clark, 1973). Ripping it from the ground can alter aquifers and drainage systems; revegetating tracts can require some limited irrigation; and failure to reclaim mined ground can contribute to erosion -30-

and the resultant higher sediment load in streams. In a mine /mouth powerplant, other aspects come to the fore.The plants pollute the air, and eventually the matter tossed into the atmosphere falls to earth somewhere in the watershed. Dispersal by tall stacks is not equivalent to disappearance.If the emissions are cleansed by various anti -pollution devices, one has simply transferred the disposal problem from somewhere in the sky to a specific spot of earth, the plant site.It can be argued that the various tonnages of sulphur and fly ash are negligible in comparison to a watershed. The question then arises: how many negligible factors does it take to add up to a problem? The water drained off by powerplants for cooling systems broaches the same issue. A plant taking say 10, 000 or 20, 000 acre feet off the Colorado River watershed with its 10 to 15 million acre feet appears next to nothing as a factor.But such plants add up to an impressive sum of hundreds of thousands of acre feet. And the river being leached is already heavily exploited and carries a high salt load. Such are the questions that arise when coal exploitation takes place in arid regions.There is no doubt that such plants extract energy for a hungry market. Nor is there any question that they produce jobs and increase local population.Their water appetites are known, their pollution effects guessed at.What remains to be discovered is the consequence of these factors on the water, land, air, and inhabitants of arid lands.

2.Oil Shale

The Shoshoni pitched chunks of it on their campfires.Early settlers seized upon it as fireplace stone; the fireplaces became fires (Sumner and Johnson, 1974 *).Oil shale has long tempted man. Rich deposits occur in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado.It is estimated the region's strata could yield 550 billion barrels of syncrude oil, and this is only one -fiftieth of the reserve imbedded in the rock (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *; Sumner, 1973).Like the oil deposits of Alaska's North Slope which Eskimos periodically exploited to light their lamps in the Arctic night, and the coal of northern A rizona which Hopis mined for centuries of pot making (Colton, 1936 *), the oil shale deposits of the West have been known for some time, and for some time have been left in the earth where ancient conditions laid them down. The reason has been price.To exploit the shale riches, the rock must be mined, crushed, retorted, and the syncrude refined.This is expensive.The recent energy shortages and the stimulus to oil prices applied by the Arab nations have made the bother of convering oil shale to oil seem profitable (World Petroleum, 1972).In early 1974 federal leases were let on some of the deposits, and to the tune of hundreds of millions of dollars consortiums of major oil companies plunged into the oil shale busi- -31-

ness. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (1974) estimates the cost of forging a million barrel -per -day industry by 1983 at 6 billion dollars ($3.5 billion if in situ technology should prove feasible). The rock responsible for all this ardor runs in strata up to 100 feet thick throughout the three western states.It holds the residue of plant and animal life in the Eocene Tropics.This fossil grave underwent much of the geologic history typical of petroleum, except for the last phase. For oil shale was never subjected to the intense heat which normally liberates oil from rock to form liquid deposits.Instead the oil (kerogen) remains imprisoned in the strata, a rubbery hydrocarbon running up to 80 gallons per ton of shale (Sumner, 1973).This potential energy source lies in sparsely inhabited arid terrain.Once again water is the treacherous element essential to its exploitation. An oil shale industry requires water at several points: to mine it, to retort it, to revegetate the spent shale, and to slake the thirst of the humans hired to work it.Rough estimates see the need for two or three barrels of water for every barrel of oil extracted (Metz, 1974).There is uncertainty about just how much water will be needed to keep the spoils from blowing away and to persuade plants to growth them. The National Petroleum Council's Oil Shale Task Group pegged water needs at 16, 000 acre feet per annum for each 100, 000 barrels per day of capacity; this is just for mining, retorting, and upgrading through refining (National Petroleum Council, Committee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972).Estimates made in the late fifties were also high (Colorado Water Conservation Board, 1959).

The major water problem lies with the spent shale.After shale is mined, ground up and retorted, what is left is, in the words of critics, "sterile and rather like granular fireplace soot in consistency and color" (Sumner and Johnson, 1974 *).This soot cannot be returned to the mine; its volume has expanded at least 15 percent in processing (Op. cit. ).The Oil Shale Task Group of the National Petroleum Council concluded that a plant producing 100, 000 barrels per day of shale oil (merely a pilot facility) would each day have to dispose of residue sufficient to cover 40 acres to a depth of 1 foot (National Petroleum Council, Committee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972).The head of Atlantic Richfield has suggested that "some of it [spent shale] can be used to fill up a few of the canyons and valleys of the rather desolate parts of Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming in which oil shale is found" (U.S. News and World Report, May 10, 1971, quoted in Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).The Task Group thought of depositing the waste in nearby "topographical depressions" (National Petroleum Council, Committee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972). One scholar has taken these plans to heart; -32-

he figures at a production level of 1,000,000 barrels per day the oil consortiums can fill a box canyon 1 mile long, and 1000 feet by 300 feet, every thirty-two days (Weaver, 1971).

Whatever the amount of spent shale eventually accumulated, it poses some problems. Some scientists believe it contains substances that cause cancer (Environment, 1974 *).The desolate canyons mentioned by the head of Atlantic -Richfield are part of the watershed of the Colorado River, a river already heavily mineralized.Thus, it seems likely that something will have to be done to prevent the wastes from blowing away or being carried by runoff.Then there is the question of salinity.The shale strata contain saline aquifers which mining may breach; thereafter, the aquifers might contribute their salty waters to the Colorado. The use of water by the shale industry will deplete flow in the river, thus lowering the amount of water downstream available for diluting the salt content.The spent shale itself is full of salt, and much research focuses on its pollution potential (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, 1971; Veldre, 1969; Ward and Reinecke, 1972).The salinity increase behind Hoover Dam could be as low as 1.5 percent or as high as 40 percent (Metz, 1974). Revegetating and stabilizing the spent shale will also require water.

A final water user will be the humans who work the shale. A 1959 estimate predicted that a capacity of 1,250,000 barrels per day would bring 340, 000 people to the shale lands (Colorado Water Conservation Board, 1959). Recently the AEC has concluded that a million barrel per day facility nets a population growth of 115, 000 (U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1974). At present the shale lands are all but devoid of humans.

Thus, oil shale is a potential energy windfall with several challenges (Chemical and Engineering News, 1973; Hillhouse, 1968).It will take billions of dollars to exploit it.It exists in a region where water is scarce, but it requires large amounts of water for mining, retorting, and revegetating wastes.It has the capacity to poison a major watershed.Its extraction will inundate a sparsely settled, parched region with thousands of humans.

3.Solar Energy and Its Variants Humans and their livestock have already cornered more of the solar energy converted by plants than any other species. Now they want still more. On the photosynthetic level, enormous collectors are being bull- dozed in the deserts and jungles of the world.Wild vegetation is giving way to cropland and pasture.Man's herds, each animal a mobile collector, -33-

continue to expand.In additional to this agricultural growth, the diminishing supply of fossil fuels (solar energy collected in the past) is stimulating efforts to discover new ways of collecting sun power.

Several possibilities are: wind tides, ocean thermal gradients, wood, manure, hydropower, and direct or indirect solar conversion. As recently as 1970, the United States budget for energy research ran 70 percent nuclear, 10 percent gas and oil, 4 percent coal, and 0 percent solar (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).Changes in supply and price for other energy sources have rekindled interest in the sun. The potential energy available from most solar sources is limited at present. Wood, while renewable, is restricted in amount, fairly fixed in its rate of replication, and a pollutant when combusted. Methane conversion from manure is experimental, and still small in scale.Also, much of this resource is scattered about the planet and expensive to collect. There is much debate as to whether the harvest of plant and animal protein has peaked, a question which much of the earth's population will resolve in the next few decades. Wind power is touted by some, but is still confined to limited experiments and tied to a multitude of windmills as collectors (Anderson, R.J., 1972; Hewson et al, 1973 *; Khanna, 1965).

Candidates most seriously considered are tidal, ocean gradients, hydropower, and direct solar conversion. Americans have been exploiting the tides since 1734 when a Massachusetts installation harnessed 50 horse- power from the waves to grind spices (National Petroleum Council, Com- mittee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972). Some arid regions, such as land bordering the Gulf of California, are washed by large tides.But the power extracted from such sources is limited and erratic (Op. cit. ; Seale and Sierka, eds., 1973*).Thus, tidal power while hardly a water user, has slight application for arid lands in particular or the planet in general. Utilizing the temperature differences in ocean gradients (such as the Gulf Stream) is at present speculative, but whatever its eventual energy contribution, the water resources of arid lands will not be taxed (Lavi and Zener, 1973; Metz, 1973).One solar lake (a body of water with sharply defined thermal gradients, essentially a storage tank for sunlight) has been found near the Red Sea, and presents a possible energy source for an arid land (Neumann, 1968).

Hydroelectric dams and direct solar conversion get more attention from energy planners, the first because the technology necessary is known, the second because the amount of energy available seems to human appetites endless, and free of pollutants.Each conversion system has its pitfalls. -34-

Most of the good American damsites are gone, and it is an open question if the resources exist to develop those remaining world wide (National Petroleum Council, Committee on U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972; Seale and Sierka, 1973 *).However, they continue to be proposed around the planet: the recently completed Aswan Dam, the Snowy Mountains water and power plant in Australia, a comparable projected Soviet -planned dam on the Euphrates in Syria, and the recurring campaigns to plug various parts of Grand Canyon (Berkman and Viscusi, 1973; Hudson, 1971; Sterling, 1971; Whetstone, 1970).In arid lands, such dams trap water thereby making electrical conversion and a steady water supply for agriculture possible. Also, falling water has a very high efficiency rate in converting to electrical power.

But the dams have not been an unmixed blessing (Lagler, 1969). For example, the Aswan Dam is choking the life out of the Nile.It denies downstream farmers the fertile silt for their fields and at the same time backfills itself at an alarming rate. By preventing floods, it prevents salt from being flushed from the cropland.Irrigation canals have raised the incidence of Bilharziasis disease in some areas from 0 percent to 80 percent.The delta, formerly protected by the river's outpouring, is now being eaten away. Evaporation behind the dam has been larger than anticipated (Nielsen, 1973; Sterling, 1971; Van der Schalie, 1974 *).Variants of these problems have dogged the efforts of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Berkman and Viscusi, 1973; Lagler, 1969). As the world's energy appetite increases, hydropower's share of the output will decline since expansion of the number of dams will occur at a slackened pace. Whatever the merits of the dams, their contributions have probably peaked as a factor in arid or any other societies.

Direct conversion of the sun's energy means that humans invent devicesassubstitutes for waterfalls, wind, tides, ocean gradients, plants, goats or other livestock. One proposal is to launch a satellite which would collect solar energy in space, convert it to microwaves and beam the harvest to a receiving antenna on earth. Should the beam accidentally shift off the receiver, there is some question as to the fate of those under the concentrated energy (Glaser and Little, 1972; Meinel and Meinel, 1971). Or solar energy could be collected on a house -to -house basis by roofs covered with cells or other apparatus to gather the sunshine. A solar water heater is as simple as painting a barrel black and putting it in the sunlight.There are many such small scale proposals (Altman, 1971; Glaser, Burke, and Little, 1973; Hay, 1971; Redfield, ed. ,1973).These ideas share several possible weaknesses: they would necessitate the modi- -35-

fication of hundreds of thousands of structures in each nation; they would render obsolete billions of dollars invested in pipelines, boilers, highlines and the other paraphernalia of fossil fuel exploitation.

A proposal which avoids some of these problems is to build central solar collectors, store the energy in liquid sodium, use it to convert water to steam in a conventional powerplant, and distribute the power through the existing transmission systems (Engineering News -Record, 1971; Meinel and Meinel, 1973; University of Arizona, Tucson, Optical Sciences, Center, 1972).This plan has been pushed most vigorously by the Meinels of Arizona. They envision a five -thousand square -mile solar energy farm in the Mojave Desert. Water would be provided by pipeline from either the Pacific Ocean or the Gulf of California.The system would interface with conventional steam turbine equipment. As a side benefit, sea water would be desalinized (Meinel and Meinel, 1971).

Several factors have impeded development of solar energy to date. One has been cost:it is still cheaper to mine sunshine several hundred million years old than to collect it cascading to earth today.Solar power is erratic, too, meaning nightfall; and unevenly distributed, meaning some places are sunnier than others (National Petroleum Council, Committee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972).Conventional technology as its consequences pervade our lives today threatens to darken the skies with filth, thereby limiting the solar resource (Swartman, 1972). But the abundance of solar energy, the growing sense of an energy crisis, and the lingering belief that somehow sunshine is free, have conspired to unleash a torrent of essays on its potential (Anderson, J.H. , Jr. ,1972; Chemical and Engineering News, 1973a; Cherry, 1972; Cherry and Morse, 1972; Donovan et al, 1972; Halacy, Jr. ,1972, 1974 *; Hammond, 1971; Lof, Close, and Duffie, 1968; National Academy of Sciences, 1972; Shriner and Cohen, 1973; Stronberg, 1973; Szego, 1971). Solar energy in the near future means two things: small scale and arid lands.Scale is limited by money and knowledge - the Meinels see their massive energy farm as the work of a century. Arid lands are important because they have more sunshine. While most solar systems use little or no water, the one heavy consumer, the five -thousand square miles of collectors put forth by the Meinels, promises to desalt sea water.Obviously, solar energy is the optimum source for arid lands, and perhaps much of the planet. But large -scale collectors will take decades to construct and perfect, and small scale devices have little to recommend them to existing energy companies. -36-

Energy resources derived from the sun fall into several groups. Some, such as wind, tidal, ocean gradient, etc. , promise to be non- polluting and non -water consuming, but fail to offer large blocks of energy for consumption. Perhaps the quest for the one big source which will replace dwindling petroleum and coal stocks is both hopeless and foolish, and the various alternative energy systems should be assessed as multiple methods for satisfying human power needs. To date, however, the inability of the alternative sources to deliver massive amounts of energy continues to limit funding and, by extension, interest in them. Direct solar conversion offers output on a scale that makes it attractive to planners and investors, but its technology will likely be one of the next century rather than this one. What is left are coal and oil shale.They are abundant, and compatible with existing devices for converting and consuming energy. They also will not only cut into the water budget of arid lands but possibly pollute whatever water they do not consume.

4.Fission, Fusion and Geothermal

A chunk of uranium 235 weighing one pound contains the energy equivalent of millions of pounds of coal (Novick, 1969).That is why humans are interested in fission reactors.The world's supply of lithium has the potential energy when fed to a fusion reactor to meet the planet's 1968 power needs for 120 million years (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).That is why humans are interested in fusion reactors.The important difference between the two processes is that humans know how to do one today, and may not know how to do the other until the 21st century (11).Both reactors represent efforts to convert a weapons technology to peacetime uses.Pos- sibilities have been tantalizing, results mixed.

(11) Fusion, like many alternative sources of power, has its supporters. Drs. R.F. Post and F.L. Ribe (1974 *) have argued fusion is the ultimate answer to the energy crisis and an answer not too distant in the future. Their position is based on the following: ...Furthermore, 20 years of research specifically aimed at achieving controlled fusion, coupled with concomitant technological developments in that field, in "conventional "' nuclear reactors, and in space science, has given fusion power research a basis which we think is both sufficiently broad and advanced to safely assume that within a relatively few years all the elements necessary for the successful solution -37-

The fusion program has been stymied by the heat of the reaction which runs into tens of millions of degrees. Like the tale of the universal

(11) cont'd.

of the fusion power problem will be in hand - given a level of support commensurate with its importance.It is true that fusion power represents one of the most difficult, if not the most difficult, technical challenges of this century.

This prediction may well be true, but, on the basis of the American fission reactor program, one wonders if answers can be had simply by investing more dollars in research.In a recent publication of the American Associ- ation for the Advancement of Science (Hammond, Metz, and Maugh II, 1973 *) this assessment of fusion is given: ...No dramatic breakthroughs have occurred recently in fusion by magnetic confinement, and controlled fusion is still far from a certainty.However, many scientists think that scientific feasibility will be proved within the decade ... Others, however, note that, in contrast to the history of fission power, (less than three years elapsed between the idea of a fission chain reaction and the proof of scientific feasibility with a simple assembly of graphite braced in a wooden frame), almost 20 years have elapsed since the beginning of research to prove the feasibility of fusion.If the complexity of the feasibility experiments is any indication of the sophistication of a future fusion reactor, development of a commercial reactor may be as halting and tedious as has been progress toward providing the principle. Laser fusion faces even greater problems than fusion by magnetic confinement.

A further factor clouding any predictions of fusion's future is the uncertainty over how long it will take to translate feasibility of a fusion reactor into a commercial on -line reactor. More than three decades after Enrico Fermi's first fission reaction, nuclear power is still a minor part of the U.S. energy mix, and the safety and competiveness of the power plants is still hotly debated.It is doubtful, based on this experience, that fusion reactors will go on -line until the next century, and it may take decades for them to make a significant contribution to the power mix, assuming they prove feasible at all. -38-

solvent, the search is for something to contain the reaction.Fission reactors, already on -line, confront a different set of obstacles.High costs have made the power plants barely able (or not able,depending on the circumstances) to compete with fossil fuels, despite the Atomic Energy Commission's subsidy of the nuclear program (Metzger, 1972). The reactors have enormous cooling requirements, thus limiting siting choices. The public is afraid of the reactors, associating them with the bombs they sprang from. (12)Nuclear waste is an unusually toxic pollutant

(11) cont'd. Also, fusion like other systems will be limited by thermal pollution. Since they cast off heat, there will be a limit at some point to the number of such plants that the planet's climates and societies can tolerate.Thus, while it may prove the ultimate power source, it will not offer unlimited power. (12) For the year 1973, the AEC reported 861 "abnormal occurrences," of which two involved release of radioactive materials into the atmosphere. Of the 42 nuclear powerplants operating in the nation, all reported at least one "abnormal occurrence" defined by theAEC as "something other than an incident of normal operation." Two hundred ten involved the primary coolant system, a reactor's chief safety device. The AEC noted that "there is a recurrent expression of fear by some members of the public that some day, somehow, these nuclear power plants are going to have accidents of such severity thatthousands, if not millions, of people will be exposed to lethal levels of radiation. A reasonable response to this fear is that, while the possibility of such remote events cannot be ruled out, they are judged by the AEC to be hypothetical events of such low probability that they fall into the negligible -risk category ..."( "A -Plant Mishaps Placed at 861 ", -Associated Press, May 31, 1974).

An example of the fears voiced by some on nuclear energy is the following: "There is one chance in thirty -three that a nuclear power plant accident will do damage of $2 -3 billion during the 30 -year lifetime of the 1, 000 reactors expected to operate in the United States.This conclusion can be drawn from the report of a two -year $3 million studyconducted for the Atomic Energy Commission and directed by Norman Rasmussen of MIT, which was released by the AEC on August 21. Rasmussen's study found the probability of a fuel meltdown and subsequent release of radiation large enough to do $2 -3 billion damage to be one chance in a million in any plant -39-

and remains dangerous for a long period of time. Also, the fuel for the current generation of fission reactors is scarce, and its mining can be unhealthy for miners and polluting to the environment.Most of these aspects of the nuclear program apply with equal force to any part of the planet.However, two features of the fission power systems are intensified in arid lands. Much of the United States uranium supply is mined in the dry West. The large water needs of reactors, about 50 percent more than the equivalent coal -fired facility, are more significant in water -short regions (Lapp, 1971; O'Mara, 1971).(13)

Proponents of the fission program (and its ultimate phase, the breeder reactor which will feed on plutonium thus avoiding any possible uranium shortage) see it as the only likely source of power sufficient to meet projected needs in thenear and middle future (Hess, 1971; Spinrad, 1971 *; Thompson, 1971 *).Studies suggest that nuclear power is statistically safer than coal or oil (Lave and Freeburg, 1973 *).Critics take the same statistics and arrive at a different destination (Alfven, 1974 *; Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *; Metzger, 1972; Novick, 1969; Sagan, 1972).

Reduced to its most elementary level the argument goes something like this: An advocate states that the safety record for fission reactors is almost a thousand years of reactor time for every serious accident (Conconi, 1973 *; Seaborg and Commoner, 1971 *).A critic says that if there are 1000 reactors by 1990 (at one time the AEC projection)one would

(12) cont'd.

in any one year; this is the equivalent to one chance in 33 for 1, 000 reactors over 30 years.Casulaties were estimated to be negligible... on the assumption that evaluation procedures in downwind areas would be effective" (Environment, 1974 *). (13) A nuclear plant placed by the seashore escapes some of the water problems of such facilities in arid lands.Ingenious plans for such sitings have included desalinizing sea water as a byproduct of cooling the reactor, and using thermal heat from the reactor for warm water irrigation or greenhouses (Adar, 1971; Ballingand, 1971; Kamal, 1968, 1971; Ramey and Hammond, 1971).This multi -purpose goal can also be achieved with non -nuclear power plants (Hardway, 1970; Hodges and Hodge, 1969).Of course, such plants do nothing to alter radioactive hazards of nuclear power. -40-

have a dangerous accident every year (Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *).It is the nature of a serious nuclear accident which the critics stress. The breeder reactor, planned to be on -line in the eighties, will be fueled with plutonium. A speck of plutonium the size of a grain of pollen can cause lung cancer if inhaled.(14)It remains dangerous for up to 200, 000 years (Alfven, 1974 *; Holdren and Herrera, 1971 *; Kneese, 1973 *; Metzger, 1972; Novick, 1969).If plutonium leaked from a reactor the surrounding area might be retired from human occupance for decades, centuries or millennia.Breeders will put tons of the element into circulation as they are fueled and refueled.Thus, the land itself, arid or otherwise, is potentially threatened. Allen V. Kneese, in an essay entitled "The Faustian Bargain" (1973 *), has written: ...Sometimes, analogies are used to suggest that the burden placed upon future generations by the "immortal" wastes is really nothing so unusual.The pyramids are cited as an instance where a very long -term commitment was made to the future and the dikes of Holland as one where continuous monitoring and maintenance are required indefinitely.These examples do not seem at all apt...With sufficient effort the pyramids could have been dismantled and the Pharoahs cremated if a changed doctrine so demanded ... In the 1950's the Dutch dikes were in fact breached by the North Sea. Tragic property losses, but no destruction of human life ensued...

(14) Of the ten thousand Americans who have worked with plutonium, 200 i have accumulated a "body burden" of the metal in excess of what health authorities consider safe or prudent.The consequence of this exposure is still uncertain. Although twenty -five GIs were heavily dosed with plutonium at Los Alamos during World War II, as yet they have not revealed any signs of disease (Gillette, 1974 *).

Although it is known that many radioactive particles can be dangerous to humans, it remains unclear at what rate and in exactly in what manner they affect human health.Thus it is difficult to know immediately the consequences of exposure to radiation.For example, long -term exposure to low level radiation shortens the life span of animals. Why this happens is not known (Novick, 1969). -41-

None of these historical examples tell us much about the time scales pertinent here. One speaks of two hundred thousand years. Only a little more than one -hundredth of that time span has passed since the Parthenon was built. We know of no government whose life was more than an instant by comparison with the half life of plutonium.

Defenders of the current nuclear program scoff at these claims as exaggerated. David J. Rose, an MIT professor of nuclear engineering, argues that the time span for nuclear waste can be cut down to only 700 years (Rose, 1974 *).Dr. Dixy Lee Ray, former Chairman of the AEC, also views waste disposal as a scientific problem that will be safely resolved (U.S. Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1973a *):

...Nuclear wastes will have to be disposed of permanently.There are several promising approaches ... We intend to explore all of the alternatives ...

There is time to take this approach because the volume of high level nuclear wastes will be quite small even by the year 2000. By then, it will measure somewhat less than 20, 000 cubic yards of solidified material corresponding in volume to a one story building placed on a plat about 200 feet on each side. We are confident we can manage this volume for a long period of time. We are equally confident that with a vigorous research effort, an efficient and thoroughly safe permanent disposal method will be developed.

Twelve nuclear waste storage tanks have sprung leaks in Hanford, Washington, five in Aiken, South Carolina (Zwick and Benstock, 1971 *). The Aiken leak reached the water table.Thus, besides using large amounts of water for cooling, nuclear power can alter water quality. Despite the apparent difficulties in siting plants that need water in places that lack it, west coast power companies, all but barred from the seashore by a fearful public are seeking inland arid locations for nuclear reactors (Nuclear Industry, 1971).(15)

(15) In the U.S. Department of the Interior's Southwest Energy Study: Agency and Public Comments (1972), the National Science Foundation noted: "Indeed, considerations of safety may well make the Southwest -42-

A final feature of nuclear power in the West is the mining of uranium (Figure 6).To obtain four pounds of uranium a mine extracts a ton of ore.This spent ore is called tailings. By 1970, more than 90, 000, 000 tons of tailings were heaped up throughout the western states. In addition, milling four pounds of uranium produces 865 gallons of wastewater. For years, this liquid waste was dumped by the mills.In the late 1950's, something was noticed: cities downstream from the mills were receiving more than the maximum permissible amount of radium.Scientists wondered about the fish life below a mill on the Las Animas River.They found the river below the mill biologically dead (Metzger, 1972).Efforts have been made to study this phenomenon and to stabilize the tailings (U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Denver, Colorado, 1966).

Besides pouring its waste poison into the watershed, the uranium industry's activities led to other surprising consequences.Five thousand

(15) cont'd) the ideal region in the nation for the location of breeder reactors. " Under a headline trumpeting "Reagan Clears Obstacle to Nuclear Plants," Tucson's Arizona Daily Star for September 9, 1974, carried the following:

Governor Ronald Reagan has cleared one more obstacle to construction of nuclear power plants,one of them near the Arizona border, with signing of a water bill. Southern California water supplies from the Colorado River and State Water Project could be used to cool the controversialnuclear plants under the terms of the measure ... [The bill allows] the district to supply massive amounts of cooling water for nuclear plants planned near Wasco in Kern County, on the desert north of San Ber- nardino and southeast of Riverside near the Arizona border. It would limit water sales to the proposed nuclear plants to 100,000 acre feet a year of district water from the Colorado River and up to 60, 000 acre feet a year from the State Water Project.

The western Interstate Nuclear Board (Wilkinson, 1974) predicts that "starting in 1980,however, nuclear power units in the West are expected to come on -line at a rate of four per year to 1990." -43-

Figure 6

PRINCIPAL URANIUM PRODUCING AREAS FOR 87% OF U.S. PRODUCTION

Uravan Belt

LEGEND Wyoming Basins Colorado Plateau

NOTE:Does not include areas of Alaska. Washington. and Qregon where some production has occurred. nor does it include potential uranium deposits where only limited exploration has been conducted. Alaska shown not to scale

Source: Lawrence E. Wilkinson, Energy Resource Development in the West. Western Interstate Nuclear Board (WINB), Lakewood, Colorado. January 1974.p. 33. -44-

homes in Grand Junction, Colorado, were built on uranium tailings.In- vestigation revealed that children living in these houses had an unusually high rate of cancer and birth defects. The radiation was more toxic near the floor; children are shorter, and they crawl.Dwelling in some of these residences is equivalent to having 500 chest X -rays a year (Metzger, 1971). Miners shared a somewhat similar experience. Uranium mines harbor gases called the radon daughters, heavier than air, remaining in the mine unless the shafts are ventilated. Because many American mines were not ventilated, today the surviving uranium miners have a remarkably high and growing rate of cancer.The carcinoma is terminal (Metzger, 1971; Spake, 1974 *).

These are some of the possible consequences of nuclear power in arid lands: a strain on the water supply; a potential for pollution of the air, land, and water; an opportunity to mine enormous amounts of energy. One more element of the nuclear program is pertinent to arid lands: nuclear explosives. Like the reactors, nuclear explosives are part of the attempt to find a peacetime use for the energy of the atom.Diverse proposals have been suggested (U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Peaceful Nuclear Explosives, Washington, D.C. ,1971; U.S. Atomic Energy Com- mission, Technical Information Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1972). The basic idea has been to take a nuclear bomb and blow up subterranean portions of the earth to liberate water and natural gas.The efforts to augment water supplies in arid lands have been called Project Aquarius. By exploding bombs underground or on the surface, space can be created in which water can collect (Ganus, 1970; Griffin, 1970; Piper, 1970; Post, 1970; Retief and Kruger, 1971; Todd, 1970).Contamination of the water is the most important problem, but it is felt that this obstacle can be overcome (Retief and Kruger, 1971). A variant of this work has been a Plow- share effort to use nuclear explosives to create a geothermal well (Nuclear News, 1971). A different series of experiments have been held to extract natural gas. Under titles such as Project Wagon Wheel, Project Gas Buggy, and Project Rio Blanco, this part of the Plowshare program has met with limited success (Carter, 1973; Chedd, 1973, El Paso Natural Gas Com- pany, 1972; Jacobs et al,1972; Jacobsen, 1972).Gas in sufficient quantity to justify the explosions has not yet been liberated, and there is a continuing discussion of its radioactivity (Kelley et al, 1972; Moore and Barton, 1973).Studies have been made of possible groundwater contamination (Levy, 1972).Both the gas and water projects impose no real con- -45-

sumptive burden on arid land water supplies.Project Aquarius, in fact, promises to increase the water available.

Still there have been objections. A recent General Accounting Office study ticked them off one by one (U.S. Comptroller General, 1974). Nuclear explosions planned for the oil shale region might contaminate the shale deposits and shatter mines in place. Radioactive leaks might endanger inhabitants on the surface.The gas extracted might be too radioactive for use. Groundwater in the arid region of the tests might bepoisoned.(16) Also, the Comptroller General questioned whether the AEC could produce enough nuclear material to fulfill the program.This last point simply recognized the scale of the Plowshare project in the Rocky Mountains. The AEC envisions the program lasting thirty -five to sixty -five years. During that time, 5, 680 wells will be dug in which the AEC will detonate 29, 680 nuclear explosives.This scenario requires hauling close to thirty thousand nuclear bombs into selected areas of the Rocky Mountains without mishap. An alternative to the atomic program is massive hydraulic fracturing. This entails drilling 22, 720 wells over a period of sixty to one hundred fifteen years. When considered in the framework of water demands of coal processing, oil shale development, and irrigation in the same region, the Comptroller General questions whether sufficient water will be available and suggests further study (Op. cit.). The AEC's nuclear program is difficult to assess on several counts. First, the heavy water needs of the reactors may or may not be a significant factor.There is always enough water if a user is given priority.The reactors, much like growing desert cities, may simply retire agricultural water

(16) The recent nuclear stimulation experiment at Rio Blanco was reported by the Associated Press from Meeker, Colorado, on November 7, 1974, as producing more than natural gas and water: Cesium -137, a cancer -causing element with a half -life of 30 years that also causes human genetic defects was also generated. Before the blast, environmentalists protested that both the cesium -137 and strontium -90 might be released, but the AEC, in its initial environmental statement, countered that the radioactive material would be trapped in the rock. During the actual blast, cesium was present in water vapor.This contaminated water is now being stored by the AEC prior to disposal. A spokesman for the agency said the AEC does not know why the substance was produced. -46-

rights.The safety question is more complicated. There is no question that nuclear powerplants per unit of energy generated have a better safety record than fossil fuel facilities. What is unknown is the consequence of one serious nuclear breakdown, and how the public will react to that breakdown.(17)One is left with a sketchy outline of possibilities.Nuclear energy is extracted from substances poisonous to humans, plants, and animals. The mines which supply the fuel must be carefully tended lest they kill the men who work them and contaminate the watershed they are sited in.Increasingly future reactors may be placed in arid, empty terrain to assuage public fears.Naturally, such a placement will do little for forms of life already existing in arid lands.In sum, nuclear power options promise a great energy return for the money invested.They also have the capacity to blight for an undetermined period of time the region they hope to exploit.

Another form of atomic energy is geothermal power - the heat of the earth fed by radioactive decay.If we consider the planet as a ball of slowly -banking fires, we can assume that like other forms of energy, it is depletable, though how swiftly this depletion may occur is still debatable. Geothermal energy offers a variant on the traditional steam turbine electric plant. Rather than place a lump of coal or a pellet of uranium or a puddle

(17)Critics have charged for years that the AEC suppressed information detrimental to its reactor program, especially on the question of safety. A recent story by the New York Times News Service (David Burnham, "Adverse AEC Safety Studies Suppressed, Documents Show," November 10, 1974) substantiates this claim. Using documents leaked to scientists by dissidents within the AEC and pried loose from the Commission by lawsuits, Burnham outlined a long- buried 1964 study that concluded a major reactor accident could kill 45, 000 people and devastate an area equal to that of the state of Pennsylvania. Such a consequence equals the achievement of a "good -sized weapon." Another report by an AEC task force on the reactor licensing process was edited prior to public release to soften its critical conclusions. The original report noted that most nuclear accidents were "generic in nature ", and were not caught during powerplant design, construction, or licensing.Since present procedures fail to detect the cause of reactor accidents before they happen, present procedures are inadequate.The AEC deleted such conclusions. -47-

of oil or a cubic foot of gas under the tub of water to be boiled, to carry on an analogy we used earlier, one uses the heat of the earthitself.

In a geothermal powerplant, wells are drilled to the subterranean hot strata.The strata can hold heat and water in various states. Some- times the temperature is low and the hot brine can be used to heat greenhouses, or, augmented on the surface, spin turbines. Dry steam fields hold groundwater under low pressure and high temperature; such fields can spin turbines directly. Wet steam fields, twenty times more common, hold superheated water that can flash to steam for powering turbines when vented to the surface. When the steam condenses, it can be used for cooling (Friz, 1973b; Science, 1973). Another geothermal possibility being considered is the use of massive hydraulic fracturing or nuclear explosives to fracture hot rock which lacks water. Once broken up, the rock would be pumped full of water (Friz, 1973a). These various ideas have excited a great deal of interest in recent years because geothermal energy appears cheap (the heat is there for the drilling) and relatively pollution -free (Armstrong, 1971; Hebb, 1972; Kaufman, 1971; Marinelli, 1973; O'Keefe, 1973; Porter, 1973; Ritter, 1973; Summers, 1971; Talbot, 1971; U.S. Code Congressional and Admin- istrative News, 1970; U.S. Congress, 89th, 1st session, 1965; U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. , Panel on Geothermal Energy Resources, 1972; U.S. Senate, 92d Congress, 2d session, Com- mittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1972b). Also, surveys suggest that fields exist in arid parts of the United States such as California, Nevada, New Mexico, Idaho, Utah, and Oregon (Birdseye, 1969, 1971; Bowen, 1972 *; California, State Department of Water Resources, 1970; Goldsmith, 1971; Heylmun, 1966; McNitt, 1965; Summers and Ross, 1971); in northern Mexico (Koenig, 1967 *; Lear, 1970 *; Mercado, 1969 *; Mooser, 1965 *; United Nations, 1964 *; Wehlage, 1973); in the USSR (Fotiadi et al, 1970 *); and in Argentina, Chile, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Algeria, Turkey and India (Fenner and Klarmann, 1971 *; Tasieff, 1972; Uyeda and Watanabe, 1970 *).Since water is often a byproduct of geothermal exploitation, there is hope that such fields in arid lands can augment the water supply (Porter, 1973; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Boulder City, Nevada, Region 3Office, 1972; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Wash- ington, D.C. ,1972; University of Arizona, Tucson, Office of Arid Lands Studies, 1973).(Figure 7) Two problems cloud this attractive prospect. Geothermal energy while relatively pollution free is not entirely pollution free (Keene and Arden, 1971).There is the visual and physical impact of the plant on the -48-

Figure 7

POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL FIELDS IN THE WEST

, rift

MAO

Figure 5 Adapted from Blackwell and Hall, S.M.U.

Source: Lawrence E. Wilkinson, Energy Resource Development in the West. Western Interstate Nuclear Board (WINB), Lakewood, Colorado. January 1974. p. 35. -49-

site (Bowen, 1973).Since many potential geothermal fields in the United States are in scenic areas such as Yellowstone National Park, this impact has not gone unnoticed (Kaufman, 1971; Ritter, 1973; U.S. Senate, Com- mittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d session, 1972b). Also, the fluid liberated from the hot strata is often heavily mineralized. Proposed geothermal plants in the Imperial Valley could bring large amounts of salt to the surface (California, State Department of Water Resources, 1970).The Geysers field north of San Francisco has contributed boron, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia salts to the local waters.This has threatened the local fish (Keene and Arden, 1971). But big problem with geothermal energy is that no one knows how much hot rock and water there is to be tapped.

Today, the United States is exploiting but a few hundred megawatts of geothermal energy.Dr. D.E. White, U.S. Geological Survey, sees the ultimate potential at 5, 000 to 10, 000 Mw over a fifty year period, given current economic conditions and technology (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d session, 1972b).The New Energy Forms Task Group of the National Petroleum Council put the generating capacity in 1985 of California and Nevada alone at 7, 000 to 19,000 Mw (National Petroleum Council, Committee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972).Dr. Robert Rex, University of California- Riverside, estimates a capacity over the next century of 75 million Mw for the U.S. (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d session, 1972b).This spread of numbers offers two possibilities: either there is not much geothermal potential, or there is almost a limitless amount. Both government and private industry are diligently seeking to clarify this point because of geothermal energy's attractiveness.It is relatively clean, it may produce extra water in dry regions, and it inter- faces with existing equipment for generating and distributing electricity. For water and energy in arid lands, its future role must remain a question mark.

This review of various energy options for arid lands - fossil fuels, atomic, solar, geothermal - underscores the venerable American saying that there is no such thing as a free lunch.Energy extraction and conversion have consequences in any environment.In arid lands with their fragile composition, these consequences are often magnified. Because of current dependence on steam -generated electric powerplants, water needs of many -5 0-

systems can be diminished only with difficulty.Thus, processes such as nuclear fission, often advertised by the AEC as a clean source of energy, appear in a different light when placed in an arid landscape.Solar energy loses some of its innocence when one contemplates the imposition on five thousand square miles of desert the gross area of collectors required, together with piping the equivalent of a river from some distant seashore. Oil shale, sometimes hailed as the equivalent of money in the bank, gives pause when the reserves are poised in the Colorado River watershed with its large and growing pollution problems.Many exotic sources - wind, tides,individual solar units - remain just that, exotic sources, when they are denied sufficient amounts of capital for development, and when their promised largess is at some distant point in time. In the following chapters, we shall be pitting two rivers, the Colorado and the Missouri, against the energy demands that may be made upon them, in order to make more graphic the potential costs to the land, water, and air if energy is intensively exploited in these essentially arid lands. III.THE COLORADO RIVER

The waters start in Wyoming and cut through canyon and desert on a 1,400 mile trek to the Gulf of California.The river runs red with silt gouged from a watershed of 244, 000 square miles (including parts of seven states: California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming). When the Spaniard Francisco de Ulloa first found its mouth in 1537, the fierce tidal bore made him fear for his ship:

We perceived the sea to run with so great a rage into the land that it was a thing much to be marvelled at; and with a like fury it returned back again with the ebb...There were divers opinions amongst us, and some thought...that some great river might be the cause thereof (Watkins, ed., 1969 *).

He sailed up the delta possibly as far as the confluence with the Gila, then back to the Gulf.The Colorado had been found by white men. Today, about 200 million acre feet (af) of water fall annually in the Colorado River Basin, two thirds in but 6 percent of the Basin's area.All but 18 million af evaporates and is lost to the stream.Half the humans dwelling in the Southwest depend on this river for water (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 1972).But no ships, whether caravels or steel freighters, follow Ulloa's path up from the Gulf.For the Colorado disappears into the sands of a dead delta miles before it reaches the sea. It has been used up by cities, farms, and hydroelectric dams as it makes its way down from the mountains and across the deserts.

This remnant flow, what is left of the wild river that carved the Grand Canyon, is now at issue in various plans for developing energy resources in the Southwest. Coal -fired electric plants want it.Nuclear reactors want it.Oil shale companies want it. Dam builders want it.(18)

(18) "There are no simple, direct, permanent solutions to most of these problems and issues. Nor will there ever be...

-51- -52-

The most heavily exploited river in the American West figures as the key to yet more exploitation (Figure 8).

Before white men came the Basin had supported slight and varying numbers of humans. The various Ute bands, Pueblo peoples, the Hohokam farmers and their Pima descendants were at the mercy of an erratic water supply.It is estimated that the Sonoran desert of the Lower Colorado did not regain its population peak of 1500 A.D. until 1940 (Hastings and Turner, 1965 *).The rains rise and fall from year to year with annual averages close to meaningless. For example, Yuma, Arizona, recorded 11.41 inches in 1905, 0.42 in 1953 (Op. cit. ).The River itself ranges in the recent past from 24 million of in 1917, to 5. 6 million of in 1934 (Skogerboe, 1973; Water for Energy Management Team, 1974).

Canyons, deserts, muddy flow, random and low rainfall, all these things led humans to discount the region.Colonel Green of Arizona Ter- ritory, 1871, declared it "... a rocky mountainous desert, not fit even for the beasts of the field to live in" (Hastings and Turner, 1965 *).Lt. Joseph Ives, explorer of the Lower Colorado in the late 1850's found the region "profitless." "It seems intended by nature," he reported, "that the Colorado River, along the greater portion of its lonely and majestic way, shall be forever unvisited and undisturbed" (Watkins, ed. ,1969 *). Pitted against this litany of disenchantment was an optimistic viewpoint which has come to be called the myth of the garden (Smith, 1950 *; Stegner, 1954 *).This myth argued either that the West had plenty of water, or,

(18) cont'd. "Within this western region there are large areas such as the Upper Rio Grande and the Gila River Basin where the total surface -water supply, for all practical purposes, is completely consumed.In the Colorado River Basin this condition will be reached when the Central Arizona Project is completed. After that, as the Upper Basin expands its water consumption under its Colorado River Compact allotment, uses in the Lower Basin will have to be curtailed due to limitation of water supply unless the natural supply of the Colorado River is augmented.In the Arkansas -White -Red and the Great Basin, it is forecast that by the year 2000 the total water supplies essentially will be utilized." U.S. Department of the Interior, Executive Summary of the Critical Water Problems Facing the Eleven Western States:The Westwide Study, Review Draft, May 1974, p. 2 -3. Figure 8 StateCOLORADO RIVER WATER SHORTAGE (in acre -feet per year) All municipal,Uses (agricultural, industrial)Water Alloted for Water AvailableDevelopmentfor Energy Water DevelopmentNeeded for Energy for Energy DevelopmentShortage ( -) of Water Surplus ( +) or ColoradoWyomingNewUtah Mexico 1,322,0002,976,000 647,000805,000 248,000251,000304,000*40,000 ** 208,280354,150323,850116,500 +131,500-168,280-103,150- 19,850 AdditionalTotalArizona Shortage+ water needs to support energy development ++ 50,000 34,100 35,00034,100 -159,780 - c1en suppliesGRAND**Includes *Bureau to TOTAL New 30,000 of LandMexico, SHORTAGEacre Management -feetbut the per number year report of issubsurface herefrom reduced which water. these from See 140,000data text werefor discussion.to taken40,000 included to avoid indouble this entry entries 100,000 since the acre 100,000 -feet authorized acre -feet tofrom be other state -194,780 allotted ++AccordingacreMexicoNew +See -feetMexico textcould would tofor actually Bureaube explanation. remain increased isof the partLand same, byof Management 100,000the however. water acre supply surveys. -feet, listed with for parallel the other decreases four states. In water In reality, available then, in thethe water other availablestates. The for overall energy shortage development of 159,780 in New Source: Julian McCaull, Wringing Out the West. Environment, Vol. 16, Missouriowners,No. 7, September Scientists'63130] 1974, Institute p. 12. for Public Information, St. Louis, [with permission of the copyright -54-

that all the region needed was few irrigation projects to bloom.

Man -made water systems spread from the latenineteenth century on, and began the first largedepletions of the Colorado River. (19).During the 1930's, 400 million dollars were spent inefforts to plug the Colorado's canyons and control the river's flow.Today, dams in Glen Canyon, and Boulder Canyon, at Parker, Davis, and Yuma, store the waterand catch the hydropower. After a half century of humanefforts, the Colorado river has been converted from a raging watercourseto a piece of plumbing.Plans continue to be spawned for the river, with legislationpassed for the Central Arizona Project, work continuing onthe Navajo Project in northern New Mexico, and hopes still lingeringfor more dams in the Grand Canyon itself.All this cement and irrigation has heavily taxed the river's flow, rendering it almost impotent by the time itreaches the Gulf.

The Colorado is divided by compact into two basins, upperand lower, with Lee Ferry in northern Arizona as theboundary line.Each has a right to 7.5 million of of the flow, estimated inthe early twenties as perhaps 20 million af, certainly at least 15 millionaf.These early estimates were wide of the mark, probably becausethe first two decades of the twentieth century were unusually wet.The Bureau of Reclamation now uses a flow figure of 13.8million af (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. ,1972) and some students of the river see even this lowered number as too high (Jacoby and Stockton, 1974).Whatever water there is in the river, it is growing saltier.Irrigation and the vast lakes behind the dams have raised the salinity (U. S. Bureauof Reclama- tion, Washington, D. C., 1973) to a point where, inits lower reaches,

(19) Irrigation became a sort of mass movement in the West,pursued with vigor. Witness this example: ... Ihad taken the cross of a new Crusade. To my mind, irrigation seemed the biggest thing in the world.It was not merely a matter of ditches and acres, but a philosophy, a religion, and a programme of practical statesmanship rolled into one ... -William A. Smythe, The Conquest of Arid America. Macmillan, 1911. -55-

the salt load threatens some crops (McCaull, 1974).(20).A new desalination plant is now being constructed to improve the river water owed to Mexico under treaty.

This depleted, salt- loaded river is the result of continuing efforts to harvest energy in the Basin.It is a stumbling block to further exploitation, for the oil shale consortiums, the utility companies, and the advocates of irrigated agriculture confront a Colorado River already largely spent, seriously burdened with minerals, and characterized according to the records of a half century with a diminishing flow.There is not that much water left, and what little there is has already been spoken for (Breed, 1971, Quinn, 1971). A recent Department of the Interior study summed it up this way:

The amount of water available for energy resource development in the Colorado River Basin is limited by the laws of the Colorado River.The Colorado River is perhaps the most regulated river in the United States, and its utilization is such that very little usable water now discharges from its mouth into the Gulf of California (Water for Energy Manage- ment Team, 1974). In the Upper Basin, Interior figures that of the 7.5 million af the states are entitled to by compact, only about 5.8 million af can be depended upon year after year. Much of this water is not now being used, but it has been committed to future use.For example, all the streams in the Colorado River Basin in the state of Colorado are already "overappropriated" (Op. cit.).In the Lower Basin, the River will be diminished by more than 1 million af per annum when the Central Arizona Project becomes cement.

(20) "Total dissolved solids in the lower Colorado River are near or beyond threshold limits for some uses. Projected increases without control will threaten agriculture in the Imperial, Coachella, Gila and Yuma Valleys and result in economic losses to domestic water users in California and Nevada. Annual economic costs from excess salinity there are estimated at more than $16 million today, and are projected to increase to $28 million in 1980, and $51 million in 2010." -Moore, C.V. and J. H. Snyder, Management of saline water.University of California, Davis, Water Resources Center, Report 29, March 1974, p. 15 (McCaull, 1974). -56-

Also, much of the water currently appropriated but judged unused is being used. Agricultural rights claim water only at certain times of the yearand let flow by the rest of time. But this "unused" water can hardly be given to a year -round operation like an oil shale plant, or a coal -fired electric plant, without encroaching on crops during their months of need (Op. cit.). Groundwater is also a limited resource in the Basin. (21).Recharge rates are slow: Arizona is currently pumping groundwater in its central section at three times the recharge rate (Breed, 1971; McBride, 1972); much of the Upper Basin groundwater is lodged in impermeable rock and yields to wells at a hopelessly slow rate (Water for Energy Management Team, 1974) .

Energy companies, recognizing this scarcity, have reacted by buying up water rights from current owners."In fact," Interior reports, "there has been considerable speculative activity in some states in buying and selling water rights and much of this speculation has involved the purchase of land as well as the pertinent water rights, with the intention of trans - fering water rights to energy development sites (sometimes some distance away)" (Op. cit. ).

A final twist to the questions of water and energy in the Colorado River Basin is the matter of Indian rights. Under the Winters Doctrine (Wintersv. United States, 207 U.S. 564 (1908)), the waters of the Colorado may belong to the Indian tribes within the Colorado Basin. Indeed, under one interpretation, American Indians have a legal right to the bulk of the water in the American West (MacMeekin, 1971).To date, this doctrine has been little mentioned or invoked, but in the case of the Navajotribe of northern Arizona, its exercise could possibly convert the entire Colorado River to a Navajo stream (Op. cit.).

This is the Colorado River Basin the energy companies must work with.It is a region of varied and limited rainfall, exhaustible and often low- quality groundwater.It is drained by a river of historically meager flow already heavily depleted by cities and farms, and, on paper, overexploited by water rights granted but not yet exercised ( "It is apparent,"

(21) "The average annual replenishable groundwater supply in the Upper Basin is about 4 million of...This quantity of groundwater cannot be pumped annually,however, without long term continued depletion of the quantity in storage and without eventual effects on the streamflow and bottomland vegetation" (Op. cit.). -57-

notes the Water for Energy Management Team, "that the legal right to utilize water will be perhaps the most important factor in the consideration of the question of water for energy development in the Upper Colorado Basin" (1974)).It is an area plagued by an erratic climate and possibly growing yet more dry (Hastings and Turner, 1965 *).It is possible that its flowing waters belong to the 183, 000 Indians who have always lived within it.This Basin's major river is cursed by a salt load approaching an intolerable level for some crops, and one that energy development will certainly increase (Blackman et al, 1973; Water for Energy Management Team, 1974).The air, commonly visible for 100 miles is now protected by federal law (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. ,1972). The land is mainly in Federa i trust to be protected against the present for the future.The region will possibly face a water shortage at the end of this century or the beginning of the next even if no energy resources are ever developed (Breed, 1971; Mc- Bride, 1972; Steiner, 1969, 1972; Utah Department of Natural Resources, 1972; Vlachos, 1972; Water for Energy Management Team, 1974).(22)

Power and coal companies began plotting plant sites within this Basin in the fifties.Gradually those considering the Colorado Plateau for locations grouped themselves into a consortium, Western Energy Supply and Transmission Associates (WEST).Initially, by committing themselves to six electric plants and various coal mines, they arrived at a plan which provided for an output of 30, 000Mw, contained a water need of 450, 000 af, and, when all phases of the power system were finally on- line, an appetite for sub -bituminous coal running 94 million tons per annum (Baldwin, 1973; Cortner, 1973 *; U.S. Department ofthe Interior, Washington, D. C. ,1972). They did this at a time when pollution was but dimly considered, and environmental impact statements were un- imaginable.

The power plants were designed for the needs of the oasis cities of the Southwest: Salt Lake City, Albuquerque, Tucson, Phoenix, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Diego (Figures 9, 10).They were placed in

(22) Ken Kauffman, chief of the Plains Coordination and Reports Branch of the Bureau of Reclamation Office in Denver, has said that Colorado River Basin water "has been overappropriated many times over.There is no question about that.There is no question that there will be a deficit. The only question is how soon we will get there - 1990, 1995, 2000, or 2010" (McCaull, 1974). -5 8-

Figure 9

1 j N I ÍN ---- \ ..ti I E veCn --ili - ()Tit. J l I \ Çrwn.e R4(. SLi LAKE CITY

)ENNE

iMrr.r(q

Pogo

//J

PHOENIX

'y i

LEGEND Energy Use Area - -- EnergyProduction Area (Colorado River Basin)

SOUTHWEST ENERGY STUDY

Source: Southwest Energy Studjr, An Evaluation of Coal-fired Electric Power Generation in the Southwest, Summary Report [of the]Study Management Team for the Federal Task Force. U.S. Departmentof the Interior, Washington, D. C. November 1972, Figure 2 -1. -59-

Figure 10

WYOMING

NE VADA

Cheyonne

COLORADO I 410. OCNVER

Son Francisco

Les Angeles

PHOENIX

SO. DNA.

NEW MEXICO Tucso. - Et Paso TEXAS ARIZONA

0above 7,000 megawatts . Energy UseArea -- EnergyProduction Area 1,000-3,000 megawatts 0 BoundarybetweentheUpper 8, under 1,000 megawatts LowerColor ado River Bonn Large coal-fired electric power plant

SOUTHWEST ENERGY STUDY LOAD CENTERS 1970

Source: Southwest Energy Study,An Evaluation of Coal-firedElectric Power Gen eration in the Southwest,Summary Report [of the] Study Management Team for the Federal Task Force. U.S.Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. November 1972, Figure4-1. -60-

sparsely settled areas close to the supply of coal.Later, as it happened, this siting placed the plants beyond the reach ofstronger air pollution statutes enacted in Southern California. Two plants werebuilt near Farmington, New Mexico, two were sited near GlenCanyon Dam, another further north in Huntington Canyon, and one acrossfrom Bullhead City, Arizona, in Nevada.(23) This first phase has not yet been fully constructed. Confronting rapid growth rates in both power consumption andpopulation, the utilities and the government viewed the plants asinevitable. As the Southwest Energy Study: Summary pointed out, "Relativelylittle effort has been made to reduce consumer demands..."Apparently, with good reason, for the Study argued, "Modernsociety cannot function without energy, nor can the quality of life beraised or improved without increasing dependence on energy" (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. , 1972). To meet this need, six of the largest powerplants in the world fed by the largest mines in the nation wereplanned or constructed in one of the nation's emptiest, most scenic and driestregions.The plants, rooted in the silence of the fifties, kindled debate in the sixties.

Coal -fired power development, like Glen Canyon Dam,slipped into place without much initial protest because of conservationiststrategy. Glen Canyon was sacrificed in a sort of loose exchangefor preservation of Dinosaur National Monument in Utah.(24)The Four Corners area plants were exchanged by environmental groups for a cessationof efforts to place dams in the Grand Canyon.In fact, during the Canyon fight, coal - fired plants were sometimes suggested by these groups as analternative to plugging the river (Watkins, ed., 1969 *).This detente collapsed in the late sixties under the weight of new circumstances.

The first units on -line at the Four Corners PowerPlant near Farmington, New Mexico, were filthy (Figure11). The coal burned is more than 20 percent flyash,and much more of this ash than had been anticipated went up the stacks.The plant was approaching the particulate emission level of the entire New Yorkmetropolitan area (Craig, 1971 *). And it was far from its final capacity when itwould burn 30, 000 tons of

(23) Currently, 18 coal -fired generating plants, 5 coalgasification plants, and 9 oil shale projects are projected for development in theColorado Basin (MeCaull, 1974).

(24) A continuing study is being made of the effect of Glen Canyon Dam and Lake Powell (Lake Powell Research Project, 1974). -61-

Figure 11

Total primary pollutant emission estimates, Phases I -IV

Emissions - tons /day ( aater controls) Generating ParticulatesY sox 2/ NOx Plant capacity mw EPA test basis as 802 as NO2

Four Corners 2,085 23 350 230

San Juan 1,690 18 260* 150

Mohave 1,580 17 150 140

Navajo 2,250 25 170 170

Huntington Canyon 860 9 74 66

Cholla 500 6 46 38

Kaiparowits 2,250 25 210 170

Northwest Colorado 6,900 76 520 520

Southern Nevada 1,600 18 130 120

Four Corners -San Juan Area 3,500 39 450* 27o

Emery County, Utah 1,000 11 74 76

Kaiparowits Plateau area 6,000 66 560 460

Totals 30,215 333 2,994 2,410

6 1/ Assume plants meet EPA new source performance standard 0.10 lb /10 Btu, EPA test method. 2/ Emissions of SOx are for no control or meeting 1.2 lbs/Btu x 106, whichever is lower. Latter indicated by asterisk *. 3/ Assume plants to be designed to meet 0.7 lb /Btu x106 EPA new source performance standard.

Prepared by Water and Air Pollution Work Group.

Source: Southwest Energy Study, An Evaluation of Coal -fired Electric Power Generation in the Southwest, Summary Report [of the] Study Management Team for the Federal Task Force. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. November 1972, p. 9 -47. -62-

coal every twenty seven hours.In 1966, Gemini 12 photographed that particular section of the planet Earth.Only one sign of man's presence was believed to be visible: a plume of smoke 230 miles long from the vicinity of the Four Corners plant. (25)Dr. Joseph J. Devaney of Los Alamos studied the aerial dispersion from the plant and concluded:

In brief, the results of very extensive aerial observations and tracings over many years, correlating with meteorology and ground observations, show that a single coal -fired power plant in a hitherto unpolluted atmosphere, can pollute in excess of 100, 000 square miles. It can pollute hundreds to thousands of miles from the source, at multiple -levels and directions. (- letter to the author, July 22, 1974)

The visible mark of the Four Corners plant upon the area led to questions about the entire southwest power system planned by WEST. This included the use of Indian land for coal, the extent and effects of air pollution, the reclamation efforts being made on Black Mesa by Peabody Coal Company, the possible degradation of a region studded with 23 national parks and monuments, and the consequences for the Colorado River Basin resulting from the facilities' water needs. The debate taxed the resources of the companies, the government, and the environmentalists.

The power plants planned by WEST were almost without precedent in size; so too, the strip mines. Industry publications followed their construction with interest (Coal Age, 1971; Mining Congress Journal, 1971; Olsen, 1971; Peabody Coal Company, 1970).Costing hundreds of millions (in the case of the proposed Kaiparowits, investment may top a billion dollars), the facilities were an engineering challenge.The Four Corners units, burning 30, 000 tons of coal every twenty -seven hours, are hung from a giant frame like ornaments to compensate for the expansion and contraction of the metal when it is firing or down. The Black Mesa mine delivers coal to the Navajo plant by a seventy -eight mile electric railroad

(25)This conclusion was hotly contested by the power companies which argued that the plume was the result of jet traffic (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 2d session, 1972e).However, Dr. Joseph Devaney trailed the plant's plume from an airplane for 140 miles (Cortner, 1973 *).Also, when the astronauts returned from the moon in 1970, they mentioned sighting the plume (Craig, 1971 *). -63-

Figure 12

Source: Peabody Coal Company, Mining Coal on Black Mesa, November 1970. -64-

laid just for that purpose, and slurries coal to the Mohave unit 278 miles away through a pipeline trenched westward across northern Arizona (Figure 12).Elaborate negotiations were pursued to obtain legal rights to the Indians' coal fields, and to insure Indian water supplies would not be harmed (Cortner, 1973 *). Some environmentalists have argued, without much foundation in fact, that Peabody's well -fed slurry line will destroy the shallow Navajo wells on Black Mesa (for example, Brown, 1970). To the contrary, Peabody drilled a lined well far below the perched aquifer of the tribal wells; the slurry line is fed from Navajo sandstone which Navajo efforts had never tapped. When the mine ceases operation, the tribe will inherit these good deep wells. Computer simula- tions have shown Peabody's water needs will have a minimal and temporary effect on the mesa's springs and shallow wells (Dove, 1973; Gum et al, 1974).

Similar care was exercised in dealing with the Indian owners of the coal.The mines have produced hundreds of high- paying jdb s for a Navajo tribe plagued by unemployment.(26)A royalty is paid per ton of coal.The land picked for the mine on Black Mesa had been all but gutted by Navajo livestock. As the Southwest Energy Study: Summary points out: "Much of the Indian land is characterized by overgrazing and resulting degradation from wind erosion" (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C.,1972).Thirty acres of Black Mesa land are necessary to graze one sheep.Peabody, in stripping 400 acres per year, displaces 13 sheep annually (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974).The total amount of land to be mined on the Mesa is less than one percent of its surface.

In an earlier day, the magnitude of the enterprise would have seized the imagination of the American people. Witness this poem by May Sarton written in 1942 to celebrate Hoover Dam:

Not built on terror like the empty pyramid, Not built to conquer but illuminate a world: It is the human answer to a human need,

(26)It should be noted that the Hopi Indians mined coal in the Black Mesa area centuries before Peabody came down the pike.Presumably, they gave it up when they obtained sheep from the Spaniards.Sheep dung, it is theorized, was easier to gather and proved a fine fuel for pot making (Colton, 1936 *). -65-

Power in absolute control, freed as a gift, A pure creative act, God when the world was born, It proves that we have built for life and built for love And when we are all dead, this dam will stand and give. (Watkins, ed., 1969 *)

The work of WEST inspired few poems. It was greeted with titles such as "Black Mesa: The Angel of Death (Gordon, 1973), "The Rape of Black Mesa" (Brown, 1970), "Showdown at Four Corners" (Wolff, 1972), and "Cloud on the Desert" (Craig, 1971 *).Navajo students in Arizona protested that Black Mesa was holy ground, and asked how whites would feel if someone proposed to stripmine Bethlehem (Many Farms High School, Many Farms, Arizona, 1971). Park rangers stationed at Mesa Verde's Anasazi ruins were allegedly barred by Washington from discussing the plants' polluting of the region's air, and four resigned (U.S. Senate, Com- mittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 1st session, 1971d). The new energy system split tribes into factions.As the Southwest Energy Study: Summary put it " ... There appears to be no consensus in the Indian community concerning benefit and loss to Indian culture from Southwest energy generation" (U.S. Department of the Interior, Wash- ington, D. C. ,1972).(27)

(27) Perhaps the dispute between traditional Indians (who dread development) and the developers and pro -development Indians is rooted in the possibility that some Indians, unlike almost all whites, do not view land as a commodity. An example of the traditional Indian point of view is a deposition filed by Naka Ditl'oi, a Navajo medicine man, which protests the encroachment of Lake Powell's waters on Rainbow Bridge:

"I was born near Oljatoh, Utah in 1885.I began to study under Sam Chief to become a medicine man when I was ten years old. From the time I reached twenty to the present I have been a medicine man in the Utah portion of the Navajo Nation.

"I have conducted countless religious ceremonies and sings throughout the area surrounding Rainbow Bridge and Navajo Mountain. Rainbow Bridge is extremely sacred to the Dine [the Navajo People], as are many sites and much of the area surrounding the Bridge. The water from the lake has already entered the Canyon of -66-

The debate over water and energy in the arid West springs from the excessive pollution of the early units to on -line at the Four Corners

(27) cont'd. the Rainbow Bridge and has covered ground sacred to the Dine.

'TTse Nani'ahi is the Navajo name for Rainbow Bridge. When the Dine were emerging from the east they stopped on a large mesa near Navajo Mountain to make ahome on the mountain for Lageinayai. He is a god who was given lightening to create rain.His name means 'came into being one day.' In gratitude for his home on Navajo Mount- ain, Lageinayai promised to protect the Dine and look after their well -being. Sometime later, a group of Dine left this home with a god named Danaiize. He has the power to create and travel on the rainbow. The Dine reached a canyon which they could not cross.The Dine did not know what to do. Danaiize told them he would create a rock rainbow which would be a bridge for the Dine.It was in this way that the Dine were able to cross the Canyon of the Rainbow Bridge. "Since that time the bridge has been a protective shield for Navajo Mountain and the Dine. Prayers are offered which call on Tse Nani'ahi to continue the beautiful way and provide rain for the Dine.In this way evil is kept away from the Dine and their livestock.

"There is a cave down the canyon from the Rainbow Bridge. Medicine men come from all over the reservation to meet in this cave.There is also a sacred spring in the canyon near the cave.It is called, 'clear body male and female water.' Its water is used in the prayers and to wash the sacred bundles of the medicine man. Ground turquoise and shells are given to the spring to aid in the prayers for rain.Prayers are renewed and knowledge of the earth and the ways of the Dine is increased when the medicine men come to the cave.The water from the lake has already entered the canyon and covered both the cave and the sacred spring. -67-

plant in 1963, and from apprehensions about the fate of Black Mesa when Peabody Coal Company began to stripmine it.Though the Mesa by the best evidence is not being raped nor are the Navajos being robbed, and though the emissions at the Four Corners plant have been cleansed to some degree, the debate, now spread to all energy projects in the West, continues.

(27) cont'd.

"There are burial grounds in the canyon below the Rainbow Bridge.There are not burial sites under or near the bridge because that area is very sacred. The burial grounds should not be covered with water for the lake. "Our People who live here in this area are not the property of the U.S. government because we and our People of this area never surrendered and therefore our land and what we have on it belongs to us, not the government of any white man.

"The Bridge is our means of communication with our Gods and is our altar and the foundation on which our Native Religion is based.There are many medicine men still living among us who pray to the Bridge as I do. Therefore, our belief is still alive and we don't want to have our religion cut down.

"Rainbow Bridge is like a mother for our People, it stands like a temple or church is to the Anglo Christians, we do not destroy the whiteman's sacred articles and shrines, nor do we destroy their religion, therefore, this water should not be allowed by the whiteman to rise and cover our holy shrine of prayer. "The lake was to rise only a certain distance.They have already destroyed too much of our land. We will not allow any more destruction of our sacred ground.

"If any part of the Bridge is touched by the waters our religion will crumble like the Bridge is bound to do.Our culture will weaken and die like the Bridge.This must not happen."(DNA Newsletter 7(3):3, April 1974) -68-

The issue of water depletion by energy users has gathered to it all facets of environmental change such as land reclamation and air pollution. For water is the lifeblood of arid lands, and pollution in its myriad forms always impinges in some way on the watershed.

The mining of Black Mesa (and the Navajo land near Farmington) stimulated a new interest in reclamation in the dry West. The Mesa was a poor point from which to launch such an issue for several reasons. It had been thoroughly degraded already by the Navajos and any discussion of its reclamation was always confused by the difficulty of deciding just what reclamation should mean. Restore it to its pre- mining state of near worthlessness ? Or did restoration mean making it the fine grazing land it had never been in recent times ? A further flaw in picking the Mesa as a model for reclamation lay in the fact that less than one percent of it was being mined.If itwas never restored to any useful condition, the loss would be slight for the tribe, and the consequence for the water quality of the Colorado Basin would be minor, probably not even measurable.(28) Whatever the importance of reclaiming the mine site, Peabody has promised to make a good job of it; in fact, the Company contends its revegetation and recontouring work on the stripped land will be a model (Peabody Coal Company, 1970). Others disagree. The South- west Energy Study: Summary reported in 1972 that "No significant progress has been made in revegetating strip -mined areas at the relatively arid Black Mesa and Navajo sites" (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.,1972).The National Academy of Sciences believes that reclamation work in such an area of low rainfall is hopeless, and that it would be more honest to simply declare such sites National Sacrifice Areas (1974).Dr. Robert Curry, in general a critic of the National Academy's study, concurs with this dismal conclusion, raising the point that it will take decades, perhaps centuries, to know if such land really has been reclaimed.It is this requirement for a long span of time as an essential basis for judging reclamation efforts that under- cuts work being done on the Mesa. For while the land has been recontoured and plants are growing (Colorado Plateau Environmental Ad- visory Council, 1974 *; Thames and Crompton, 1974), no one really knows just what this means. Will the vegetation stabilize into a permanent plant

(28) The U.S. Geological Survey is monitoring the quality of runoff in the area and so far can neither detect nor measure any real change. -69-

community? Will Navajo livestock browse it to extinction before sufficient evidence has been gathered from the site? In short, Black Mesa has long been a degraded grazing ground, lying in an area where any reclamation at all will be very difficult or impossible, thus making a poor yardstick for judging the reclamation potential of arid land in the West.If one accepts the need for decades of plant persistence before the land can be considered reclaimed, then the current revegetation proves nothing. Black Mesa has launched a debate about the rehabilitation potential of western coal lands that it will probably never be able to answer.Still the site is an emotional touchstone in that debate, and those interested in the issue make pilgrimages to view its rape or restoration depending upon their sympathies.(29)

In addition to igniting a debate about land reclamation, the power - plants of WEST Associates generated concern about air pollution.Visibility in the Colorado River Basin has commonly been 100 miles on a clear day. The Southwest Energy Study: Summary conceded that the air "will generally be degraded if particulate emissionrates remain as high as used in [this] analysis" (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 1972).(30)

(29) An example of the lengths to which such required visits can go is displayed in the reports of Senators Barry Goldwater's and Paul Fannin's aides Thomas J. Dunlavey and Richard Thomas, who visited Black Mesa on August 8, 1974, and filed separate and independent reports in identical language (Congressional Record, v. 120, no. 130, August 22, 1974).

(30) Dr. Joseph Devaney has pursued the consequences to visibility in the region of the Four Corners plant near Farmington, New Mexico:

... Estimatesof the present maximum utilization emission levels range from the 350 tons admitted by the Company to 5, 000 tons per day.The particle size is about 0.8 microns (0. 0008 to 0.00003 inches) and is largely composed of sublimed spheroidal shells having a rate of fall in still air of less than 10 feet a day! Thus, in the turbulent New Mexico atmosphere the rate of fall is negligible.The resulting number of particles (using Arizona Public Service Company analsys for density estimates) range from 1020 to 1023 particles per day (that is 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 to 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 particles per day).These very fine aerosols thus persist -70-

New precipitators have cut down much of the visible smoke so characteristic of the original generating units. A great deal of effort is going into attempts to remove sulphur emissions (Business Week, 1971; Karnavas et al, 1973; Onnen, 1972; Rosenberg et al, 1973; Weir and Papay, 1973). The sulphur removal systems called wet scrubbers raise water consumption slightly, and like the fly ash removal process leave one with the problem of disposing of the pollutants collected.The stimulus for this research and investment is that there is some evidence that inhaling powerplant emissions is dangerous to human health.Dr. Richard Greer of Durango, Colorado (fifty miles from the Four Corners plant), made a study of acute and respiratory disease admissions to Durango's hospital.He checked records from 1961 to 1970; the Four Corners plant went on -line in late 1963. During the nine -year span of the record reviewed, the area's population decreased, and one other hospital opened in town, thus diminishing the number of possible patients. The admissions rate for patients admitted with respiratory disease went like this (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 92d Congress, 1st session, 1971d):

1961: 577 1966; 947 1962: 575 1967: 1,146* 1963: 585 1968: 950 1964: 745 1969: 1, 053 1965: 905 1970: 1,026

*year of a viral influenza epidemic Of course, such statistics do not prove that the Four Corners powerplant fifty miles away which opened in late 1963 and which emits tons of particles is responsible for the rise in the rate of admissions for respiratory disease. As Dr. Greer noted, this is a difficult point to settle because no one knows

(30) cont'd. indefinitely in New Mexico air masses and easily explain the widespread deterioration of visibility in recent years throughout the Four Corners states.Consequently, the smog is ef- fectively removed only by actual physical motion of the imbedding air mass to beyond the state (Fact Sheet: Four Corners Power Plant Air Pollution, 4792 Sandia Dr. , Los Alamos, New Mexico). -71-

just how much pollution is going up the stacks of the Four Corners plant. Nor does anyone yet know with certainty the dispersal pattern created by the plant's tall stacks.In addition to flyash and sulphur, the plants now on -line are emitting significant quantities of lead, mercury, cadmium, flourine, boron, and manganese, according to the Southwest Energy Study: Summary (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1972). What consequence all this has for the watershed may be spelled out in time.

A salinity increase in the Colorado River is a more direct consequence of the WEST Associates energy system. Estimates of the salt load increase at Imperial Dam because of these plants range from one percent to four percent (Op. cit. ).Since the river is already taxed by irrigation and municipal use (Blackman, Jr. et al, 1973; Skogerboe, 1973; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, D.C., 1973), this small percentage could be important. The Bureau of Reclamation believes that every 1 milligram increase in the river's salinity at Imperial Dam causes an annual economic loss of $230, 000. One percent of the present modified salinity level at Imperial Dam (which is 865 milligrams per liter), gives a minimum increase of 8.6 milligrams, or in dollars and cents, 8.6 x $230, 000 (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, D.C., 1973). From the sum of such factors, one can roughly sketch the effect of WEST Associates' development of coal -fired generation facilities on the middle reaches of the Colorado River Basin. The salt load is increased for a river already excessively saline.The flow is depleted for a river already overappropriated. The air is degraded in a Basin formerly renowned for the clarity of its air.Land is stripped by giant draglines without any certainty that it can be reclaimed. The destruction of traditional Indian culture is possibly accelerated from its earlier pace. In exchange, electricity (and in the near future gas from coal gasification plants) is generated for the oasis cities of the Southwest. Beyond this there remain more questions than answers.

The Southwest Energy Study concluded that much of the impact of the planned power generation facilities was simply not known. (31)The

(31) Under the heading "Information Needs" the study listed the following:

1.Base line information concerning the atmosphere, water, land, biota, and aesthetics, against which changes resulting -72-

Soil Conservation Service concurred, noting that "the entire text [of the Southwest Energy Study] is witness also to this fact" (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. ,1972). To a degree, the same lack of hard information characterizes the major energy development planned for the Upper Basin: oil shale.

On January 8, 1974, Standard Oil of Indiana and Gulf Oil, bidding $210,305,600, won the lease to 5,120 acres of the Piceance Creek Basin in Colorado, a portion of which is known as the Green River Formation. This formation is oil shale, an estimated 128.5 billion barrels within reach of recovery by surface -mining techniques in four main deposits (Pitman and Donnell, 1973).Total reserves in the Green River Formation run to 1.7 trillion barrels, almost four times the proven crude oil reserves of the planet, fifty times the U.S. reserves (Weaver, 1971).This is the treasure trove that poured hundreds of millions into the Department of the Interior's lap for a five- thousand acre lease.

(31) cont'd. from the coal fired powerplants, existing and under construction, could be measured. 2.The definition, quantity, rate of production, dispersion patterns, and ultimate rates of the many waste elements resulting from the operation of powerplants and their respective support systems (coal mines, transmission lines, etc.). 3.Data on the effects of waste elements from powerplants and related supporting systems on the biota either directly or in- directly through the involved ecosystem process. 4.Data on the effects of the waste elements from powerplants and supporting systems on human health. 5.Measurements on the effects of powerplant and supporting systems on the aesthetics of the area, recreational use, and the preservation of antiquities and archeological features. 6.Data to permit the assessment of possible effects of micro - particulate matter on visibility in the Southwest. 7.Information on the economic and social impacts on the residents of the Southwest resulting from the development of coal fired steam electric generating plants. 8.Data on the effects of increased costs of electricity production resulting from upgrading equipment and practices to meet new environmental control applications. -73-

The prime mining sites are in three states: Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado. The best deposits are in Colorado's Piceance Basin.The region containing the oil shale is about the size of Connecticut.In 1970, 85,000 people lived within it, mainly on the fringes.The area has one major road, running north to south.During the winter the road is often closed; warm weather brings it a traffic flow of 640 cars per day (Fletcher and Baldwin, eds. ,1973). Rain varies from 24 inches per year on the high ground to the salt desert's meager 7 inches. One hundred fifty eight species of birds, and forty seven species of mammals share the arid terrain with scattered clumps of humans (Op. cit. ).The land is mainly Federal, mainly arid, mainly empty.

This then is the oil shale region, and its possible exploitation brings up the same problems that already trouble other parts of the Colorado Basin. To the high salinity load contributed by powerplants, hydropower reservoirs, and irrigation, it offers the possibility of a massive injection of salt.To the silting that troubles the dams it may add an enormous amount of sediment. To the depleted flow that preoccupies the entire Basin, it could add one more major depletion. For the oil is imbedded in rock, the rock formed in veritable mountains.The tailings from surface mining could be very bulky. A million barrel -per -day oil shale facility would produce enough spent shale in one year to cover Washington, D. C. to a depth of six feet (Weaver, 1971),The stimulus for such colossal labor is the hope that oil shale recovery will make the Upper Colorado Basin an energy -exporting region, one that ships 80 percent of the mined energy elsewhere (Waterfor Energy Management Team, 1974).

Of the two technologies considered for oil shale extraction, surface and in situ, the latter is still experimental and unlikely to be extensively used in the next decade.Thus for the time being discussion of the consequences of an oil shale industry means surface processing.It will be big.The Atomic Energy Commission estimates that a 50, 000 barrel -perday surface plant will cost $300 million.The Federal goal is 1 million barrels per day in the 1980's: cost, an estimated $6 billion (U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1974).To attain this production level, 570 million tons of shale must be processed yearly.At least 115, 000 humans would be brought into the area (Op, cit. ).Also, a 1600 Mw powerplant (two - thirds the size of the Four Corners plant) will have to be constructed (Fletcher and Baldwin, eds. ,1973).

Such a scale requires a large amount of water. To extract 100, 000 barrels per day takes 16, 000 of of water per year an estimate that does -74-

not include the water budget for revegetating the spent shale (National Petroleum Council, Committee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972). Using this figure, a mature oil shale industry of 1 million barrels per day will consume 160, 000 of per year.This water will have to come out of the resources of the Upper Colorado Basin.In 1972 the Oil Shale Task Group of the National Petroleum Council suggested swift action be taken by energy companies in obtaining water rights because the Task Group believed the various reclamation projects of the Upper Basin states would soon snap up all the remaining water (Op. cit. ).A second possible water source is groundwater (Feltis, 1968; Water for Energy Management Team, 1974). However, Upper Basin groundwater is limited in supply, low in quality (much of it is saline), and expensive to mine (Op. cit.). Indeed, the oil shale deposits hold saline aquifers which mining may breach (Metz, 1974).

Since water is always a scarce commodity in an arid region, any depletions of this resource by the oil shale industry will affect other users adversely. But with the oil shale projects the real question is not how much water they will use, but what will be the effect of their activity on the water quality of entire Basin.The tailings could seriously pollute the watershed; the large population necessary for exploiting the deposits would add to this pollution.The Water for Energy Management Team (1974) of the Department of the Interior, in assessing the impact of energy development on the Upper Basin, listed the following water quality problems in addition to salinity: municipal wastes, industrial wastes, dissolved oxygen content, temperature, heavy metals, toxic materials, toxic bacteria, silt."Whereas, " the Team pointed out, "water qualities are not critical in the Upper Basin, as progressively downstream reuse occurs additional salts are added and concentrated to a degree that a serious degradation occurs for the final users in the Lower Basin and Mexico ".Thus, the oil shale industry, if developed, will join a river system already having serious water quality problems. A chart makes vivid the current degradation of the Colorado watershed as it drains the Upper Basin without an oil shale industry: -75-

SALINITY FLOW CONCENTRATIONS STREAM (1, 000 af) (mg /1)

Green River near Green River, Wyoming 1240 323

Green River at Green River, Utah 4078 473

Colorado River near Glenwood Springs, Colo.1418 310

Colorado River near Cisco, Utah 4643 662

San Juan River near Bluff, Utah 1596 461

Colorado River at Lee Ferry, Arizona 10,376 609

( -Water for Energy Management Team, 1974)

The Bureau of Reclamation expects the salinity level at Imperial Dam to jump from 865 mg /1 today to 1160 mg /1 by the year 2000 (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, D.C.,1973). How much salt an oil shale industry would add to this total is anybody's guess.Estimates for increased salinity behind Hoover Dam if an oil shale industry is developed range from 1 -40 percent (Metz, 1974).

An oil shale industry could contribute salt to the watershed at two points: the water pumped from the shale strata in mining and used to process the shale; the runoff from the spent shale (Gardner and LeBaron, 1968; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, 1971; Ward and Reinecke, 1972).If the industry expands at predicted rates, the spent shale alone could contain 3 million tons of salt per year by 1981, the equivalent of 70 percent of the river's present salt load (Fletcher and Baldwin, eds.,1973). Waste water from mining will be 8.4 times the volume of the oil recovered (Op. cit. ).The Final Environmental Impact Statement (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.,1973) estimated that a 25, 000 barrel-per-clay plant will produce from 25, 000 af to 35, 000 af of wastewater per year.This amount of saline effluent represents a challenging disposal problem in a watershed already be- deviled with salt (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1974 *). -76-

The salty spent shale is a factor of great size and persistence (see Figure 13).After the rock is mined, milled, and retorted, what remains is "spent ".It has expanded as much as 50 percent from its original volume. Industry plans call for filling up nearby canyons with this waste, and compacting it to some degree (National Petroleum Council, Committee on the U.S. Energy Outlook, 1972).The canyons are narrow and subject to floods when the infrequent rains come. Therefore, the wastes will have to be impounded. To stabilize this land it must be revegetated. (32)This may be difficult.The spent shale is black:it gets hot. Such waste is salty.It must be fertilized.Possibly, it will have to be fenced lest wild creatures devour the seedlings (Fletcher and Baldwin, eds.,1973).To date, experimental revegetation has succeeded by ad- hering to the following practices: daily watering, special complete fertilizer, and plenty of mulch. The Final Environmental Impact Statement concluded that when "irrigation [is] withdrawn, the natural climate could not support these stands" (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. , 1973). Beyond these difficulties, there is the task of selecting the right plants for seeding. Plants tend to be site specific.What this means for the oil shale lease tracts is that the plants best adapted for the acreage to be mined are the plants that were living there before the surface was gouged out to extract oil. An example of this local adaptation is found in a study done of four Texas grasses, Pancium virgatum [switchgrass], Sorghastrum nutans [Yellow Indiangrass], Andropogon scoparius [Littlebluestem], and Boutleoua curtipendula [Sideoats grama]. Plants from five different sites were grown on one site.Each species, though grown under identical conditions, showed differences from population to population in blooming date, general stature and vigor (Fletcher and Baldwin, eds. ,1973). Naturally, the spent shale - black, inert, saline - presents less than the perfect medium for plant growth.Finding species suited to thriving upon the wastes in the various box canyons may be no meanfeat.

(32) A one million barrel-per-day oil shale industry may disturb 80, 000 acres over a thirty year period (Fletcher and Baldwin, eds. ,1973). One Department of the Interior estimate of a 100, 000 barrel -per -day plant over a twenty year period went like this:11, 000 acres by mining; 200 acres for processing facilities; 180 -600 acres for roads, powerlines, pipelines; 1, 000 acres for overburden disposal; 2,800-3,200 acres for spent shale disposal.Total, 5,280 to 6,300 acres (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1974 *). Figure 13. EFFECT OF RATE OF SHALE -OIL PRODUCTION ON SPENT SHALE OUTPUT Shale Oil Production in place Raw Shale Input in place CompactedSpent Shale volumeOutput Dayscanyon required 1 mile to x fill 1000 box ft. (bbl /day) weight (tons) volume (yd3) (yd3) x 300 ft. 638 500,250,000 000 50,000 333,500 66,700 191,00038,300 230,00046,000 128 64 2,000,0001,000,000 2,667,7001,333,900 666,000 1,533,200 766,600383,300 1,839,800 460,000919,900 1632 recoveryCalculations efficiency are based of 90on percentshale grade of in of -place 35 gallons Fisxher per assay. ton and tothatunminedValuesCoproduct be suchcan of be thatshale. mineralogy, andexpected final byproduct disposal (Weaver, retorting, recovery volume 1971). and arewill compaction assumed be 1.2 times to are be that assumedzero. of This is probably the maximum compaction value -78-

The spent shale problem may be the product of an American idea, that there are places called wastelands beyond the concern of God or man or law. The proposal to dump the wastes in box canyons suggeststhat somehow such topographical features exist outside the region's ecology and beyond the fingers of its watershed. The same kind of thinking govern- ed the erection of tall smokestacks on powerplants in the Four Corners area.It was argued that the huge chimneys would disperse the pollutants - somewhere. But somewhere is always the homeplace for other plants, animals, and humans. In the case of the coal -fired electric plants, it is becoming increasingly evident that their particulates and emissions were dispersed into human lungs among other places. Dispersal does not mean disappearance. Depending upon the vagaries of weather, it may not even mean dilution.The spent shale wastes impounded in the canyons will remain aimed like a gun at the heart of the Colorado River. The weapon could have many triggers. The revegetation efforts could fail leaving the wastes unstable. Impoundment barriers could rupture. Storms could send walls of water down the narrow canyons which exceed the strength of the containment devices of the engineers. Since no one knows how long the spent shale must be segregated until it is deemed safe, the possibilities for containment failure are at present open ended.

There is no place that is no place.

A final impact of the oil shale industry on the Colorado River Basin will fall on some of its current inhabitants, wild animals. There are about a dozen golden eagle nests in the Piceance Basin. The nation's largest migratory deer herd, varying from 30, 000 to 60, 000 head, ranges on the shale tracts.Even assuming the disturbed land is revegetated, ten percent of the herd will die (Fletcher and Baldwin, eds. ,1973).The Final Environmental Impact Statement imagines this future for wildlife:

In general, the native fauna of the oil shale region would react to industrial development and urbanization in the same way fauna have reacted to the pressures of expanding population and land development in other parts of the United States.Species such as mountain lions, elk, large raptors, and grouse, which, because of unique behavior traits, are intolerant of human activity, will retreat from the area, and their numbers will be reduced by the loss of available territory. Deer herds will be reduced for the same reasons, but, being more tolerant, they will not retreat so far.Increased interference with their migratory routes will tend to favor those animals that do not -79-

migrate and alter the behavior of herds over time. Losses of native fauna can be related to the level of development and the populations of intolerant species will be reduced. More tolerant species and species which utilize smaller territories will also be reduced in numbers, mainly by the physical loss of habitat and the impact of introduced pollutants such as dust, pesticides, polluted waste water, and noxious effluents from industrial processing (U.S. Depart- ment of the Interior, Washington, D.C. ,1973). Also, several species of endangered fish in the Colorado watershed will possibly become extinct (Water for Energy Management Team, 1974). Such a give- and -take between development and environmental change is often called a tradeoff.Thus, in oil shale extraction the living animals and plants and fish which inhabit the area will be traded off for the fossil animals and plants and fish locked in the shale rock.Declines in the area's wildlife populations will have little effect on water quality or supply - it may even increase supply by eliminating organisms that consume water.

All this speculation may well be overridden by another factor: water shortages. The Department of the Interior estimates that there are 5. 8 million af of water available in the Upper Basin flow.Currently, 3.7 million af are consumed. This leaves 2.1 million of for future use. By the year 2000, when cities need another 750, 000 af, farmers 800, 000 af more, and environmental purposes such as parks an additional 150, 000 af, increased consumption will end this surplus. To this increase we must project an additional 850, 000 af needed by the energy industry.It takes no calculator to come up with a total that exceeds the water in the Upper Basin's flow. A deficit it is called."Should the projected water requirements occur as itemized above ", the Department warns, "there could be significant shortages occurring in all states except Wyoming by the year 2000" (Water for Energy Management Team, 1974)(Figure 14).There are several ways out of the projected shortage.If one -half the powerplants planned for the Upper Basin were air - cooled instead of water -cooled, it would save 160, 000 af.Weather modification could theoretically increase the flow by 500, 000 af.Purchase of farm water rights could cut demand from that sector of the economy (it is estimated, conservatively, that five percent of agricultural water, 90, 000 af in Colorado and Utah,will be bought for energy uses by the year 2000). Use of pumped groundwater, while a strain on the water table, would ease demands on the river.Also, there is the hope that desalination plants and geothermal water in the Lower Basin will enable the Upper Basin to --80-

UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN WATER FOR ENERGY 1974 to 2000

COMPACT SHARE, 7,500,000 MAF

ASSUMED AVAILABLE, 6.5 MAF

6 CONSERVATIVE HYPOTHESIS, 5.8 MAF

PLANNED

5 INPROGRESS

FOOD & FIBER

OTHER

EXPORTS

ENERGY STORAGE PROJECT RESERVOIR EVAPORATION

M & I, MINERALS, FISH-WILDLIFE, RECREATION, PUBLIC LANDS

EXPORTS

1 FOOD & FIBER

I r r 1974 1980 1990 2000

YEAR Source: Water for Energy Management Team, Report on Water for Energy in the Upper Colorado River Basin.U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C.July 1974.p. 63. -81-

increase its share of the river (Op. cit.).(33)

(33) On October 4, 1974, Colony Development Operations announced suspension of its plans to build a 50, 000 barrel -per -day oil shale facility in northwest Colorado by 1977.Colony (a consortium including Atlantic - Richfield, Oil Shale Corp.,Shell Oil, and Ashland Oil) estimated the cost of the facility had risen from an initial $450 million to "in excess of $800 million by 1977."The decision to stop was based on "current double -digit inflation, tight money, and absence of a national energy policy which establishes clearly the role of oil from shale in the national picture." An additional factor in the decision may have been a draft environmental impact statement circulating in Washington, dated September 16, outlining several potential consequences of oil shale exploitation. Pegging production at 1. 5 million barrels by 1990, the impact foreseen included: increased salinity in the Colorado River; use of 80 percent of Utah's and Colorado's available water, 45 percent of Wyoming's; creation of a salt desert environment over a wide area and perhaps climatic change; agricultural damage by 1990 accumulating to more than $30 million; and a large investment of money for a low net energy gain (New York Times News Service, October 5, 1974).

Another document circulating in draft form echoes recent pessimism about future water flow and water quality in the Colorado Basin. On salinity,the Westside Study concludes: ...Taking as a base the acceptable salinity levels of 500 ppm for municipal and industrial supplies and 750 ppm for agricultural use, the total damage attributable to salinity in the Colorado River System for 1973 was about $53 million. By the year 2000, these damages to the total regional economy are expected to reach $124 million per year if no control measures are applied.

On water shortages in the Colorado Basin:

...The Colorado River is one of the most highly controlled rivers in the world.It is approaching that point when little usable water, if any, will ever escape from the Basin to the Gulf of California.It is approaching the point also when the natural water supply of the River will be inadequate to meet all of the demands placed upon it... -82-

None of these solutions is really a solution."It is a fact," the Department of the Interior argues, "that total water management programs can only delay and not prevent water shortages from occurring eventually" (Water for Energy Management Team, 1974).Thus, the various augmentation proposals, and interbasin transfers from the Columbia or Canada, can only increase the amount of water available.They have no effect on the consumption of water. The past history of American exploitation of the Colorado watershed is characterized by consumption growing to exceed the amount of water available. Each dam spawned new farmland beyond its capacity to irrigate.Each turbine planted in the flow seemed to excite appetites for power in excess of its generating limit. There is no available evidence which suggests that projected coal -fired electric plants, coal gasification works, and oil shale facilities will break from this past record and achieve a new balance with the amount of water in the Colorado watershed. Presumably energy development on the Colorado, whether agricultural or fossil fuel, will proceed in the future as it has in the past.This will result in diminished flow, pollution of the land, air, and water, reduction or extermination of some animal species currently inhabiting the region, and depletion of the nation's energy reserve in order to satisfy the nation's current and projected energy appetite.

(33) cont'd.

Studies indicate that with a fairly intensive growth in the Upper Basin and without augmentation of the River, water shortages in the Lower Basin could emerge by the year 1995, and grow continually more severe thereafter. -U.S. Department of the Interior: Executive summary of the critical water problems facing the eleven western states: The Westwide Study. Review Draft, May 1974. various pagings. IV. THE MISSOURI RIVER

Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet were paddling down the Mississippi River in the year 1673 when they heard a noise like a rapids "into which we were about to fall." The clear water under their canoe gave way to muddy flow."I have seen nothing more frightful," the priest confessed.What he saw were giant trees tossed like sticks, floating islands of debris careening toward the canoe.The two white men had found the mouth of the Missouri River (Vestal, 1945 *).The Bureau of Reclamation has recently estimated that by the year 2050 this same river will not have enough water in its lower reaches between Sioux City and St. Louis to float a barge (McCaull, 1974).The waters that terrified Father Marquette and Jolliet will have disappeared down the maw of irrigated farmland and energy conversion plants.

The Missouri River begins at 8, 000 feet in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, travels 2,466 miles to the Mississippi, drains a basin of 529,400 square miles. The Upper Basin holding the Northern Great Plains is dry - hot in summer, cold in winter.It has never been heavily populated.In the eighteenth century it sustained a buffalo economy among plains Indians. For a brief span in the early nineteenth century, fur trappers traversed the treeless grasslands on treks to the beaver of the mountains (DeVoto, 1947 *). The late nineteenth century saw spasmodic efforts to till the plains under variants of dry farming, but most followers of these these techniques were swiftly cut down by the harshness of the land and the weather (Smith, 1958 *; Webb, 1936 *).With the slaughter of the buffalo and the removal of the Indian to reservations, ranchers occupied the Northern Great Plains, though farming clung to some valleys and the Dakotas.This century has brought over 100 dams and some irrigation to the Missouri and its tributaries.Such have been the succession of energy systems to tackle the elements of the region. "As a people," the Bureau of Land Management observes of the region's few inhabitants, "they were accustomed to wide horizons, vast expanses of space, and may require a broad, horizontally- oriented environment for personal psychic well being" (U.S.Bureau of Land Management, 1974 *).(34)

(34) Possibly the best and briefest comment on the isolation of the plains is

-83- -84-

This emptiness is full of coal. Of the 128 million acres of coal fields in the western United States, the bulk of this reserve underlays the Northern Great Plains (McCormick, 1974; National Academy of Sciences, 1974; Pollard et al, 1972; Powder River Basin Resource Council, 1974). One and a half million acres of this western reserve can be stripmined. According to a conservative projection, this mining will result in 140 square miles being disturbed by 1990, 300 square miles by 2000. To date, 2, 000 square miles have been disturbed by surface mining in the East(National Academy of Sciences, 1974), but save for the railroads, the western fields have scarcely been touched in the past, and diesel conversion ended even this limited use. Now, the coal's low sulphur content and the rising price of other energy sources have conspired to make these huge fields desirable. Mining is sharply on the upswing: Montana extracted 9 million tons in 1973; this will go to 40 million tons by 1980. Wyoming in the same years will increase from 10 million tons to 40 million tons (McCaull, 1974).In 1973 western coal accounted for nine percent of the nation's total mining; this is expected to reach 17 percent (of a much greater national volume) by the end of the century (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974).This strippable reserve, according to one estimate, could supply the nation'scoal hunger completely for forty -five years, provided none was used for gasification (National Academy of Sciences, 1974). The State of Montana's Environ- mental Quality Council (1974 *) sees it disappearing even faster, exhausted by 1996 if used as the sole coal source. All plans for power development in the Upper Missouri Basin are based on the magnitude of these reserves.Opposition feeds on the same fact (Boulding, 1974).For what development means for the present inhabitants is more people, more stripped land, and, if powerplants are built to burn the coal at the mine sites, more water depletion.Such changes would contrast greatly with the grassland emptiness of the Big Horn, Tongue, Yellowstone, and Powder River Basins, and the plains of the Dakotas.The surface of 63 percent of the strippable coal reserves in the West is privately owned by ranchers and farmers. Much of this land was entered under the Homestead Act of 1863 which left the government the mineral rights.In

(34) cont'd. the key line of an old American ballad:

O bury me not on the lone prairie

(John A. Lomax, Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads, New York, Macmillan, 1931) -85-

Montana, 97 percent of the strippable coal lies under private property, in North Dakota, close to 100 percent (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974).

"Oh, some say it will be reclaimed, " scoffs Mrs. Vera -Beth Johnson of the Bull Mountains in Montana, but she, like many ranchers and farmers, doubts it.She asks, "Do we have so much earth that we can afford to destroy and forever disrupt any part of it ?" (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials, and Fuels, 92d Congress, 1st session, 1972b).Resistance to coal development runs high on the Northern Great Plains; recently, regional protest stopped shipment of 10,000 tons of Montana coal to Japan (New York Times News Service, 1974 *).One group in the Tongue River Basin has posted a large sign declaring the land a "National Sacrifice Area" (Hamilton, 1974 *).However, the Bureau of Land Management has ventured, "That the philosophy can be altered when economic benefits accrue to an individual or private corporation is suspected from the fact that leases covering 430, 398 acres of private land in Montana are now in existence" (U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1974 *).

Opponents of mining fear that the land mined will be ruined forever. "Anyone," the head of Peabody Coal has admitted (U. S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials and Fuels, 92d Congress, 1st session, 1972b), "who has seen an active mining operation knows it is ugly."(35)(Figure 15). States in the Northern Great Plains are taking steps to protect the land surface and aquifers from the effects of stripmining (Sayvetz, 1974). They fear water drainage systems will be disrupted, and the land left unreclaimed."In the past," the Bureau of Land Management states, "when a coal operation ceased, equipment of value was removed and the site virtually abandoned" (U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1974).There appears to be general agreement on two points:

(35) But as Edwin Phelps, head of Peabody, pointed out in his 1972 testimony, beauty is a relative thing.Commenting on proposed surface mining bills, he offered:"Some of the bills contained undefined references to the 'environment' and 'natural beauty. 'I recognize the good intentions behind these terms, but they can be mischievous in effect.Beauty is indeed in the eye of the beholder and impossible to define.Nature created the Bad Lands of South Dakota and they were made a national monument, but if any surface miner duplicated them even on a small scale, it would be called a national disgrace." 'e s . 4 7iti- ! --.. . ..o,.,` rati. , ,M/m . - . . i. - '`, a.'.... -p..-. ` . lb...... """.`...7.`.010e " .... + r ' - ' . . J ," . -. 1,....., . ' p - `" À.'. J : - ¡; .r, , r 71 . w #} -- +:' w' .-1 - - :»'-.y-..r. -~:- - r'-:1 ".: ! / } ~1-. - `y.. s. - .Ì. t l. . .+ . `;,/- . . el ;* , .'- Navajo strip mine near Four Corners. NPS photo 9 -15 -71 Source: Southwest Energy Study, An Evaluation of Coal -fired Electric Power Generation inofSummary thethe Southwest,Interior, Report Washington, [of the] Study D. C. Management November 1972.Team for ther Federal Task Force.4 U.S. Department -87-

1) that the coal industry has failed in the past in many reclamation efforts (U.S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, 1973b *; ------Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials and Fuels, 92d Congress, 1st session,1972b) [Figure 16 contains the current rate of reclamation in the West]; and 2) that if reclamation is unsuccessful in the arid West, it will leave scarred land and disrupted aquifers (National Academy of Sciences, 1974; Vanvoast, 1973).Debate focuses on whether or not reclamation is even possible.

The National Academy of Science contends that rehabilitation of western coal lands is site specific meaning each tract must be weighed on its own merits.Generally, the NAS panel found that 10 inches of rainfall was the minimum for successful reclamation, meaning most of the Colorado Plateau probably cannot be reclaimed and most of the Great Plains can be.The chief hazards facing revegetation on the plains are the fickle rainfall and the severity of the climate - hot summers, freezing winters, as pointed out earlier (NAS, 1974).

The coal industry is confident that these hazards can be overcome (Op. cit.) citing successes in Wyoming (Oberwager, 1973; Rulli, 1971). Typical of this belief are two comments by coal company representatives (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974):

Tom Higgins of Peabody states: We're not stripping unless we are sure we can reclaim... When we talk about revegetation, we are talking about the permanent vegetation, and we are incorporating native grasses whenever possible.We are sure we can reclaim and revegetate.

Blake Edwards of AMAX:

We are looking for all types of grasses.We don't know which grasses will work, but we are confident that we will find the right combination.

Critics argue that since no one knows if the arid western land can be reclaimed, mining should be halted until reclamation is a proved tech- nique, pointing to old spoils banks in the region as models of the difficulties -88-

to be overcome.(36) The efforts of coal companies in recent years prove nothing to the critics.Land, they argue, is not reclaimed just because water and manure encourage a summer's growth.It takes decades, they contend, to establish a mature plant community on stable rich soil which cansurvive untended by humans (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974;National Academy of Sciences, 1974; U.S. Senate, Committee on Interiorand Insular Affairs, 1973b *; ------Subcommittee onMinerals, Materials and Fuels, 92d Congress, 1st session, 1972b). Mainly theargument is structured by ignorance. As the National Academy ofSciences points out in defending its ten -inch criterion, "However, wemust emphasize that this belief is not based on long -term extensive controlledexperiments in

(36) ...Therefore to do nothing with surface mine spoils may lead to different end -products throughout the western coal region.In Montana and the Dakotas the ungraded surface mined land of 1920s -1950s resembles the kettled topography of the terminal moraine left by retreat of the continental ice sheet ten thousand years ago, where no stream drainage networks have formed. Vegetation slowly establishes itself with adequate cover, developing in forty to sixty years.It is highly unlikely that such time requirements for natural vegetation will be acceptable to most of society. In the Southwest, the results of the "do nothing" approach can be predicted by observing the turquoise mine workings in the Cerrillos Hills near Santa Fe, New Mexico. The deposits were last worked about seventy years ago.Previously, they had been mined during Spanish Colonial times of the 16th century and long before then by Indians. No restoration was attempted. The mines all look much the same: the Anglos' diggings, the conquistadores', and the Indians'. No plants grow in abundance (National Academy of Sciences, 1974).

The coal industry derided these examples in their comments on the study because they are bound by law and bond to recontour and reclaim the land now. However, the two examples still function as indices of the difficulties of reclaiming arid land.In the more humid East, abandoned mine tracts have sometimes been carpeted by surrounding vegetation. The Cerrillos site mentioned has been nominated for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. _89_

Figure 16

STRIPPING AND RECLAMATION ON FEDERAL AND INDIANLEASES Acres Acres Re- % Re- Leaseholder" Strippedclaimed clamation

AMAX 9 5 36% Ark Land 75 5 7 W.B. Brannon 4 0 0 Consolidation Coal 123 32 26 Energy Fuels 540 458 85 Energy Development 322 77 24 Knife River Coal Mining 229 89 39 North American Coal 660 65 10 Pacific Power and Light 786 514 67 Peabody Coal 931 663 71 Pittsburg and Midway 141 110 78 Western Coal 20 0 0 Western Energy 467 218 47 Rosebud Coal Sales 71 0 0 Wyodak 18 5 28 Utah International 2119 1133 53

All Leases 6515 3374 52% *See Lease Catalogue for ownership of leaseholders.

Council on Economic Priorities Source: USGS Regional Offices

Source: Council on Economic Priorities, N. Y. , Leased and Lost, AStudy of Public and Indian Coal Leasing in the West. Economic Priorities Report, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1974, p.8. -90-

shaping and revegetating western lands that have been surface mined. Few such studies have been made and those in progress have only a few year's data to report" (1974). A final reclamation fact yet undetermined is cost.Should the cost run too high, surface mining itself might fall into question.(37)

What is at stake in these claims and counterclaims are sections of

(37) The wide span of cost estimates for various types of reclamation on surface -mined land is shown in the following (information adapted, where not otherwise attributed, from Dials and Moore (1974)):

1)Hollis Dole, Assistant Secretary of the Interior, gave $500 as the cost of basic reclamation per acre, including grading, revegetation, and drainage control (U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. , 1971)

2) The U.S. Bureau of Mines (1971) reported reclamation of surface -mined land in Appalachia averaged $1,100 per acre, with some plots going as high as $15, 000 per acre.

3)In 1971 the Director of the Pennsylvania Mine Reclamation Division, William Juckert,stated that costs in his state averaged $250 to $500, with a high of $750.

4) In 1972 the Council on Environmental Quality cited a figure of $2,000 per acre.

5) The USDA's Soil Conservation Service reported a cost of $2,000 per acre for reclamation of flat land at Catoosa, Oklahoma.

6) The Environmental Protection Agency breaks down reclamation costs this way: $500 -$2, 500 for regrading; $50 for fertilizer; $60 for liming to reduce soil acidity; $200 -$800 for seeding. No cost estimate is given for stockpiling topsoil, surface preparation (raking, reburying toxic and dark -colored materials, breaking up compacted areas), or for irrigating dry areas.

7) West Germany spends $3,000-$4,500 per acre on reclamation.

8) Great Britain spends $4,400 per acre for reclamation. -91-

the Missouri River watershed.If reclamation suceeds, there will be land disturbance for a few years and then a return to former or comparable land use.If reclamation fails, the mining tracts will be open sores on the plains for decades, or longer. The public must decide what use it wants made of its own land. As the National Academy asked, 'What do people expect? What do people want ?" (1974).In the past, they wanted very little.No one asked the Rocky Mountain fur trappers to protect theecological balance of beaver communities. No one asked early gold miners and other mineral enterprises to revegetate their tailings and leave the land unscarred. No one lifted a hand to stop the destruction of thebuffalo herds. No one asked the dry farmers to pause in their homesteading until it was determined if the land once plowed could be returned to grass should the farms fail.No one paid heed to overgrazing by ranchers in the latenineteenth century. Now people are asking what will be the effect of stripmining on the American West. And no one knows. (38) Far more critical to the Missouri watershed than stripmining is the consequence of building energy conversion plants onthe northern Great Plains.The plants will use water.They will pollute.They will increase the population greatly, resulting in still more water use and pollution. The plants could change the region from empty grazing ground to one studded with energy extraction cities.(Figure 17)These energy conversion plants were announced abruptly in 1971 in the NorthCentral Power Study (NCPS), a document sponsored by the Department ofthe Interior and thirty five utilities. Power would be generated in eastern Montana, Wyoming, the Dakotas, and Colorado by coal -fired electric plants, with the coal set by the NCPS as 50, 000 Mw by 1980, close to 200, 000 Mw by 2000. Only two spots on the surface of the globe now generate more electricity than this projection: the USA and the USSR (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974). Potential sites for forty -two plants are noted in the NCPS, thirteen of them for plants of 10, 000 Mw each. A 10, 000 -Mw -plant would be fourteen

(38) The National Academy of Sciences (1974), pointing out the serious gaps evident in the quantitative data on surface water quality and aquatic biota in the areas being considered for mining and power generation, cites such major unanswered questions relating to the impacts on land and water as: 1) What are the on -site and off -site hydrological effects on quantity and quality?2) To what extent will groundwater be depleted? and 3) What are the on -site and off -site water requirements for land rehabilitation? -92- Figure 17 Northern Great Plains Power Development

Source: Alvin M. Josephy, Jr. , Agony of the Northern Plains. Reprinted with permission from Audubon, The Magazine of the National Audubon Society.Copyright 0 1973. -93-

times the size of the Four Corners plant when it first went on -line (Josephy, Jr. ,1973).If generation is held to 50, 000 Mw for thirty -five years, the normal life span of such plants, the system would devour 210 million tons of coal per annum.This would entail disturbing 10 to 20 square miles of land annually. At the 200, 000 -Mw- level, 50, 000 square miles to 175, 000 square miles would be disturbed over a thirty five year period (Op. cit.). The NCPS envisions placing up to ten 10, 000 -Mw- plants in a thirty -by- seventy mile area in the vicinity of Gillette, Wyoming. Such a complex leads to one of the main characteristics of the NCPS: pollution (Melcher, 1972).

The plants placed around Gillette (a region containing one of the world's largest antelope herds) would emit 1200 tons of particulates per day, 10, 000 tons of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, and 24, 000, 000 tons of carbon dioxide.There would also be residue of trace elements: 140, 000 pounds per day (lb /day) of titanium; 5000 to 7500 lb /day of manganese and arsenic; 250, 000 lb /day of flourine; 15, 000 to 20, 000 lb /day of lead and zinc; 30, 000 lb /day of uranium; 25 to 100 lb /day of beryllium, mercury, and cadmium; 200 to 1000 lb /day of cobalt, chromium, nickel, selenium, and molybdenum (Op. cit. ).(39) The Environmental Defense Fund calculations find that this much matter thrown up in the air will exceed the air pollution levels of the Los Angeles Basin (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974).It is an open question what effect these various emissions will have on flowing water or living things within range of the plants.

Besides electric generating plants, various coal gasification facilities are planned. The Council on Economic Priorities (Op. cit.) cites an estimate of seven gasification works by 1985, sixteen by the year 2000. Senator Gaylord Nelson has mentioned that as many as 176 plants are rumored for the West (U. S. Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Sub- committee on Minerlas, Materials and Fuels, 92d Congress, 1st session, 1972a). For awhile, one company sought sites for 22 gasification plants in North Dakota alone.The Northern Plains Resource Program, head- quartered in Denver, and managed by John VanDerwalker, has worked out three hypothetical development scenarios for the Northern Great Plains region. One hypothesis is that there will be no gasification plants built on the plains before the year 2000.The most probable scenario is seven

(39) At present since the NCPS group plans only on building a 50, 000 -Mw- capacity around Gillette, Melcher's calculations should be halved for the appropriate emissions levels. -94-

plants by 1985, sixteen by 2000.Their high development outline is seven plants by 1980, twenty by 1985, and forty one by the year 2000.(40) Each plant would put out 250 million cubic feet of gas per day. The coal demand of such a plant would run about 8 million tons per year (Josephy, Jr., 1973).

Gas produced in the region would presumably be piped out.Coal would be shipped east by serpentine unit trains, or, in at least one instance, sent by slurry line from Wyoming to Arkansas (High Country News, 1974 *). Electricity would be exported by 8, 015 miles of extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines. Each line would require a 100 yard right of way: total 450 square miles (Council on Economic Priorities, 1974). The bill for such a set of wires would run $5 billion.Line loss for transmission of 50, 000 Mw might top 3000 Mw, more than the peak demand of Manhattan (Op. cit.). Such, in brief, are the aspirations of the North Central Power Study and various gas companies. All this energy conversion will consume water from the Missouri River watershed. This water must come from a region whose average precipitation varies from 8 inches to 24 inches, with the largest portion receiving 10 to 16 inches (U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1974 *). "Because water requirements are a major problem in the western areas," the National Academy of Sciences concluded (1974), "water consumption and related on -and off -site environmental impacts that would result from conversion of coal by gasification, liquefaction, or its use for electricity generation could far exceed the impacts from coal mining alone." The 50, 000 Mw of electric generation plotted for around Gillette would demand 855, 000 acre feet for cooling.Gasification and liquefaction plants could raise this total to 2,600,000 acre feet (Josephy, Jr. , 1973). Energy companies have already applied for 3.3 million acre feet (McCaull, 1974). If past practices are followed, this water will be totally consumed in order to protect the watershed from pollution (Josephy, Jr. ,1973; Melcher, 1972).

The Bureau of Reclamation has proposed a way to get such an amount of water to the Gillette area: three hundred miles of aqueducts costing a billion dollars which would drain off between one quarter and one half (the fraction varies with the River's flow) of the Yellowstone River (McCaull, 1974; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Billings, Montana, 1972). "Thus," in the words of one critic, "more water would be depleted by energy industries

(40) Figures based on a letter to the author, July 30, 1974, from Ms. Kathy Fletcher, Environmental Defense Fund, Denver. -95-

in the Yellowstone basin than is now depleted by all users throughout the entire Missouri River Basin" (McCaull, 1974).The Bureau divides the water up in the following manner: The average yearly flow of the Yellow- stone is 9.4 million acre feet.Irrigation requires 2.4 million acre feet, energy development 2. 6 million acre feet (the 3. 3 million acre feet need cited above is based on applications filed since the Bureau's 1972 study). This leaves a healthy surplus on paper. But the Yellowstone, like so many western rivers, does not flow according to statistical averages. During drought in the sixties, it averaged 4.4 million acre feet.For a good share of at least one year in ten (possibly as often as one year in four), the river flow is so low that even a careful timing of projected withdrawals will exceed its volume (McCaull, 1974)."Diversions of this scale," the Northern Plains Resource Council of Billings argues, "would critically threaten the efficiencies of present pumping and diversion facilities and would eliminate any further development of irrigable lands" (Op. cit.). The Yellowstone may not be able to slake the thirst of coal development and agriculture. There are further problems in diverting the Yellowstone. As it presently wanders across the length of Montana it never confronts a dam. Some would like to keep it that way. Also, Indian tribes, under the Winters Doctrine (41), could cut heavily into its flow. Some ask what will become of the aqueducts and dams when, in thirty, forty, or fifty years, the power - plants have roared out their life span and no longer need to be cooled? But the fundamental question facing residents of the Upper Missouri Basin is simply whether or not they desire to spend their water on a temporary form of economic activity which plans to do business for a few decades only.

Paired with the question of water depletion is the projected increase in the human population.Sheridan county, Wyoming, contained 17, 398 inhabitants in 1973.It is expecting to number 90, 000 by 1995 (Fetsco, 1974 *). Rock Springs, Wyoming, shot from 12, 000 to 26, 000 in two years. The proposed powerplants will draw in hundreds of thousands more. Such numbers will deplete the water supply still further and lower its quality to a degree. But evidence to date suggests the major impact of such growth will be inside the minds of humans who dwell in the region.Gillette, Wyo- ming, grew from 3, 500 to 7, 000 or 8, 000 in the sixties.The experience of the people who came to work in the gas and oil fields has been dubbed the

(41) Winters v. United States, 207 U.S., 564 (1908). -96-

Gillette Syndrome, a phenomenon that works like this: Gillette, as a town of 8, 000, averaged one suicide a week, ten times the national rate. The town has one of the nation' s highest delinquency rates, highest high school dropout rates, highest divorce rates. The community features the 3 A's: alcoholism, accidents, absenteeism; and the 3 D's: divorce, delinquency, and depression (Talbot, 1973). At present, a one hundred twenty -six mile railroad is proposed to link Gillette with Douglas, Wyoming, traversing the Thunder Basin National Grassland, one of the nation's few surviving yardsticks for the word space.Gillette will boom yet more.

The development of coal beds in the Upper Missouri Basin, and the conversion of this coal to energy, will have its cost in dollars, water, air, land, and lives.This assault upon the land's resources and the rivers' flow is in keeping with past experience in the region.The wilds of Wyo- ming and the Big Sky of the plains are what was left by trappers killing beaver for the heads of men on the other side of the continent, by skin hunters slaughtering millions of buffalo for a hide, a hump, and a tongue, by army units killing Indians and herding the broken remnants unto reservations, by ranchers running stock until the grass was cropped sparse and fencing the terrain's rolling hills with barbed wire, by dry farmers ripping open the earth in search of fortune and finding locust and clouds of dust, by irrigation farmers penning rivers behind dirt and cement walls - and finally, by Americans seeking energy in an arid land.

Like the Colorado, the Missouri Basin has been fashioned in the past by human hungers and needs. Such toil always is inherently risky in regions of limited and erratic rainfall, exacting its price in the consequences to the area where the energy is extracted. What is proposed by the energy development plans is past attitudes and past practices writ large into the future.

The Big Muddy will not look so big to those who come after the coal rush. (42)

(42) Some have questioned any development at all of the Northern Plains coal fields, pointing out that there is plenty of low sulphur coal in the East still but that mining it entails going underground and dealing with the United Mine Workers of America. Arnold Miller sees the move to the western reserves as part of an attempt by the companies to break his union: strip mines employ fewer men and are not heavily unionized by the UMW. Miller also emphasizes, in speaking for his men, that one environmental cost of (42) cont'd.

coal mining is often ignored by commentators on the industry.He points out, "We get killed" (Miller, 1973 *).Due to the low BTU value of western coal, and the shipping costs,Miller also believes it is not really cheaper than Eastern coal.

The Council on Economic Priorities (1974) finds that few western leases have ever been developed, and suggests that corporations have bought the huge tracts from the Government at a cheap rate for speculation.The Northern Plains Resource Council denies that western coal has less sulphur than eastern coal in any meaningful sense: the argument is that western coal has less heat per ton, thus one has to burn more for the same amount of heat as contained in a ton of eastern coal; ergo, the sulphur emissions rise to the same level per unit of energy [The Sulphur Myth, in The Plain's Truth, vol. 3, no. 4, May 1974].The Environmental Policy Center (McCormick, 1974) agrees with Miller that there is plenty of low sulphur coal still in the East. Norman R. Williams (1974), consultant to the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, contends that in addition to the spurious low sulphur claims made for western coal, its high moisture content is overlooked. This moisture, up to one -fourth of the weight per ton, further lowers its competiveness with Eastern reserves. He believes that pass- through laws on transportation charges make the Great Plains deposits all the more attractive to the coal companies and utilities. Pass -through laws permit transportation costs to be passed on to the consumer. V. CONCLUSIONS

As the next five or ten decades tumble into place, many projections made today will be supported or cut down by events. The future will in many ways be the place no one could imagine.Past and present data cannot simply be flung forward into the configurations of the year 2000's ways and means. For example, in 1970, James R. Smith, Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Power and Water Development, remarked at the beginning of the North Central Power Study:

The Nation's energy requirements are considered to be doubling every seven or ten years. The American people will demand sufficient electricity for their needs.I do not believe that this Nation will accept a static or a regressive society in which our citizens are expected permanently to curtail their use of electricity (Melcher, 1972). The doubling time cited of seven to ten years for electric power consumption is the one commonly used.If taken to heart, such a figure means that by the year 2049, the American people will be consuming 1, 024 times as much power as they did in 1970 (Op. cit. ).One wonders if even the people of the United States can master such an appetite in seventy -five years. Given such a projection, it seems inevitable that at some point "our citizens are [emphasis ours] expected permanently to curtail their use of electricity."There are limits. (43)

(43) One possible limit largely ignored in this paper is the supply of capital for investment (National Academy of Engineering, Task Force on Energy, 1974).If one seriously believes that the current doubling rate of energy consumption can and will continue in the future, one must face the problem of finding enough treasure to finance the powerplants. Using the current base of investment in the power industry, it does not take very much such doublings of plant, fuel supply, and transmission systems to give pause - even, perhaps, to an Arab sheik.

Cost of nuclear powerplants, in the eyes of many the key to an energy- -99-

Water consumption rates are in many ways equally unpredictable. For one thing, the shortages contained in many predictions are dependent on a certain continuity between present and future use patterns.For energy development to devour the flow of the Colorado, current agricultural practices and urban habits are assumed to continue, or abate slightly.It is just as logical to assume that agriculture in many arid regions will be phased out and that urban habits (lawns, swimming pools, sewage disposal methods) will be altered (Davis, 1973).The looming shortages may come to mean nothing more than a transformation of patterns of use. A second frailty in discussing depletion of a watershed lies in ignorance of just how much water is in a system.Estimates are always rough.Further, maximum depletion works better on paper than on the watershed. A river, a water table, or a watershed is not just a jug to be emptied and refilled at will.It is a community of living and interrelated things, as the past half century of tinkering with the Colorado River has demonstrated.There is doubtless a point somewhere before total use where the magnitude of the use will change the community so radically that use will be curtailed. What this means for human beings is that there is probably never quite as much water in the well as their calculations and instruments tell them.

Reclamation of arid lands constitutes another blank spot, crippling projections.If one believes that getting plants to grow for a few years in a man -designed medium proves that reclamation is possible in an arid land, then the crooked way of the future is made plain.If one believes that achieving a stable plant community in arid lands is the work of decades, perhaps centuries, then one knows nothing about the reclamation potential in arid lands as yet.Either position really answers all questions by point-

(43) cont'd. rich future, is running between five hundred million and one billion dollars. Consolidated Edison of New York wants to divest itself of its unfinished atomic plant.Consumers Power of Michigan is groaning from the burden of a plant not yet on -line that has cost close to one billion dollars ( -Wall Street Journal, October 8, 1974, p. 1). Regardless of the safety of nuclear plants in the future or their energy output, regardless of the regulations on stripping coal or on powerplant stack emissions (in short, if the environmental movement disappeared), the sheer demands of capital for such facilities might limit their construction. -100-

ing to some future time when the answers will be apparent.For the present, society has arguments about reclamation, not answers.

There are never enough data to form a floor for decisions.In the matter of water and energy in arid lands, there are probably less data than humans normally expect. Energy is being extracted or will be extracted fromthe American West by a society largely ignorant of the effects of most forms of pollution, ignorant of the chances of reclaiming the land being exploited, ignorant of the consequences of cutting deeper into the total water supply, ignorant of the potential of many energy conversion systems independent of fossil fuels.These data gaps make the past the only record available for glimpsing the future.

The past is a tale of defeat.Economic flurries, such as those now sweeping the northern Great Plains and the Colorado Plateau, are part and parcel of the boom -and -bust syndrome that has been American life in the West. Only the scale has changed from the days of gold rushes, land rushes, uranium rushes.There has been little thinking done about the fate of the West after the coal has been ripped and combusted, and the powerplants have roared into metal fatigue and uselessness. The plants are given a life span of thirty -five to fifty years, just long enough to get the nation to the distant shore of nuclear power or solar power or geothermal power or fusion power, et al.The mines could go two or three centuries if coal persists as the fuel of choice, or they could die with the conversion facilities. But because they do not present a permanent stable economy, it is well within the range of possibility that the diggings on Black Mesa and the boom town on the Powder River could join the ranks of Tombstone or Dead - wood or Leadville. Human encroachment upon arid lands has led repeatedly to denudation of vegetation, diminishment of animal life, and reduction of the land's ability to host human beings.That is part of the data that is known.The textures of these societal kill -offs are just now being explored and guessed at by scholars (Sherbrooke and Paylore, 1973 *).

A major problem in stating the consequences of large scale energy development in arid lands is that only a crude formula for the cost of such development exists.This is exemplified in the matter of emissions and solid wastes.If the flyash is buried, if the gases get past the stack, they are stabilized, they are dispersed. This is a trick of language rather than a statement of fact.For in reality, they are unleashed. And in many instances, no one knows what happens when they are let loose upon the land.If the sulphur dioxide, if the traces of heavy metals, poison human lungs or poison ground, it is not tallied in as part of the cost because it is not yet quantifiable.So too for radiation, though recently the EPA has taken -101-

a stab at guessing how many Americans will fall sick or drop dead because of nuclear powerplants in the next few decades (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation Programs, 1974 *).

A further part of the cost is obscured by an addition to modern parlance: the environmental trade -off.This phrase usually blocks any chance of understanding the consequences of optional events.If one grinds up the sheer, stark ridges of the oil shale country one has not made a trade. When the oil is combusted and the mills shut down, there will be no real remnant of the trade except the debris of the exploitation: spent shale. Nor can one change one's mind and trade back the barrels of oil for the original terrain.If some species of fish in the Colorado River cease to exist, they have not been traded like some ball player to a distant club.They have been exterminated, and the planet's genetic pool has been reduced, absolutely.

What is remarkable, perhaps, is to even consider the possibility of trade -offs. The past residents of this nation did not consider such things. They simply acted out their ambitions on the landscape and lived with the results.It is a recent and perhaps unique idea that coal can be gouged from the earth, massive powerplants constructed, rivers swallowed, and water tables sucked down without any real alteration of the environment. There is no real evidence to substantiate the belief that energy can be extracted from ari d lands without changing the quality of the air, the land, the water. The real question is the degree of pollution that will result, and just what levels of pollution humans can tolerate.Just as past generations in some respects left the land less than they had found it, so too will the current population pass on a diminished terrain to those who will come after them. To the consumption of virgin forests, the slaughter of abundant wildlife, the soiling of clear streams, the shrinkage of wild rivers and belts of rich earth will be added the consumption of the nation's fossil fuel reserves.

One factor that can alter the impact of energy extraction in arid lands is energy conservation. Such a policy does not require a breakthrough in technology or large amounts of capital or the sacrifice of land and water. It requires the ability not to spend.In a report entitled "The Potential for Energy Conservation" the U.S. Executive Office of the President, Office of Emergency Preparedness (1972 *), concluded that the United States could cut its energy budget by 7. 3 million barrels of oil per day by 1980 (about two -thirds of the projected oil imports for that year).This is how it could be done: improve home insulation; make air conditionersmore efficient; shift intercity freight from trucks to trains; move intercity passengers -102-

from runways to rails; abandon automobiles for mass transit in going to work; introduce more efficient processes and equipment in industry. There are many such studies.

Many of the consequences of extracting energy from arid lands are not known. But a few are. Arid lands are characterized by a lack of moisture. Energy conversion systems are characterized by large appetites for water. They will cut into the limited water supply of arid lands. Arid lands are slow to heal from injury.Energy extraction methods are quick to scar.The energy industry will leave its mark on arid lands.

The drylands are inhospitable to humans and their habits.They will not lose their paucity of water because humans want more water, not will they lose their fragility because human ways are hard. Whether energy systems now little used or as yet unknown will prove more atune to the conditions of arid lands is a matter of speculation, not knowledge.

Global societies are eyeing the arid lands because societies are full of appetites and the parched regions are the most vacant on the planet. Available evidence suggests that they are vacant because they are hostile to human ways of life and frequently fail to sustain such ways. Whether energy extraction industries will overcome this hostility is a question for which we have only begun to look for an answer. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF REFERENCES SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF REFERENCES

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ARAR, J.

1971 NUCLEAR ENERGY FOR DESALINATION AND AGRO -INOUSTRIAL COMPLEXES IN ISRAEL.

ISRAEL ATOMIC EJERGY COMMISSION, TEL -AVIV. 24 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS A /CUNF.49 /P /018. SWRA W72- 03341.

WATER RESOURCES AND WATER CONSUMPTION OF ISRAEL ARE PRESENTED AND PRUJECTIOAS SHOW AN ANTICIPATEtD GAP BETWEEN SUPPLY AND DEMAND BY THE END OF THL CENTURY. THE DESALINATIJN ACTIVITIES OR ISPAEL ARE REVIEWED INCLUDING LARGE DUAL -PURPOSE PLANT STUDIES AND A STUDY FOR A DESALTING POWER INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX. IN THE LATTER, AN ECONOMIC EVALUATION AND A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF PROCESS INDUSTRIES ARE REPORTED. (ORNL)

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /DESALINATION PLANTS /DESALINATIJN PROCESSES/ SEPARATION TECHNIQUES /SEA WATER /4AT_R CONSERVATION /IRRIGATION PROGRAMS /DOMESTIC WATER /INDUSTRIAL WATER /EVALUATION /FEASIBILITY /VAPOR COMPRESSION DISTILLATION /COSTS/WATER DEMAND /WATER SUPPLY /COST -BENEFIT ANALYSIS

= IDENTIFIERS: /AGPO-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX /ISRAEL

ALLEN. D.R.

1972 LEGAL AND POLICY ASPECTS OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT.

WATER RESOURCES BULLETIN 8(2):25J-276. SWRA W72-03976.

ALTHOUGH ONLY O,JF SIGNIFICANT COMMERCIAL GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICAL PONER DEVELOPMENT EXISTS IN THE US, THE PROSPECTS FOR CONSIDERABLE EXPANSION IN THE FUTURE SEEM VERY GOOD. SOME PHYSICAL PROBLEMS MAY ACCOMPANY GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, INCLUDING POSSIBLE GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATIO!'!, SUBSIDENCE OF OVERLYING GROUND AREAS, INCREASED LOCAL SEISMIC ACTIVITY, AND INCREASED NOISE. THESE PROBLEMS MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN A GUIDING LEGAL STRUCTURE IS DEVELUPJD FGR GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. THE MOST BASIC LEGAL FROBLEM IS THE EXACT DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. IN FAILING TO FACE THIS QUESTION, CONGRESS HAS LEFT TWO MAJOR ISSUES UNRESOLVED. THESE CONCERN O4NERSHIP OF THE RESOURCE, ANO THE RULES GOVERNING ITS EXPLOITATION. ANY SOLUTIONS SHOULD RE MADE IN LIGHT OF THE UNITAQY NATURE OF A Gt0IHERMAL RESERVOIR. WHILE MINERAL LEASING LAWS MAY OFFER THE MOST SATISFACTORY SCHEME FOR RE.SOJL.CE ûWNESHIP, THE TRADITIONS OF SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER CONTPOL MAY BE MOPE APPROPRIATE FOR MANAGING A GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIP THAN THOSE CAPTURE PRINCIPLES TRADITIONALLY ASSOCIATED PITH PETROLEUM EXPLOITATION. NEW INSTITUIONAL ARRANGEMENTS MUST BE FOUND TO CIRCUMVENT THE USUAL FEDERAL -STATE DISPUTES.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /LEGAL ASPECTS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER LAW / THERMAL PUWERPLANTS /REGULATION

123 124

ALTMAN, M.

1971

CONSERVATION ANO BETTER UTILIZATION OF ELECTRIC POWER BY MEANS OF THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE AND SOLAR HEATING.

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, TOWNE SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, REPORT UPTES -71 -1. 263 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -210 359. NSF -RANN ENERGY ABSTRACTS 1(7)2019.

A PROJECT TO INVESTIGATE THE APPLICATION OF HEAT AND COOLNESS STORAGE FOR COMFORT HEATING AND AIR CONDITIONING HAS BEEN INITIATED. INEXPENSIVE SALT HYDRATES EXHIBITING PHASE CHANGE TEMPERATURES BETWEEN 40 DEGREES F. AND 60 DEGREES F. HAVE BEEN FOUND APPROPRIATE WITH USE OF OFF -PEAK GENERATION OF COOLNESS FOR STORAGE AND SUBSEDUENT USE DURING PEAK DEMAND PERIODS TO SUPPLEMENT OR REPLACE ELECTRICALLY POWERED AIR CONDITIONING UNITS. OTHER INEXPENSIVE SALT HYDRATES, WITH PHASE CHANGE TEMPERATURES OF 89 DEGREES F. TO 195 DEGREES F. HAVE BEEN FOUND FOR USE AS HEAT STORAGE MATERIALS WITH SOLAR HEAT COLLECTORS AND OFF -PEAK ELECTRIC HEATING UNITS. RE SEARCH HAS BEGUN ON THE CHEMISTRY OF SALT HYDRATES, AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS FOR OFF -PEAK OPERATION, MODULAR SOLAR COLLECTORS FOR INDUSTRIALIZED HOUSING, PRODUCT ACCEPTANCE RESEARCH FOR OFF -PEAK AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT AND SOLAR HEATING EQUIPMENT, ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF HEAT STORAGE APPLICATIONS AND ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF THESE PROJECTS ON THE UTILITIES. A FEASIBILITY DEMONSTRATION OF THE OFF -PEAK AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM WAS BUILT AND SUCCESSFULLY TESTED. (NTIS)

ENERGY CONVERSION /ECONOMICS /EVALUATION /ELECTRIC POWER /SALTS /HYDRATES

= IDENTIFIERS: /SPACE HEATING /SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING / ENERGY STORAGE/ SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS /SOLAR DOWER GENERATION /HEAT STORAGE

AMBROGGI, R.P.

1966

WATER UNDER THE SAHARA.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 214(5)321-29. SWRA W68- 00729.

THIRTEEN COUNTRIES OF 148 MILLION INHABITANTS SHARE THE VAST TERRITORY OF THE SAHARA AND THE DEPRIVATION ITS NAME IMPLIES. BELOW THE DESERT SANDS IN WATER -BEARING ROCK FORMATIONS ARE HUGE QUANTITIES OF WATER TO SUSTAIN HUMAN SETTLEMENT, PASTURAGE FOR LIVESTOCK AND, IN MANY PLACES NOW BARREN, PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE. GJOJ SOILS ARE AVAILABLE AND SAHARAN OIL CAN SUPPLY ENERGY NEEDED TO PUMP WATER. ARTESIAN WELLS HAVE BEEN DRILLED AND THE RATE AND DIRECTION OF WATER MOVEMENT IN ARTESIAN AQUIFERS HAS BEEN DETERMINED FOR THE WHOLE AREA. GROUNDWATER IS TO BE FOUND MAINLY IN SEVEN MAJOR BASINS, EACH VIRTUALLY A CLOSED HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM. AQUIFERS ARE RECHARGED TO A CONSIDERABLE EXTENT BY RAINFALL ON THE PERIPHERY OF THE DESERT. WITH A CAPACITY OF SOME 15,000,000 MILLION CU M OF GROUNDWATER, TOTAL RECHARGE OF THESE BASINS IS PROBABLY 4066 MILLION CU M A YEAR. PRESENT LEVEL OF CONSUMPTION APPEARS TO BE ABOUT 2J00 MILLION CU M A YEAR. SOUND AGRICULTURAL AND IRRIGATION PRACTICES SHOULD BE INTROOUCED BEFORE OEVELOFING NEW SUPPLIES OF GROUNDWATER OR EXTENDING OASES. WATER PROBLEMS OF THE SAHARA MUST Bt,DEALT WITH ON A NATIONAL/ /INTERNATIONAL BASIS USING MODERN CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT TO MAKE ITS GROUNDWATER A RESOURCE OF BENEFIT TO ALL. (OALS) 125

WATER RESOURCES (ìEVELOPMENT /GPOU'40WATER E',ASINS /AQUIFERS /ARTESIAN WELL /ARID LANDS /CONFINEU WATER/RECHARGE/SUBSURFACE WATERS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SAHARA /OASES

ANDERSON, D.N. /AXTELL, L.H.

1972

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN CALIFORNIA. IN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES, 1972, EL CENTRO CONFERENCE, FEB. 16 -18, 1972, PROCEEDINGS. PAPER B, 33 P.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUIvCIL, DAVIS, CALIFORNIA. PUBLICATION. SWRA W73-03421. THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA IS NATURALLY ENDOWED WITH NOTABLE AREAS OF POTENTIALLY FKODUCTIVE GEOTHERMAL LAND. THE GEYSERS GEOTHERi1AL FIELD IN SONOMA AND LAKE COUNTIES H,S BEEN UNDER DEVELOP11LNT FOR THE LAST 15 YEARS. THE PO'WFR FACILITIES AT THE GEYSERS FIELD ARE NOW CAPABLE OF PRODUCING 192 MEGAWATTS, AND CONSTRJCTION AND DEVELOPMENT DRILLING ARE UNDER WAY TO INCREASE THE CAPACITY TO ABOVE 600 MW BY THE END OF 1975. TOTAL POTENTIAL POWER CAPACITY AT THE GEYSERS IS CALCULATED TO BE IN EXCESS OF 1,CGJ MW AND MAY BE AS HIGH AS 4,8.ìJ MW. GEOTHERMAL POWER POTENTIAL IN IMPERIAL VALLEY IS ESTIMATED AT 30,000 MW. THE TOTAL 1970 CALIFORNIA ELECTRIC POWER- GENERATING CAPACITY. INCLUDING IMPORTS, WAS APPROXIMATELY 32.000 MW. THE POWER DEMAND IS EXPECTED TO DOUBLE TO 60,û0C MW BY 1980. A NEW POWER-GENERATING CONCEPT UTILIZING RELATIVEELY LOW TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL WATERS IN A CLOSED SYSTEM, RATHER THAN REQUIPING STEAM, IS IN THE DEVELOPMENT STAGE. THIS SYSTEM, IF DEVELOPED, WILL BE ADAPTABLE TO SEVERAL AREAS IN THE STATE THAT WOULD NOT OTHERWISE BE CONSIDERED TO HAVE ECONO.HiC GEOTHERMAL POTENTIAL. DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN CALIFORNIA IS ENCOURAGED BY EXISTING STATE LAW AND BY RECENTLY ENACTED FEDERAL LEGISLATION. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ENERGY /SUBSURFACE WATERS /THERMAL WATER /CALIFORNIA/ /THERMAL SPRINGS /BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS /WATER TEMPERATURE /THERMAL PROPERTIES /THERr1AL POWER /THERMAL POWERPLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES /GEYSERS FIELD, CALIFORNIA

ANDERSON, J.H.. JR.

1972

ECONOMIC POWER AND WATER FROM SOLAR ENERGY.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, ASME PAP 72- WA /SOL -2.

ELECTRIC POWER, FRESH MATER. MINERALS AND FOOD CAN BE PRODUCED BY SOLAR ENERGY WITHOUT A LARGE EXPENSIVE COLLECTOR. THE OCEAN IS THE NATURAL COLLECTOR AND RESERVOIR FOR SOLAR ENERGY. THE COST IS COMPETITIVE WITH TODAY S POWER COST AND THERE IS NJ ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION.

WATER SUPPLY /COSTS /FOOD ABUNDANCE /DESALINATION PROCESSES /SOLAR DISTILLATION /TANGIBLE BENEFITS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /SOLAR POWER GENERATION /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS 126

ANDERSON, R.J.

1972

THE PROMISE OF UNCONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES.

BATTELLE RESEARCH OUTLOOK 4(1):22-25.

EXAMINES GEOTHERMAL ENERGY, SOLAR ENERGY, WIND POWER. ANO TIDAL ENERGY. THE LATTER. AVAILABLE FOR SHORT INTERVALS ONLY, COULD BE UTILIZED THROUGH A SYSTEM OF DAMS CONSTRUCTED WITH HIGH CAPITAL INVESTMENT. EVALUATION OF OUANTITY /NEED RATIOS ANO RESEARCH REQUIREMENTS MUST BE MADE BEFORE EACH SOURCE CAN BE TAPPED.

SURVEYS /ENERGY /TIDAL ENERGY /COSTS /WINO PRESSURE

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY

ANONYMOUS

1971

HELLO ENERGY --GOODBYE, BIG SKY.

LIFE 70114) :61 -66. A PICTORIAL ESSAY OF THE STRIP MINE AT BLACK MESA WHERE COAL DEPOSITS ARE ESTIMATED BY USBM TO TOTAL 20 BILLION SHORT TONS. AT LEAST SIX LARGE POWERPLANTS ARE TO BE SITED I4 THE AREA. EVEN WITH MODERN POLLUTION ABATEMENT EQUIPMENT, THE PLANTS WILL EMIT 2160 TONS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE, 1300 TONS OF NITROGEN OXIDES, AND 24:: TONS OF FLY ASH DAILY. THE ASH FIGURE IS ONLY FIFTY TONS BELOW THAT OF THE CO;IBINED EMISSIONS OF NEW YORK CITY AND LOS ANGELES. BECAUSE MUCH OF THE ASH IS SUB- MICRON IN SIZE, IT COULD REMAIN AIRBORNE FOR MONTHS.

AIR POLLUTION /STRIP MINES /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /COAL MINES /FLY ASH /SULFUR /NITROGEN /SOUTHWEST U.S. /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /ENERGY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN

= IDENTIFIERS: /BLACK MESA /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /NAVAJDINDIANS/ HOPI INDIANS /SULFUR DIOXIDE /NITROGEN OXIDES /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /PEABODY COAL COMPANY

ARMSTRONG, E.L.

1971

THE ROAR FROM AN EMERGING RESOURCE.

RECLAMATION ERA 57(3) :1 -8. ACCORDING TO THIS STATEMENT BY THE COMMISSIONER OF RECLAMATION, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SOURCES OFFER THE POSSI3ILITY OF POLLUTION -FREE. ODORLESS, NOISELESS POWERPLANTS TN THE FUTURE. WORLDWIDE THERE IS NOW 675 MW. OF GEOTHERMAL tLECTRIC POWER IN PRODUCTION. PRESENTLY, THE BUREAU OF RECLAMATION IS PREPARING TO CONSTRUCT A STEAM WELL ANO DESALTING PLANT TO EXPLOIT THE 2 TO 5 BILLION ACRE -FEET OF HOT STEAM BENEATH IMPERIAL VALLEY. CALIFORNIA FOR ELECTRICITY ANO POTABLE WATER. 127

THE LIFESRAN OF THE FIELD IS ESTIMATED AT TWO TO THREE CENTURIES. THE PAP{ ALSO CONSIDERS USES OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES TN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, If1"rUTATE AND LONG RANGE PROGRAMS FOR THE VALLEY, AND THE PROBLEHS PRESENTED RY GAS EMISSIONS, SU35IDENCt, WASTE WATER DISPOSAL, AND SEISMIC ACTIVITY.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES/ EXPLORATION /THERMAL POWER /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION/ DESALINATION /CALIFORNIA /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER POLLUTION /ENERGY CUNVERSIUN

= IDENTIFIERS: /IMPERIAL VALLEY /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

AWADY, M.A., AL-

1968 THE OPTIMIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN ARID AREAS.

UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA (PH.D. DISSERTATION). 153 P.

FOUR POSSIBLE SOURCES OF WATER IN ARIO AREAS ARE CONSIDERED, NAMELY: 1) DISTILLED, 2) UNDERGROUND BRACKISH, 3)UNDERGROUND FRESH; 4) EFFLUENT. THE THREE DISTINCT USER GROUPS ARE CLASSIFIED AS 1) MUNICIPAL, 2) AGRICULTURAL (INCLUDING IRRIGATION), 3) INDUSTRIAL. A MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR O6TAINING AN OPTIMAL SOLUTION TO THE WATER RESOURCES PROBLEM OF OESERT LANDS 'WITH ITS TYPICAL BOUNDARY CONSTRAINTS IS DEVELOPED. THE PRESENTLY FEASIBLE METHODS FOR DEVELOPING USEABLE WATER SUPPLIES IH AR1O AREAS ARE INVESTIGATED, AND THE FOLLOWING WATER DISTRIBUTIONS ARE DETERMINED: 1) DISTILLED WATER BLENDED WITH UNDERGROUND BRACKISH WATER FOR DOMESTIC USERS, 2) EFFLUENT WATER FOR AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS, 3) UNDERGROUND FRESH WATER FOR EMERGENCY USE, ESPECIALLY DURING EARLY STAGES OF WATER RESOURCE uEVELOPMENT. IN ADDITION. A MATHEMATICAL MODEL IS TESTED FOR APPLICABILITY TO THE STATE OF KUWAIT ANO ITS WATER RESOURCE PROBLEM WITH THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA: 1) FOJR WATER SOURCES AND TWC METHODS FOR THEIR DELIVERY TO CONSUMERS, 2) RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED BY LIMITED DEVELOPMENT MATEFIALS. 3)PROJECTED NEEDS. A PRACTICAL SITUATION IS PRESENTED FOR DEMONSTRATION, USING CURRENT CONDITIONS IN THE STATE OF KUWAIT IN ARABIA, AND A DISCUSSION OF ITS WATEF PESOURCES IS PRESENTED. KUWAIT S POPULATION GROWTH, INDUSTRIAL ANO AGRICULTURAL EXPANSIONS, EXPECTED URPAN DEVELOPMENT AND QUANTITIEES OF WATER NEEDED ARE PROJECTED TJ 2000 A.D. A DESIGN FOR A DUAL WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IS OUTLINED IN THE DISSERTATION APPENDIX.

OPTIMIZATION /ARID LANDS /EATER PESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /MATHEMATICAL MODELS /MODEL STUDIES /BLACKISH WATER /EFFLUENTS /MUNICIRAL WATER/ INDUSTRIAL WATER /IRRIGATION WATER /GROUNDWATER RESOURCES

= IDENTIFIERS: /KUWAIT /MIDDLE EAST /DISTILLED WATER

BAKER, T.L. ET AL

1973

WATER FOR THE SOUTHWEST: HISTORICAL SURVEY ANO GUIDE TO HISTORIC SITES. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, COMMITTEE ON HISTORY AND HERITAGE OF AMERICAN CIVIL ENGINEERING, NEW YORK, HISTORICAL PUBLICATION 3. 205 P.

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST WAS OF PRIMARY INPURTANCE TO THE THREE PEOPLES WHO HAVE LIVED IN THE AREA: THE PREHISTORIC INDIANS, THE SPANISH, ANO THE ANGLO- AMERICANS. A 128

BRIEF NARRATIVE HISTORY OF THE EFFORTS OF THESE PEOPLES TO OBTAIN AND MAINTAIN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS, ILLUSTRATED BY CONTEMPORARY DRAWINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS, SERVES AS AN INTPODUCTION TO DOCUMENTARY AND PICTORIAL SUMMARY OF EARLY WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS TN THE SOUTHWEST. STXTY SITES WHICH REPRESENT LOCATIOIS OF HISTORICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE ARE PRESENTED WITH SUPPORTING REFERENCES, PHOTOGRAPHS, AND DRAWINGS. INCLUDED IN THE 63 DOCUMENTATIONS ARE SITES LOCATED IN ARIZONA, COLORADO, NEW MEXICO. TEXAS AND UTAH. (AUTHOR).

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER SUPPLY /WATER MANAGEMENT /IRRIGATION PRACTICES /SOUTHWEST U.S. /HISTORY /ARIZONA /COLORADO /NEW MEXICO /TEXAS/ UTAH /BIBLIOGRAPHIES /DAMS /FLOOD CONTROL

= IDENTIFIERS: /INDIAN CULTURE /WIND POWER

BALDWIN. M.F.

1973

THE SOUTHWEST ENERGY COMPLEX: A POLICY EVALUATION.

W000ROW WILSON INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR SCHOLARS, CONSERVATION FOUNDATION REPORT. 73 P. THE PROBLEM FACING THE SOUTHWEST ENERGY COMPLEX IS RECONCILING THE PRODUCTION OF POWER WITH THE DEMAND FOR AN ACCEPTABLE ENVIRONMENT. THIS PROBLEM WILL NOT BE SOLVED UNLESS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT INSTIGATES A FREE AND VIGOROUS INTERAGENCY DEBATE. KEY CUESTIONS TO BE CONFRONTED ARE: THE POWERPLANTS WILL PRODUCE AIR POLLUTION IN EXCESS OF FEDERAL -STATE STANDARDS: COAL WILL BE STRIP -MINED WITHOUT ANY PROOF THAT REAL RECLAMATION IS POSSIBLE; LARGE WATER DEMANDS WILL BE PLACED ON THE ALREADY HEAVILY -USED COLORADO RIVER: THE BEAUTY OF A REGION POPULAR WITH TOURISTS WILL DECLINE. THESE PROBLEMS, TO BE RESOLVED ON BOTH A FEDERAL AND REGIONAL BASIS, WILL REQUIRE INSTITUTIONAL CHANGES. ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /COLORADO RIVER /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ENERGY /STRIP MINES /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER UTILIZATION /SOCIAL IMPACT /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS /LAND RECLAMATION/ REVEGETATION /CLEAN AIR ACT /FEDERAL GOVERNMENT /GOVERNMENTAL INTERRELATIONS = IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /BLACK MESA /NAVAJO INDIANS/ HOPI INDIANS /MINE -MOUTH PLANT

BALLIGAND, P. ET AL

1971 A DISTILLATION CYCLE AND THE COMBINATION OF PROCESSES WHICH ARE APPLICABLE TO LARGE -CAPACITY DESALINATION PLANTS.

CENTRE D ETUDE DE L ENERGIE NUCLEAIRE, GRENOBLE. FRANCE. 14 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS A /CONF.49/P/593. SWRA W72- 03322. 129

A UNIT FOR OISTILLING 25,000 CU M OF FPESH WATER PER DAY FROM SEA WATER IS DESCRIBED. THE UNIT CAN BE ASSEMBLED INTO A FACILITY WITH A CAPACITY OF SEVERAL HUNOPED THOUSAND CU M PER DAY BY USING MANY OF THESE UNITS IN PARALLEL ANO IN ASSOCIATION WITH A DUAL-PURPOSE NUCLEAR POWER STATION TO PRODUCE ROTH WATLR AND ELECTRICITY. THE INTEREST IS IN FACT WITH A LfiRGE- CAPACITY WATER PLANT USING THE EXHAUST STEAMFROM A RACK- PRESSURE TURBINE ANO FRACTIONATING THE PRODUCTION OF WATER IN A WAY TO ENSURE THE MAXIMUM FLEXIBILITY AND RELIABILITY FOR THEPLANT. THE DESCPIPTION OF THE DISTILLATION PLANT CONFORMS TO AN ACTUAL PROCESS, WHICH COULD BE QUICKLY PUT TO USE AND FOR WHICH THE FUNDAMENTAL DATA HAVE COME FROM A LARGE CONTINUING EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM. THERE REMAIN A FEW ADVANCES STILL TO BE MADE WITH REGARD TO THIS PROCESS. THE RESEARCH PROGRAM THAT WILL GIVE RISE TO THESE IMPROVEMENTS IS BRIEFLY DESCRIBEDD. THE PROGRAM IS MAINLY CONCERNED WITH THE PREVENTION OF SALINE DEPOSIT, IMPROVEMENT OF HEATTRANSFER, AND THE SEARCH FOR CHEAP MATERIALS RESISTANT TO SALT -WATER CORROSION. (ORNL)

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /DESALINATION PLANTS /DESALINATION PROCESSES/ SEPARATION TECHNIQUES /VAPOR COMPRESSION OISTILLATIJN /SEA WATER /SALINE WATER /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /WATER YIELD /WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT /WATER CONSERVAT1ON /IRRIGATION PROGRAMS /OONESTIC WATER /BEEFICIAL USE/ INDUSTRIAL WATER/ EVALUATION /FEASIBILITY /HEAT -EXCHANGES /CORROSION/ SCALING

BARNES, P.

1973

STRIPPING THE PRAIRIES.

NEW REPUBLIC 16A(12):19 -22.

ONE OF THE LAST GREAT ENERGY RESERVES ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH LIES BURIED BENEATH THE PLAINS OF MONTANA, WYOMING, AND THE DAKOTAS. OF THE NEARLY TRILLION TONS OF LIGNITE AND SUBBITUIINOUS COAL ALMOST 35 BILLION TONS IS EASILY STRIPPABLE. ENERGY COMPANIES HAVE ANNOUNCED MASSIVE PLANS AND MASSIVE LEASES AND OBTAINED LARGE WATER RIGHTS AS A PRELUDE TO EXPLOITING THE RESERVES. LOCAL CITIZENS AND OFFICIALS ARE FIGHTING TO KEEP THE REGION FROM BECOMING A SECOND APPALACHIA.

STRIP MINES /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /LAND RESOURCES /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /COALS /MINE WASTES /LAND RECLAMATION /MONTANA /WYOMING /NORTH DAKOTA /SOUTH DAKOTA /LIGNITE /EXPLOITATION /PROJECT PLANNING

BASSLER, F.

1968 SCHEME FOR THE QATTARA DEPRESSION.

WATER POWER 2C(12):494-498. SWRA W70- 08523.

SCIENTISTS FROM WEST GERMANY HAVE BEEN STUDYING THE FEASIBILITY OF CONSTRUCTING A PUMPED STORAGE POWERPLANT ON THE QATTARA DEPRESSION OF NORTHWESTERN EGYPT. THE DEPRESSICN REACHES A DEPTH OF 135 M BELOW SEA LEVEL, WHILE THE MOUNTAIN ESCARPMENT ON ITS NOPTHEPN EDGE ATTAINS A HEIGHT OF 230 M ABOVE SEA LEVEL. WATER WOULD HAVE TO BF BROUGHT IN FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA, A DISTANCE OF 80 KM, BUT A TUNNEL TO DELIVER THE WATER TO AN UNDERGROUND POWER STATION APPEARS FEASIBLE. 130

DURING OFF -PEAK HOURS POWER COULD BE GENERATED UNDER LOWPRESSURE USING THE 6G M DROP FROM THE SEA- LEVEL TUNNEL TO THE UNDERGROUNDPOSER STATION. THIS POWER COULD THEN BE JSED TO PUMP WATER TO A HIGH -LEVEL RESERVOIR FOR STCRAGE. IF THE DEPRESSION WERE FILLED TO A LEVEL OF -60 M AND A NATURAL BASIN AT THE +215 M LEVEL WERE USED FOR WATER STORAGE, THEN A HEAD OF 275 M WOULD DE AVAILABLE FOR PEAK -LOAD PUWER GENERATION. AMONG THE ADVANTAGES 0= DEVELOPING THE` QATTARA DEPRESSION ARE GUARANTEED ENERGY, PROXIMITY TO CENTERS OF POWER CONSUMPTIONWITH ATTENDANT SAVINGS IN TRANSMISSION COSTS, AND THE POTENTIAL FORFUTURE AREA DEVELOPMENT. ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF THE 4035 MW PROJECT WILL BE DETERMINED BY THE COST OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION. (GALS)

RESERVOIRS /PUMPED STORAGE /HYDROELECTRIC POWER /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /DESERTS /ARID LANDS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /EVAPORATION/ RESERVOIR EVAPORATION /STORAGE /TUNNELS /UNOERGROUND POWERPLANTS /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS /ELECTRIC POWER/ TRANSMISSION (ELECTRICAL) /CONSTRUCTION COSTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /EGYPT /QATTARA DEPRESSION /SAHARA/LIBYAN DESERT/ MEDITERRANEAN SEA /AREA DEVELOPMENT

BENDER, G.L. ED.

1969 FUTURE ENVIRONMENTS OF ARID REGIONS OF THE SOUTHWEST. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, SOUTHWESTERN ANO ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION, COMMITTEE ON DESERT AND ARID ZONE RESEARCH, CONTRIBUTION 12. 81 P. SWRA W73- 03118.

THE PURPOSE OF THE SYMPOSIUM WAS TO ESTABLISH A NUCLEUS AROUND WHICH FUTURE ENVIRONMENTS IN ARID LANDS CAN BE PLANNED. EIGHT PAPERS ARE INCLUDED WITH THE FOLLOWING TITLES: 1) FUTURE ENVIRONMENTS OF ARID LANDS OF SOUTHWESTERN STATES, 2) 4 LAND -USE PLAN FOR THE ARID SOUTHWEST, 3) THE FUTURE HUMAN OCCUMPANCE OF THE ARID SOUTHWEST. 4) PUBLIC LAND MANAGEMENT IN THE ARID SOUTHWEST, 5)ARID LANDS AND THEIR FUTURE, 5) PLANNING OUR URBAN ENVIRONMENT IN THE SOUTHWEST, 7) NEW TOWNS FOR THE SOUTHWEST, ANO 8) PHILOSOPHIES, TECHNOLOGIES AND ARCHITECTURES. OBJECTIVES OF THE COMMITTEE ON DESERT AND ARID ZONES RESEARCH OF THE AAAS ARE TO ENCOURAGE THE STUDY OF PHEJONENA AFFECTING (AND AFFECTED BY) HUMAN OCCUPATION OF ARID ANO SEMIARID REGIONSWHICH INCLUDES EDUCATIONAL ANO RESEARCH ACTIVITIES (FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED) THAT MAY FURTHER THE UNDERSTANDING ANO EFFICIENT USE OF ARID LANDS. COALS)

ARIO LANDS /LONG-TERM PLANNING /SOUTHWEST U.S. /LAND USE /LAND CLASSIFICATION /LAND MANAGEMENT /COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT /CITY PLANNING/ URBAN HYDROLOGY /DECISION MAKING /POLITICAL ASPECTS /SOCIAL ASPECTS /LEGAL ASPECTS/ ETHICS /DESERTS /ZONING /ENVIRONMENT /HUMAN POPULATION

BERKMAN, R.L. /VISCUSI, W.K.

1973

DAMMING THE WEST.

GROSSMAN PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK. 272 P. 131

THIS NAr)ER REPORT IS A FRONTAL. ASSAULT ON BUREAU OFRECLAMATION PROJECTS OF THE LAST SEVEN DECADES. THE REPORT QUESTIONS: THAT THE PROJECTS REALLY PAY FOR THEMSELVES SINCE THE BUREAU :> ACCOUNTING SYSTEM IS FAVORABLE. TO THE BUR "LAD: THAT IT BENEFITS THE NATION TO MDVL CROPS FROM ONE REGION TO ANOTHER: THAT IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IS A SENSIBLE WAY TO GROW CROPS: THAT THE BUREAU S DAMS 'WHICH PRODUCE POWER CAN BE JUSTIFIED IN THE LIGHT OF THE PROBLEMS THEYCREATE IN THE RIVERS THEY EXPLOIT: THAT THE CENTRAL AFIZ_ONA PROJECT SHOULD BF BJILT; THAT EXPLOITATION OF THE ARID WEST CAN LEAD TO ANYTHING BUT MORE PROJECTS TO REMEDY THE ENOR'1OU.; PROBLEMS CREATEDBY EXISTING PROJECTS. IN SHORT, THE REPORT DENIES THAT MODERNTECHNLLOGY HAS BEEN SUCCESSFUL IN EXPLOITING THE WESTERN UNITED STATES. RATHER, THE BUREAU HAS HELPED TO BLIGHT AN E4TIRE REGION.

ARIZONA /NEW MEXICO /CALIFORNIA /NEVADA /WYOMING /SOUTHWESTU.S. /GREAT PLAINS /COLOR4A0 RIVER BASIN /SALINITY /IRRIGATION /HYDROELECTRICPOWER/ WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /TNDIAN RESERVATIONS /COST-OENEFIT ANALYSIS /LAND RESOURCES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ADMINISTRATIVEAGENCIES

= IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION/CENTRAL ARIZONA PROJECT

BERLIN, E. /CICCHETTI, C.J. /GILLEN, W.J.

1974

PERSPECTIVE ON POWER., BALLINGER PUBLISHING CO., CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. 160 P.

THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY MUST FACE THE FACT THAT ITS PAST EXPERIENCE WITH STEADILY DECLINING PRODUCTION COSTS WILL BE IRRELEVANT IN THE FUTURE. COSTS WILL NOW BEGIN TO STEADILY RISE BECAUSE OF RISING CAPITAL AND PRODUCTION COSTS, INCREASING FUEL PRICES, NEW ANTI - POLLUTION COSTS, AND SITING DISPUTES. THE INDUSTRY MUST SHIFT FROM PROMOTIONAL PRICING (WHERE THE MORE ONE USES THE LESS ONE PAYS PER UNIT) TO A COST -BASED PEAK -LOAD SYSTEM. THERE MUST BE NOT ONLY STRONG FEDERAL LEADERSHIP BUT REGIONAL COMMISSIONS MUST REPLACE STATE REGULATIONS. ALSO, ELECTRICITY PRICES MUST REFLECT THE FULL COSTS OF PRODUCTION, INCLUDING ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE. THE BUSINESS OF SELLING AND DISTRIBUTING ELECTRICITY SHOULD BE SEPARATED FROM THE BUSINESS OF GENERATING ANO TRANSMITTING IT. SUCH PRICE CHANGES COULD BENEFIT THOSE ARID LANDS NOW UNDER CONSIDERATION AS POWER SOURCES: 11 HIGHER PRICES MIGHT LOWER CONSUMPTION AND IN TURN LOWER THE RATE OF EXPLOITATION, 2) PRICES REFLECTING DAMAGE TO AIR, LAND. AND WATER MIGHT GENERATE THE NECESSARY FUNDS TO PROTECT OR RECLAIM AIR, LAND, AND WATER.

ELECTRIC POWER COSTS /PRICING /COSTS / ENVIRONMÉNTAL EFFECTS /POWER MARKEETING /CAPITAL COSTS /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /PEAK LOADS /COST COMPARISONS /DISECONOMIES OF SCALE

BIROSEYE, H.S.

1969 GEOTHERMAL POWER RESOURCES IN THE SOUTHWEST.

NEW MEXICO, BUREAU OF AINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES. CIRCULAR 101:86 -96. ANAG(1970)04953. GEOTHERMAL POWER PROSPECTING INCLUDES DETAILED GEOLOGIC MAPPING, GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYING (INASMUCH AS MUCH OF THE WATER IS DETECTABLE CHEMICALLY), AND GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING (NY DETECTING ANOAALIES WITH VERY SENSITIVE HEAT- SENSITIVE DEVICES). THE GEOTHERMAL AREAS OF THE WORLD ARE CONFINED TO VOLCANIC REGIONS -WHICH HAVE UNDERGONE FAULTING. 132

IN THE UNITED STATES, SUCH FAULT CONTROLLED AREAS ARE FOUND IN UTAH ANO NEW MEXICO. IN UTAH, HYPEÇTHFRMAL OCCURRENCES ARE. FOR THE MOST PART, IN PROXIMITY TO THE STATES NORTH- TRENDING FAULT SYSTEMS ANO ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO CENOZOIC IGNEOUS ROCKS. HOT SPRINGS ARE COMMON IN NEVADA ALSO ALONG NORTH -TRENDING FAJLT LINES. NUMEROUS THERMAL ANOMALIES OCCUR IN NEW MEXICO IN THE RIO GRANDE STRUCTURAL TROUGH, AND SOME IN SMALLER TROUGHS WEST OF THE RIO GRANDE.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SOUTHWEST U.S. /EXPLORATION /UTAH /NEVADA /NEW MEXICO/ /FAULTS(GEOLOGIC) /HOT SPRINGS /GEOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS

= IDENTIFIERS: /RIO GRANDE TROUGH

BIRDSEYE, H.S.

1971

GEOTHERMAL POWER IN NEW MEXICO.

NEW MEXICO ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, BULLETIN, SPRING, 1971. P. 1 -8.

THE GEOPHYSICAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FORMATION OF GEOTHERMAL STEAM ARE BRIEFLY DISCUSSED. GEOTHERMAL STEAM MAY BE AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE PROCESS BY WHICH METALLIC DEPOSITS SUCH AS COPPER. LEAD, ZINC, GOLD, AND SILVER ARE FORMED. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOTHERMAL AREAS ARE EXAMINED AND THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SATURATED AND DRY GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS ARE POINTED OUT. THE LATTER IS TO BE PREFERRED BECAUSE OF ITS GREATER ECONOMIC VALUE ANO LACK OF ENVIRONMENTALLY -DELETERIOUS BY- PRODUCTS. MAPS OF WORLDWIDE GEOTHERMAL AREAS ANO NEW MEXICO HYPER - THERMAL AREAS ARE PRESENTED. OF THE ROUGHLY 60 KNOWN THERMAL AREAS IN NEW MEXICO, THE ONLY SYSTEMATIC GRILLING HAS BEEN IN THE VALLE CALDERA, A DRY STEAM FIELD OF POSSI3LY SEVERAL MILLION KW POTENTIAL. SIX OR SEVEN THERMAL PROSPECTS ALONG THE RIO GRANDE TROUGH ALSO APPEAR TO HAVE ECONOMIC POTENTIAL.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL POWER /STEAM /NEW MEXICO /EXPLORATION/ DRILLING /MAPS/

= IDENTIFIERS: /DRY STEAM FIELDS /VALLE CALDERA /RIO GRANDETROUGH

BLACKMAN, N.C., JR. ET AL

1973

MINERAL POLLUTION IN THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN.

WATER POLLUTION CONTROL FEDERATION, JOURNAL 45(71 :1517 -1557. SWRA W73- 12715.

CONCENTRATIONS OF TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (SALINITY) IN COLORADO RIVER BASIN STREAMS ARE A MAJOR PROBLEM FOR LOWER BASIN WATER USERS. SALINITY CONCENTRATIONS IN UNREGULATED STREAMS OF THE BASIN COMPRISE TWO DISTINCT POPULATIONS THAT ARE GROUPED INTO BASE FLOW MONTHS AND RUNOFF MONTHS. STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT INCREASES IN SALINITY HAVE OCCURRED WITH INCREASING WATER USE, AND IN DOWNSTREAM PROGRESSION. 133

UPPER BASIN SALT LOAD CONTRIBUTIONS ARE: RUNOFF, 52 PERCENT; IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE, 37 PERCENT: NATURAL POINT SOURCE`_: AND FLOWING WLLS, 9 PERCENT; ANO MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL, 7 PtRCci

SALINITY /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /COLORADO RIVER /IRRIGATION WATER/ LEACHING /SALTS /RUNOFF /CHLORIDES /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /IRRIGATION EFFECTS

BOBO, D.L. ET AL

1970

A SURVEY OF FUEL AND ENERGY INFORMATION SOURCES. 2 VOLS.

MITRE CORPORATION, BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS. SURVEY REPORT. 294 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB 197 386/387.

OVER 40.000 FUEL ANO ENERGY RELATED DOCUMENTS HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED BY 103 FEDERAL, STATE AND INDEPENDENT AGENCIES. IN ADDITION, 77 UNPU3LISHED FEDERAL FUEL AND ENERGY RELATED QUESTIONNAIRES WHICH ARE CIRCULATEED TO 12C,CD3 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIAL CORPORATIONS EACH YEAR ARE IDENTIFIED. THESE.QUESTIONNAIRES ARE ARRANGED USING DESCRIPTORS DEVELOPED dY THE STUDY. SUBJECT HEADINGS ARE ALSO USED TO IDENTIFY FUEL ANO ENERGY INFORMATION SOURCE AGENCIES.

DOCUMENTATION /INFORMATION RETRIEVAL /INSTITUTIONS /FEDERAL GOVERNMENT/ NATURAL RESOURCES /OIL /FUELS /COALS /ENERGY CONVERSION /MINERALOGY

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE FUELS /SOLAR ENERGY

BOULDING. R.

1974 ENVIRONMENTAL WHO S WHO FOR NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS ENERGY DEVELOPMENT.

ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND, 1130 CAPITAL LIFE CENTER, 16TH ANO GRANT, DENVER, COLORADO, 80263. 41 P.

THIS BOOKLET CONTAINS ENTRIES ON THE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT, AS WELL AS A LISTING OF ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS INTERESTED IN ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS. IN ADDITION TO DESCRIPTIONS OF STUDIES ALREADY COMPLETED, THE AUTHOR NOTES PROJECTS CURRENTLY UNDERWAY. THUS, THE BOOKLET IS AN INDISPENSABLE GUIDE TO THE DIVERSE ORGANIZATIONS AND AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE REGION S ENERGY DEVELOPMENT. DOCUMENTATION /INFORMATION EXCHANGE /GREAT PLAINS /ENERGY /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION/ FNVIRONMENT /GOVERNMENTSIINSTITUTIONS 134

BOWEN, R.G.

1971

ELECTRICITY FROM GEOTHERMAL, NUCLEAR, COAL SOURCES: AN ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARISON.

ORE BIN 33(11) :197 -209.

RECOGNIZING THAT WHILE THE PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS GROWING RAPIDLY AND THAT THE GROWTH OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION WILL SOON CEASE WHILE OTHER METHODS OF POWER GENERATION ARE UNDESIRABLE OR TOO FAR IN THE FUTURE, IT IS FELT THAT NUCLEAR (FISSION) REACTORS. COAL -FIRED GENERATORS, AND GEOTHERMAL PLANTS ARE THE LIKELY SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL POWER IN THE NEAR FUTURE. THE PROBABLE OR ACTUAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF EACH OF THESE THERMAL SOURCES IS EVALUATED ANO COMPARED WITH THE OTHERS FOR LAN). AIR, AND WATER. A DRY STEAM GEOTHERMAL PLANT IS THE ONLY TYPE OF THERMAL POWER PLANT THAT DOES NOT COMPETE WITH OTHER USES OF WATER. NOR DOES GEOTHERMAL POWER HAVE THE CYCLE OF MINING, MILLING, REFINING, ENRICHMENT, FABRICATION, REPROCESSING, AND WASTE STORAGE THAT IS INVOLVED IN THE PRODUCTION OF BOTH FOSSIL AND NUCLEAR FUELS. THIS SELF -CONTAINED ASPECT SEEMS TO CONVEY AN ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE TO DRY STEAM GEOTHERMAL POWER PRODUCTION WHICH IS BORNE OUT BY THE EXPERIENCE OF TWO PLANTS IN OPERATION.

ELECTRIC POWER /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /STEAM /THERMAL POWERPLANTS /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /COALS /POWERPLANTS /COMPARATIVE BENEFITS

= IDENTIFIERS : /DRY STEAM FIELDS

BOWEN, R.G.

1972

GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEW OF OREGON. IN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES, 1972, EL CENTRO CONFERENCE, FEB. 16 -18, 1972, PROCEEDINGS. PAPER J, 9 P.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, DAVIS CALIFORNIA. PUBLICATION. SWRA W73- 03429.

ALTHOUGH NO ELECTRICAL POWER IS PRODUCED IN OREGON FROM GEOTHERMAL SOURCES. THE STATE HAS MADE MORE USE OF NATURAL HOT WATERS FOR SPACE HEATING THAN ANY OTHER STATE. WITHIN THE KLAMATH FALLS AREA AT LEAST 500 HOMES, 8 SCHOOLS, AND SEVERAL 3USINESSES MAKE USE OF NATURAL HOT WATER FOR SPACE HEATING. HOT WATER HAS BEEN UTILIZED FOR HEATING IN OTHER PARTS OF THE STATE: LAKEVIEW, BURNS, VALE, ANO MANY INDIVIDUAL FARMS AND HOMES SCATTERED THROUGH THE EASTERN TWO-THIRDS OF THE STATE. OREGON HAS MORE RECENT VOLCANIC ACTIVITY THAN ANY OTHER STATE. THE CASCADE RANGE THAT GIRDS OREGON FROM NORTH TO SOUTH HAS FLOWS DATED AS YOUNG AS 1,4ü0 YEARS, AND WITHIN THE LAST 5 TO 25 THOUSAND YEARS HAS BEEN THE SUBJECT OF MUCH SPECTACULAR VOLCANISM. IN THE PROCESS OF SELECTION AS REOUIRED BY THE FEDERAL GEOTHERMAL ACT, THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HAS CLASSIFIED OVER 15 MILLION ACRES OF LAND IN OREGON AS HAVING PROSPECTIVE VALUE. AND SEVEN AREAS HAVE BEEN DESIGNATED AS KGRA S (KNOWN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES AREAS). THREE OF THESE AREAS ARE WITHIN THE CASCADE MOUNTAINS.NUMEROUS SPRINGS OCCUR ALONG BOTH SIDES OF THE CLACKAMAS RIVER WITH A VISIBLE DISCHARGE OF 200 TO 300 GPM AT TEMPERATURES UP TJ 91 DEGREES C. (USES)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SUBSURFACE WATERS /THERMAL POWER /OREGON /THERMAL WATER /WATER TEMPERATURE /THERMAL °ROPERTIES /HYOROGEOLOGY /EXPLORATION

= IDENTIFIERS) /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES 135

BOWEN, R.G.

1973 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT. IN GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -- RESOURCES, PRODUCTION, STIMJLATION,PROCEEDINGS, P. 197 -215.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, STANFORD. SWRA W73- 13224. THE GEOTHERMAL PLANT IS UNIQUE IN THAT ALL OFTHE STEPS IN THE FUEL CYCLE ARE LOCALIZED AT THE SITE OF THE POWERPRODUCTION FACILITIES. IN ALL OTHER METHODS OF POWER PRODUCTION,THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE FUEL CYCLE EXTENDS FAR BEYON7 THE BOUNDSOF THE POWER GENERATING PLANT. THE CHIEF IMPACT FROM THE USE OF GEOTHERMAL rOWEPOCCURS DURING THE PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIELDAND COiNSTRUCTION OF THE STEAM GETHERING LINES AND POWERPLANTS, BUTTHE IMPACT IS LIMITED TO THE AREA OF THE FIELD AND POSES NOTHING LIKETHE VAST DISRUPTION OF THE LANDSCAPE CAUSED BY MINING THE FUELS FOROTHER THERMAL POWERPLANTS. DUPING THE PRODUCTIVE LIFETIME OF THEGEOTHERMAL FIELD, WHICH CAN EXTEND OVER MANY DECADES, MOST OF THESOURCE AREA CAN BE USED FOR OTHER PURPOSES. AT LARDERELLO, FOR EXAMPLE, WHERE NATURAL STEAM HAS BEEN USED TO PRODUCE ELECTRICITYFOR 60 YEARS, FARMS, ORCHARDS. ANO VINEYARDS COVER MUCH OF THE LANDSURFACE. NATURAL STEAM DOES CONTAIN A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF NONCONDENSABLEGASES THAT ARE VENTED TO THE AIR. BUT COMPARED TO THE AMOUNTS DISSIPATED BY FOSSIL FUEL PLANTS, THESE GASES -- MOSTLY CARBON DIOXIDE BUTALSO NITROGEN, HYDROGEN, METHANE, ANO HYDROGEN SULFIDE --ARE MINOR. COMPARED TO THE TOTAL GASEOUS RELEASE FROM ALL STEPS IN THE NUCLEARFUEL CYCLE, THE OVERALL VOLUME ANO TOXICITY OF GASES FROM THEGEOTHERMAL PLANT IS, AGAIN, MINOR. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ELECTRICPOWER /ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND / THERMAL POWERPLANTS /ELECTRICPOWER PRODUCTION/ HYOROGEOLOGY /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /ENERGY /STEAMTURBINES /WELLS/ /THERMAL POLLUTION /WATER PCLLUTION SOURCES

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGYSOURCES

BRANNON, G.M.

1974 ENERGY TAXES AND SUBSIDIES.

BALLINGER PUBLISHING CO., CAMBRIDGE,MASSACHUSETTS. 160 P.

BRANNON CONCLUDES THAT SOME ENERGYTAXES AND SUBSIDIES CONFLICT WITH THE PROPER WORKING OF THE MARKETPLACE. HE ADVOCATES ENDING PERCENTAGE DEPLETION ALLOWANCES FOR THE FUEL INDUSTRY, ANDMOJIFYING INTANGIBLE DRILLING OEDUCTIONS ANO FOREIGN TAX CREDIT ASTHEY NOW APPLY TO OIL AND GAS COMPANIES. ALSO, HE WOULD ABOLISH TAX EXEMPTIONS FORPUBLICLY OWNED UTILITY COMPANIES. GOVERNMENT TAXES SHOULD 3E USED IN PLACES WHERE THF.MARKET FAILS, E.G. POLLUTIONABATEMENT. SUCH SHIFTS IN TAXING POLICY COULD HAVE AN EFFECT ONENERGY EXPLOITATION IN THÉ. WESTERN UNITED STATES BECAUSE THEY WOULDALTER THE PROFIT PICTURE FOR ENERGY CORPORATIONS AND THUS DIRECT THEIR CAPITAL INTO NEW AREAS. FOR EXAMPLE. MODIFYING FOREIGN TAXCREDITS COULD MAKE DOMESTIC INVESTMENT MORE ATTRACTIVE ANO THEREFOREWESTERN EXPLOITATION MORE INTENSE.

ENERGY /TAXES /POLLUTION TAXES(CHARGES) /UTILITIES/PUBLIC UTILITIES/ CAPITAL /PROFIT 136

BREED, C.S.

1971 PHYSIOGRAPHIC LIMITATIONS UPON THE JSE OF SOUTHWESTERN RIVERS. IN HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES IN ARIZONA AND THE SOUTHWEST, PROCEEDINGS, ARIZONA SECTION, 1 :367 372.

AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION AND THE HYDROLOGY SECTION/ ARIZONA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, APRIL 22 23, TEMPE. SWRA W72- 02235.

SOUTHWESTERN RIVERS ARE FEW IN NUMBERS AND LOW IN DISCHARGE. THE PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC REASONS FOR THIS ARE DISCUSSED. TO THE EAST OF THE 100TH MERIDÌAN, RAINFALL IS RELIABLE AND AGRICULTURE IS STABLE: TO THE WEST, THERE IS A CHRONIC DEFICIT OF WATER, DROUGHTS ARE FREQUENT AND LIFESTYLES MUST BE ACCORDINGLY ADJUSTED. DAM BUILDING RESULTS IN GREATLY INCREASED SILTING BEHIND THE DAM IN BOTH THE RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES AND ACCELERATED CHANNEL EROSION BELOW THE DAM. TOTAL FLOW MUST ALSO DECREASE DUE TO WITHDRAWALS AND INCREASED EVAPORATION FROM RESERVOIRS. THE CORRECTION OF APPARENT ERRORS IN MEASURING THE VIRGIN FLOW OF THE COLORADO RIVER NOW INDICATES THAT THIS FLOW IS ABOUT 15 MAF /YR. CURRENT LEGAL ALLOCATIONS TOTAL 17.5 MAF /YR OF RIVER WATER, INCLUDING THE CENTRAL ARIZONA PROJECT (CAP), WHICH WILL WITHDRAW 1.2 MAF /YR. WHILE THE RIVER IS BEING DAMMED AND OVERALLOCATED BEYOND ALL REASON, THE WATER TABLE IS BEING MINED AT THE ALARMING RATE OF 20 FT /YR. IN CENTRAL ARIZONA, IT HAS DROPPED TO ABOUT 250 FEET BELOW THE SURFACE, AND EVEN IF ALL WITHDRAWALS CEASED IMMEDIATELY, IT WOULD TAKE MANY CENTURIES OF DESERT RAINS BEFORE IT WOULD RETURN TO ITS FORMER LEVEL OF 50 FEET. THE CAP WATER WILL CANCEL ONLY ABOUT 1/2 OF THIS OVERDRAFT ANNUALLY. A GLANCE AT THE PHOENIX AREA TODAY SHOWS THAT RAIN FOLLOWS NEITHER THE FARMERS PLOW NOR THE SUBDIVIDERS BULLDOZER. (OALS)

WATER ALLCCATION(POLICY) /GROUNDWATER MINING /DAMS /EVAPORATION/ OVERDRAFT /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /RIVER FLOW /RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT /ARIZONA /ARID LANDS /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /COLORADO RIVER COMPACT /WATER TABLE /WATER LOSS /GEOMORPHOLOGY /WATER LAW

= IDENTIFIERS: /CENTRAL ARIZONA PROJECT

BREGMAN, J.I.

1971

USEFUL ENERGY FROM UNWANTED HEAT.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 78(21:83 -87. SWRA W71-04728.

ONCE -THROUGH COOLING IS CERTAINLY THE MOST ECONOMICAL WAY OF ACCOMPLISHING HEAT DISSIPATION. THE RESULTS OF A STUDY CONDUCTED BY FEDERAL POWER COMMISSION SHOW THAT ABOUT 71 STATIONS IN THE 1,000 TO 4,000 MW RANGE ARE CAPABLE OF BEING SUPPORTED BY RESERVOIRS, 24 IN THE 4,000 TO 12,000 MW RAKE, AND 8 AT 12,000 MW OR GREATER. EFFICIENCY OF A COOLING P0.40 MAY RE INCREASED MARKEDLY BY INTRODUCING A SPRAY INTO THE SYSTEM. COMMON PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH LARGE COOLING WATERS INCLUDES WOOD DETERIORATION, BIOLOGICAL FOULING, THE FORMATION OF DEPOSITS. CORROSION ANO SCALING. ANOTHER MAJOR PROBLEM IS DRIFT AND TOGGING. A TYPICAL TOWER WITH A FLOW OF 250,000 GAL. PER MINUTE OPERATING ON SEAWATER WITH A SALINITY OF 35,000 PPM, AND A DRIFT LOSS OF 0.1 PERCENT WILL EMIT ABOUT 4,400 LB. PER HOUR OF SODIUM CHLORIDE. COSTS FOR DRY TOWER RUNS FROM 25 TO 30 DOLLARS PER KW., COMPARED TO 8 TO 13 DOLLARS PER KW. FOR WET TOWERS. COOLING WATER FROM A NUCLEAR POWERPLANT MAY BE PARTICULARLY SUITED TO AQUACULTURE. POSSIBILITY OF PLACING A CHEMICAL PLANT NEXT TO A NUCLEAR PLANT APPEARS ATTRACTIVE. IT IS CONCLUDED THAT POTENTIAL DOES EXIST FOR TURNING WASTE HEAT INTO A USEFUL COMMODITY. 137

CALTFORNI:A, STATE DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

1B7 CG

GEOTHERMAL WASTES AND THE WATER RESOURCES OF THE SALTON SEA ARA.

SAME AS AUTHOR. BULLETIN 143 -7. 123 P.

TO DATE. GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN THE SALTON SEA AREA HAS BEEN CENTERED I'9 THE BUTTES THERMAL AREA WHERE 15 PILOT HELLS HAVE BEEN DRILLED. SUCH DEVELOPMENT HAS BEEN HINDERED BY OPERATIONAL AND DISPOSAL PRODLES RELATED TO THE HIGHLY CONCENTRATED BRINES. THIS REPORT EVALUATES THE RESOURCES OF THE AREA IN TERMS OF PRESENT ECONOMIC ASSETS AND FUTURE GEOTHERMAL ON- RATIONS. ABOUT 4C MILLION AF UNDERLIE THE NUITES THERMAL APEA, WHICH IS PART OF 3 BILLION AF UNDERLYING THE IMPERIAL VALLEY. POSTFLASH BRINE FPOì1 A TYPICAL WELL CONTAINS OVER 30,00O TOS, AND THE WELL COULD PRODUCE ABOUT 500,GOG TONS ANNUALLY. SINCE THE SALTON SEA IS ALREADY IN ADVERSE SALT BALANCE BECAUSE OF IRRIGATION TAILING INPUTS AND HIGH EVAPORATION RATES, IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT GEOTHERMAL WASTES SHOULD NOT BE DISCHARGED THERE.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /CALIFORNIA /BRINES /TEST WELLS /BRINE DISPOSAL /WASTE WATER DISPOSAL /THERMAL WATER

= IDENTIFIERS* /SALTON SEA /IMPERIAL VALLEY /IMPURITIES

CARLSON, C.G./LAI.RD, W.M.

1964 STUDY OF THE SPOIL BANKS ASSOCIATED WITH LIGNITE STRIP MINING IN NORTH DAKOTA. A REPORT PREPARED FOR THE

NORTH DAKOTA LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY, 39TH. GRAND FORKS. 27 P.

NORTH DAKOTA HAS LEFT RECLAMATION OF LIGNITE SPOILS TO VOLUNTARY ACTION. IN THE PAST MANY COAL COMPANIES HAVE NOT VOLUNTEERED, ALTHOUGH THE THREAT OF LEGISLATION HAS STIMULATED SOME COMPANIES TO COME UP WITH RECLAMATION PLANS AND IN SOME INSTANCES EVEN ACT ON SUCH PLANS. PRESENTLY, SOME SPOILS ARE BEING RECONTOURED, BUT STATE LAW, WHICH FORBIDS COPPORATIONS FROM FARMING. HINDERS REV;_GETATION. SOME HAVE SUGGESTED USING THE UNRECLAIMED LAND AS WILDLIFE HABITAT. THE AUTHORS RECOMMEND THAT THE STRIP -MTNED LAND BE USED EXPERIMENTALLY FOR WILDLIFE HABITAT. AND THAT NO LEGISLATION BE ENACTED AT THE PRESENT TIME. THUS A SCANT DECADE BEFORE THE MAJOR PROPOSALS FOR EXPLOITATION OF LIGNITE IN THE SEVENTIES, LAND RECLAMATION IN NORTH DAKOTA WAS STILL A MINOR ISSUE INVOLVING SMALL SCATTERED BITS OF LAND.

LIGNITE /STRIP MINES /NORTH DAKOTA /STRIP MINE WASTES /LAND RECLAMATION/ SPOIL BANKS /WILDLIFE HABITATS

CARTER, L.J.

1969

WARM -WATER IRRIGATION: AN ANSWER TO THERMAL POLLUTION.

SCIENCE 165(389212478 -480. SWRA W69- 09301. 138

TWD UTILITY- FINANCED PROJECTS FOR THE AGRICULTURAL USE OF HEATED WASTE -WATER ARE OPERATING IN OREGON. THE WARM -WATER DISCHARGE ENHANCES PLANT GROWTH AND PROTECTS FRUIT TREES FROM FROST ON A 170 -ACRE TRACT (WILLAMETTE VALLEY) WHERE PLANS ARE BEING MADE TO EXPERIMENT WITH AN UNDERGROUND WARM -WATER PIPELINE. A SIMULATION HAS BEGUN AND BEEN SUCCESSFUL IN THE GROWTH OF CORN ON A 2 -ACRE PLOT (OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY). THE UTILITY INVESTMENT IN THE FARM WAS 475,000 DOLLARS. A 2.6 MILLION DOLLAR PROJECT HAS BEEN DRAFTED BY THE AEC BUT IS NOT YET FUNDED. WARM -WATER IRRIGATION PLANS ARE APPROPRIATE IN THE NORTHWEST BECAUSE: 1) THERE ARC MANY ACRES OF IRRIGABLE LAND: 2) THERE ARE MANY VALUABLE FISHERIES IN THE RIVERS AND RESTRICTION ON RIVER WATER USE 3) TOWER AND LAKE CONSTRUCTION IS EXPENSIVE AND UNSLIGHTLY COMPARED TO AGRICULTURAL PROPOSALS. THE FINDINGS ARE ENCOURAGING ALTHOUGH LIMITED AND INCONCLUSIVE. PROFESSORS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF OREGON WARN THAT WARM -WATER IRRIGATION DOES NOT USE THE CONSTANT SUPPLY OF EFFLUENT WATER, THAT IT COULD BE A HEALTH HAZARD, AND PRESENTS RESEARCH PROBLEMS BEST HANDLED BY A UNIVERSITY.

THERMAL POLLUTION /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /WASTE WATER DISPOSAL /IRRIGATION WATER /PUBLIC UTILITIES /NUCLEAR WASTES /WATER UTILIZATION /HEATED WATER/ WATER TEMPERATURE

= IDENTIFIERS: /OREGON /WILLAMETTE VALLEY /HEATED SOIL

CARTER, L.J.

1973

RIO BLANCO: STIMULATING GAS AND CONFLICT IN COLORADO.

SCIENCE 180(4088)2844 -847.

AN ACCOUNT FOR THE LAYMAN OF THE CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING A NUCLEAR BLAST SCHEDULED FOR MAY 17, 1973 AT RIO BLANCO, COLORADO. THE 30 KLOTON DETONATION SUGGESTS THE COMMITMENT OF SCIENTISTS AND INDUSTRIALISTS IN FINDING NEW SOURCES OF ENERGY. ENVIRONMENTALISTS 00 NOT CLAIM THAT THE BLAST WILL SERIOUSLY EFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT. RATHER, THEY FEAR IF THE EXPERIMENT IS SUCCESSFUL THE AEC ANO OTHERS WILL EXPLODE THOUSANDS OF BOMBS IN A MASSIVE PROJECT TO LIBERATE NATURAL GAS FROM STRATA. NATURALLY, SUCH NUMBERS INVITE ACCIDENTS THAT ON A NUCLEAR LEVEL CAN SPELL DISASTER.

COLORADO /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /NATURAL GAS /UNDERGROUND /RADIOACTIVITY /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING/ RADIOACTIVE WASTES /SAFETY /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /EXCAVATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT RIO BLANCO /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION /PROJECT PLOWSHARE

CECIL, E.A. ET AL

1972

DRY -TYPE COOLING TOWERS.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL EENGINEERS, POWER DIVISION, JOURNAL 98(PO1):11 -20.

A MAJOR PROBLEM IN POWERPLANT SITING IS FINDING AN ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY, AND COPING WITH THERMAL POLLUTION. DRY -TYPE COOLING TOWERS PRESENT A SOLUTION TO THIS PROBLEM. THE UNITED STATES HAS ONLY TWO DRY- COOLED ELECTRIC GENERATING PLANTS IN OPERATION. RECENTLY, PLANS FOR A 200 MW DRY -COOLED GENERATING PLANT IN WYOMING WERE ANNOUNCED. SUCH INSTALLATIONS WOULD SOLVE A MAJOR SITING PROBLEM IN THE AMERICAN WEST. 139

COOLING TOWERS /THERMAL POWEPPLANTS /ARID LANDS /EVAPORATION /THERMAL POLLUTION /POWERPLAN1S /COOLING /WYOMING /SITES

= IDENTIFIERS: /DKY COOLING TOWERS

CHEDD, G.

1973

PLOWSHARE S DEATH RATTLE AT RIO BLANCO.

NEW SCIENTIST 57(836):544 -546. PROJECT RIO BLANCO, THIRO IN A SERIES OF PLOWSHARE EXPLOSIONS DESIGNED TO TEST THE PRACTISILITY OF USING BOMBS FOR RELEASING NATURAL GAS, MAY WELL BE THE LAST. OIL COMPANIES ARE ALARMED THAT THE BLAST MAY DAMAGE OIL SHALE STRATA OVERLYING THE DETONATION. ENVIRONMENTALISTS APE WORRIED BY POSSIBLE LEAKS OF RADIOACTIVITY AND QUESTION WHETHER BLOWING UP NUCLEAR BOMBS IS THE MOST SENSIBLE METHOD OF EXTRACTING NATURAL GAS. ALL IN ALL, THE WHOLE IDEA OF STIMULATING NATURAL GAS WITH NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS GROWS INCREASINGLY IMPLAUSIBLE. PROJECT PLOWSHARE MAY ENO AT RIO BLANCO.

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /NATURAL GAS /COLORADO /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES / UNDERGROUND /RADIOACTIVITY /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING/ /SAFETY /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /OIL SHALES

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT RIO BLANCO /PROJECT PLOWSHARE /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING NEWS

1973 MEETING REFLECTS SOLAR ENERGY OPTIMISM.

SAME AS AUTHOR 51(31):14 -16.

DESCRIBED ARE TWO MAJOR APPROACHES TO DEVELOPING ELECTRICAL POWER DISCUSSED AT A RECENT MEETING OF THE UNESCO -SPONSORED INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON SOLAR ENERGY: CONVERSION OF SOLAR POWER TO ELECTRICITY USING SOLAR CELLS, OR USE OF SOLAR COLLECTORS THAT PROVIDE HEAT FOR MAKING STEAM FOR USE IN POWERPLANT TURBINES. TO ANSWER ENVIRONMENTAL CRITICS WORRIED OVER POSSIBLE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF DEVOTING SUCH LARGE APEAS (SOLAR FARMS) TO POWERPLANTS OF ANY TYPE, IT IS PROPOSED TO DISTRIBUTE A NUMBER OF SMALLER SOLAR POWER FARMS OF 70 MEGAWATTS CAPACITY. OVER AN 8 -STATE AREA. EACH PLANT PROVIDING ELECTRICAL POWER FOR ABOUT 35,000 PEOPLE. TO ACHIEVE THE HIGHEST RATIO OETWEEN ABSORPTION OF INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION AND INFRARED EMISSION, A DESIGN OF SOLAR COLLECTOR PANELS IS DESCRIBED. EXAMPLES OF MODELS USING SOLAR POWER BY SUCH INSTITUTIONS AS THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, SOUTHERN METHODIST UNIVERSITY, BOEING AEROSPACE COMPANY. ANO THE UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE S INSTITUTE OF ENERGY CONVERSION ARE DISCUSSED.

ELECTRIC POWER /ENERGY CONVERSION /SOLAR RADIATION /POWERPLANTS/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ABSORPTION / INFRARED RADIATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /SOLAR POWER GENERATION /SOLAR CELLS 140

CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING NEWS

1973

SHALE OIL: NO SERIOUS EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT.

SAME AS AUTHOR 51(20) :23 -25.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STUDY FILED BY COLONY DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION (A JOINT VENTURE BY ATLANTIC RICHFIELD ANO OIL SHALE CORP.) STATES THAT SERIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL PROOLEMS WILL NOT BE A CONSEQUENCE OF EXPLOITING OIL SHALE DEPOSITS IN COLORADO. FOUR AREAS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN OUTLINED BY THE CORPORATION ARE PROPER DISPOSAL AND REVEGETATION OF PROCESSED SHALE, AIR QUALITY, WATER QUALITY, AND OFF -SITE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS. A STUDY BY THE OIL SHALE CORP. SPECULATES THAT THE TECHNOLOGY EVOLVED FOR CONVERTING OIL SHALE TO FUELS AND CHEMICALS MAY HAVE APPLICATIONS IN PROCESSING LOW -GRADE WESTERN COAL.

COLORADO /COLORADO RIVER /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /ECONOMIC IMPACT /OIL SHALES /ENERGY CONVERSIOV /LAND RECLAMATION / REVEGETATION/ COALS /STRIP MINES /WASTE DISPOSAL

= IDENTIFIERS: /REFINING OPERATIONS /COLONY DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION /OIL SHALE CORPORATION /ATLANTIC RICHFIELD

CHERRY, W.R.

1972

THE GENERATION OF POLLUTION -FREE ELECTRICAL POWER FROM SOLAR ENERGY.

JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR POWER 94(SER. A- 21 :78 -82. /AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, ASME PAP 71 -WA /SOL -2.

A POLLUTION FREE METHOD OF CONVERTING SOLAR ENERGY DIRECTLY INTO ELECTRICAL POWER USING PHOTOVOLTAICS ON THE GROUND SHOWS THAT SUNLIGHT FALLING ON ABOUT 1 PERCENT OF THE LAND AREA OF THE U.S. COULD PROVIDE ITS TOTAL ELECTRICAL POWER REQUIREMENTS IN THE YEAR 1997. BY UTILIZING AND FURTHER DEVELOPING SOME NASA TECHNOLOGY, A NEW SOURCE OF ELECTRICAL POWER WILL RECOME AVAILABLE. THE PAPER SUGGESTS HOW THE COST OF PRODUCING SOLAR ARRAYS MAY BECOME ACCEPTABLE. ESPECIALLY AS CONVENTIONAL FUELS BECOME SCARCER AND MORE EXPENSIVE. REASONS FOR DEVELOPING SOLAR ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL POWER ARE: TO CONSERVE OUR FOSSIL FUELS FOR MORE SOPHISTICATED USES THAN JUST BURNING, TO REDUCE ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION BY 20 PERCENT, TO CONVERT LOW PRODUCTIVE LAND AREAS INTO HIGH PRODUCTIVE LAND AREAS, TO MAKE THE U.S. LESS DEPENDENT UPON FOREIGN SOURCES OF ENERGY, AND TO LEARN TO UTILIZE SOLAR ENERGY IN OTHER WAYS.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /AIR POLLUTION /SOLAR RADIATION /ENERGY CONVERSION /EVALUATION /HEATING /COOLING

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT /SOLAR POWER GENERATION/ /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS 141

CHERRY, W.R. /MORSE, F.H.

1972

CONCLUSIONS ANO RECOMMEN[ATIONS OF THE SOLAR ENERGY PANEL.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. ASME PAP 72 -WA /SOL -G.12 P.

THREE AREAS HAVE EVOLVED WHERE SOLAR ENERGY COULD SUPPLY SIGNIFICANT AMOUNTS OF THE NATION S FUTURE ENERGY NEEDS. IT HAS CONCLUDED THAT WITH ADEQUATE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT OVER THENEXT 30 YEARS, SOLAR ENERGY COULD PROVIDE FOR AT LEAST 35 PERCENT OF THEHEATING AND COOLING OF FUTURE BUILDINGS, GREATER THAN 35 PERCENT OF THEMETHANE AND HYDROGEN NEEDED IN THE U.S. FOR GASEOUS FULLS. AND EVENTUALLY GREATER THAN 20 PERCENT OF THE ELECTRICAL POWER NEEDS OFTHE U.S. ALL OP THIS COULD BE DONE WITH A MINIMAL EFFECT ON THEENVIRONMENT AND A SUBSTANTIAL SAVINGS OF NONRENEWAL FUELS.

ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /HEATING /COOLING

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SPACE HEATING/SOLAR AIR CONOITIONING /SOLAR POWER GENERATION /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS

CLARK, J.W.

1973

POLLUTION CONTROL. IN K.E. STORK, ED., THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE ENERGY CRISIS: PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE AT LINCOLN. NEBRASKA, OCTOBER 23 -24, 1973, P. 128 -131.

NEBRASKA WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LINCOLN. PUBLICATION. SWRA W74-37970.

THERMAL GENERATION OF ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCES A SIGNIFICANTTHERMAL DISCHARGEE. A PROBLEM OF EVEN GREATER MAGNITUTE IN RELATION TO WATER POLLUTION AND SUPPLY MAY BE DEVELOPING IN THE NORTHERNGREAT PLAINS AND IN THE SOUTHWESTERN DESERTS. THE STATES OF ARIZONA. NEW MEXICO, UTAH, COLORADO, WYOMING, MONTANA, AND NORTH AND SOUTHDAKOTA CONTAIN ABOUT 70 PERCENT OF THE NATION S LOW-SULFUR COAL RESERVES. THESE RESERVES LIE CLOSE TO THE SURFACË, AND STRIP MININGPROCEDURES ARE BEING USED TO OBTAIN THE GOAL. DEVELOPMENT OF THIS COAL RESOURCE INVOLVES LEGAL MANDATES TO RESTORE THE LA,JD AFTERTHE COAL HAS BEEN REMOVED. WATER SCARCITY MAY LIMIT THE USE OF WESTERN COAL. THE PROBLEM IS THAT IN MOST OF THE WESTERN WATERSHEDS WHERE IMMENSE MINING, GASIFICATION AND POWER GENERATING COMPLEXESARE ENVISIONED, EXISTING AND POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLIES ARE HEAVILY COMMITTEDAND IN SOME BASINS, WATER RESOURCES ARE OVER COMMITTED. IT WOULD REQUIRE MUCH MORE WATER TO REHAEBILITATE SOME OF THESE LANDS THANWOULD BE REQUIRED INITIALLY IN MINING. PROCESSING AND UTILIZING THECOAL.

ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /GREAT PLAINS /ROCKY MOUNTAINREGION/ SOUTHWEST U.S. /COAL MINES /WATER DEMAND /THERMAL POWERPLANTS /STRIP MINES /COOLING WATER /LAND RECLAMATION /WATER SUPPLY /INDUSTRIALWATER /ENERGY

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS 142

CLOUOSLEY- THOHPSON, J.L.

1970

ANIMAL UTILIZATION. IN H.E. OREGNE, ED. ARID LANDS IN TRANSITION.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, PUBLICATION 9G :57 -72. SWRA W71- 07815.

THE MAJOR RESOURCE OF DESERT AREAS IS AN INEXHAUSTIBLE SUPPLY OF SOLAR ENERGY. WHILE MANY DESERT REGIONS HAY BE MADE TO BLOOM WITH WATER APPLICATIONS, THE MAJOR WATER SUPPLY, GROUNDWATER, IS EXTREMELY VARIABLE IN QUALITY AND PROSPECTS FOR ITS UTILIZATION IN MOST DESERT REGIONS ARE FAR FROM ENCOURAGING. THE POTENTIALITIES OF ANIMAL SCIENCE IN AREAS, PARTICULARLY THE SAHARA DESERT, WHERE WATER IS UNAVAILABLE FOR IRRIGATION, ARE REVIEWED.MAN S EFFECTS ON THE DESERTS HAVE BEEN PRIMARILY DESTRUCTIVE, PARTICULARLY THROUGH OVERGRAZING, SO THAT DESERTS OF LOW PRODUCTIVITY HAVE EXPANDED INTO LARGER DESERTS OF VIRTUALLY ZERO PRODUCTIVITY. IN THE SAHARA, GOATS INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY, BUT CONTRIBUTE FURTHER TO ECOLOGICAL DEGRADATION. INCREASING WATER -HOLE DISTRIBUTION SHOULD INCREASE HERBIVORE GRAZING RANGES, BUT THIS IS OF LIMITED PRACTICALITY. THE CURRENT POLICIES OF VARIOUS GOVERNMENTS LEADING TO PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF NOMADS IS PROBABLY ILL -CONCEIVED, SINCE IN MANY AREAS, NOMADISM IS THE ONLY POSSIBLE FORM OF DESERT EXPLOITATION. DESERT IRRIGATION PROJECTS LEAD TO CRITICAL MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGICAL PROBLEMS SUCH AS MALARIA, TRACHOMA, AMOEBIC DYSENTARY AND BILHARZIASIS. THEY ALSO ENCOURAGE DESERT LOCUSTS, WHICH MAY BE SELF -DEFEATING IN TERMS OF EXPANDING CROP PRODUCTION. POSSIBLEGRAZING SPECIES WHICH MAY ENHANCE ANIMAL PRODUCTION ARE CONSIDERED, AND THE MAJOR POSSIBILITIES APPEAR TO BE THE CAMEL AND THE OSTRICH. HUMAN FOOD HABITS PRESENTLY SEEM TO PRECLUDE THE CAMEL. INADEQUATE FAMILIARITY WITH DESERT ECOLOGY IS RESULTING IN A NUMBER OF QUESTIONABLE DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES THAT ARE SERVING ONLY TO EXPAND THE DESERT. ADDITIONALLY, MORE ACCOUNT MUST BE TAKEN OF CULTURAL PECULIARITIES. WHICH MAY ALSO SERVE TO DEFEAT MANY PROJECTS. (OALS)

SOCIAL ASPECTS /ANIMAL BEHAVIOR /WATER USERS /DAMS /ECOLOGY /WATER BALANCE /ECOSYSTEMS /LAND USE /DEFERRED COSTS /WATER OUALITY /PRODUCTIVITY /HUMAN POPULATION /ARID LANDS /XEROPHILIC ANIMALS /GRAZING /HER3IVORES /WATER SHORTAGE /GOATS /CATTLE /FOOD HABITS /POLITICAL ASPECTS /IRRIGATION EFFECTS

= IDENTIFIERS : /SAHARA /NOMADS /DEVELOPING COUNTRIES /CAMELS /OSTRICHES

COAL AGE

1971

THE BLACK MESA PLAN: ENERGY TODAY, BETTER LAND TOMORROW.

SAME AS AUTHOR 76(3):78 -83.

PEABODY COAL COMPANY HAS GIVEN RECLAMATION A HIGH PRIORITY IN ITS EXPLOITATION OF BLACK MESA S CCAL OE POSITS. SO FAR ß56 MILLION DOLLARS HAS BEEN INVESTED IN THE MINE. PIPELINES AND A RAILROAD TO DELIVER THE COAL, AND TWO POWER PLANTS TO BURN IT. ALSO, 2650 JOBS HAVE ,BEEN CREATED IN THE SOUTHWEST BY THE MINE AND THE POWERPLANTS, MOHAVE AND NAVAJO. PEABODY IS DETERMINED THAT BLACK MESA WILL BE ONE OF THE OUTSTANDING DEVELOPMENTS OF ITS KIND. THE PLAN S ECONOMIC IMPACT, LAND RECLAMATION PROJECTIONS, MINING LAYOUT. AND WATER RESOURCES ARE EXAMINED. 143

STRIP MINES /ECONOMICS /BENEFITS /ECONOMIC IMPACT /RATER RESOURCES DËVELOPMENT /AQUIFERS /ELECTRIC PO'RERPLANTS /INDIAN RESERVATIONS/ REVEGETATION /COAL MINES /MINE WASTES /ARIZONA

= IDENTIFIERS: /PEABODY COAL COMPANY /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /BLACK MESA

COLORADO WATER CONSERVATION BOARD

195G WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR OIL SHALE, 1960 -1975.

CAMERON AND JONES, INC., COLORADO WATER CONSERVATION BOARD, DENVER, COLORADO. 4û P. THIS EARLY STUDY OUTLINES THE PROBABLE WATER ANO POPULATION IMPACT OF A 1,25ú,0ú0 BARREL -PER -DAY OIL SHALE INDUSTRY ON THE PARACHUTE -ROAN CREEK APFA OF WESTERN COLORADO. SUCH PRODUCTION OF OIL SHALE WOULD REQUIRE 250,000 ACRE FEET OF WATEP PER YEAR ANO WOULD EMPLOY 51,050 MEN, INCREASING THE AREA S POPULATION BY 340,000. WATER ESTIMATES ARE LOW BY CURRENT STANDARDS SINCE THEY DO NOT INCLUDE REVEGETATION OF SPENT SHALE. THE STUDY SHOWS THAT THE BASIC IMPACT OF SUCH AN INDUSTRY ON ONE OF THE NATION S MOST SPARSELY POPULATED ANO ARID REGIONS HAS BEEN KNOWN FOR SOME TIME.

COLORADO /OIL SHALES /SOCIAL IMPACT /ARID LANDS /REVEGETATION /WATER REQUIREMENTS /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

= IDENTIFIERS: /PARACHUTE -ROAN CREEK

COMMERCE BUSINESS DAILY

1972 FATE OF HAZARDOUS POLLUTANTS AND OTHER TRACE CONSTITUENTS OF COAL DURING GASIFICATION. A RESEARCH PROJECT.

SAME AS AUTHOR, JUNE 6, 1972. P.21. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY CONTRACT NUMBER EPA 68 -02 -0277 AWARDED 30,000 DOLLARS TO INSTITUTE OF GAS TECHNOLOGY, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS TO RESEARCH THE POLLUTION PROBLEMS ATTENDANT ON COAL GASIFICATION.

COALS /COAL MINES /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /METALS / ENcRGY CONVERSION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES/ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION

= IOENTIFIERSs /COAL GASIFICATION /INSTITUTEOF GAS TECHNOLOGY, CHICAGO

COOK, G.L.

1972

OIL SHALE --AN IMPENDING ENERGY SOURCE. JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY, NOVEMBER 24, 1972. P. 1325 -133û. 144

THIS ARTICLE BY AN EMPLOYEE OF THE U.S. BUREAU OF NINESFOCUSES O"( THE OIL SHALE. OEPOSITS OF THE GREEN RIVERFORMATION IN COLORADO, UTAH, AND WYOMING AS THE MOST LIKELY TO BE EXPLOITED WITHPRESENT TECHNOLOGY. ABOVE - GROUND AND IN -SITU METHODS OF EXTRACTION ARE CONSIDERED. RECENT DEVELOPMENT -- POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL--SUGGEST THAT SYNTHETIC FUELS IN GENERAL AND OIL SHALE IN PARTICULAR WILL BE EXPLOITED IN THE NEARFUTURE. SOME NEGATIVE FACTORS TO KEEP IN MIND ARE THE UNCERTAINTIES OF ECONJ;1ICFEASIBILITY IN WORKING WITH UNTRIED TECHNOLOGIES AND THEUNCERTAIN OWNERSHIP OF SOME OIL SHALE LANDS.

MINERAL INDUSTRY /LAND RESOURCES /COLORADO /WYOMING/UTAH /ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY /OIL SHALES /LAND TENURE /TECHNOLOGY /ENERGYCONVERSION

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGYSOURCES /GREEN RIVER FORMATION

CORDES, E.H.

1969 HYDRAULIC TESTING AND SAMPLING OF USBM -AEC COLORADO COREHOLE 3, RIO BLANCO COUNTY, COLORADO. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, DENVER, COLORADO, OPEN -FILEREPORT. 42 P. SWRA W70- 04598. ON NOVEMBER 21, 1967, THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEYCOMPLETED THE HYDRAULIC TESTING ANO SAMPLING OF USBM -AEC COLORADO COREHOLE 3 IN RIO BLANCO COUNTY, COLORADO. THIS HOLE WAS DRILLED TO EXPLORE THE SITE FOR PROJECT BRONCO, A PLOWSHARE EXPERIMENT TO STUDYTHE FEASIBILITY OF IN SITU RETORTING OF OIL SHALE AFTER BREAKINGTHE ROCK WITH A NUCLEAR EXPLOSION. THE HYDRAULIC TESTS INDICATE THE EXISTENCE OF A HIGHLY PERMEABLE WATER- BEARING ZONE IN THE UPPER ANO MIDDLEPARTS OF THE PARACHUTE CREEK MEMBER, OF THE GREEN RIVER FORMATION. THE ZONE YIELDED WATER IN EXCESS OF 2,700 CUBIC METERS PER DAY. NATURAL GROUNDWATER CIRCULATION DISSOLVED THE SALT DEPOSITS FROM A PART OFTHE OIL SHALE, LEAVING A HIGHLY PERMEABLE ZONE. UNDERLYING ROCKS ARE COMPARATIVELY IMPERMEABLE, AND YIELDED LESS THAN 16 CUBIC METERS PER DAYOF HIGHLY SALINE FLUID. POTENTIAL FLOODING OF A RUBBLE CHIMNEY IS AN IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION FOP PROJECT FEASIBILITY AND SAFETY. A FIRST APPROXIMATION OF THE MAGNITUDE OF FLOODING WAS CALUCLATEDFROM THE TEST DATA. (USGS)

HYOROGEOLOGY /OIL SHALES /COLORADO / NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS/PERMEABILITY/ TRANSMISSIVITY /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /ON -SITE TESTS /GEOLOGIC IAVESTIGATIONS /WATER WELLS /HYDROLOGIC DATA /AQUIFERS /TESTING

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT BRONCO /PUMDING/AQUIFER TESTING /GREEN RIVER FORMATION

CJTTER, T.J. /LOTZ, A.W.

1961 COOLING POND DESIGN IN THE SOUTHWEST. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, POWER DIVISION, JOURNAL 87(P02):R5'103. SWRA W69- 09031. 145

THE USE OF COOLING PONDS AS A SOURCE OF CIRCULATING WATER FOR CENTRAL STEAM -ELECTRIC STATIONS IS (IN 1961) STEADILY INCA? A`.ING IN THE UNITED STATES. THE POND DESIGN FOR GREATEST EFFICIENCY INNUP_AT DISSIPATION MUST COtJSIDLj: POlSD DEPTH, INTAKE DEPTH, SEPARATION OF INTAKE AND DISCHARGE, AND MAKE -UP WATER SUPPLY. ALTHOUGH FORT ?ULA -AND HEAT BALANCES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED, JUDGMENT FACTORS BASED ON EXPERIENCE WITH VARYING PHYSICAL CHAÑACT'ERISTICS UNDER DIFFEPENT CLIMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS ARE MORE CRITICAL TN THE DESIGN. THESE CONSIDERATIOrNS ARE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL WITH REFERENCETO PONDS AT THE CHOLLA AND THE FOUR CORNERS PLANTS IN NEW MEXICO.

THERMAL POLLUTION /WATER CONSERVATION /ENGINEERING STRUCTURES / COOLLNG TOWERS /WATER RESOURCES /NON -CONSUMPTIVE USE /TOPOGRAPHY /HYDROLOGIC DATA/ /INTAKE GATES /WATER DISCHARGE /WELLS /SOUTHWEST U.S. z IDENTIFIERS: / CHOLLA POWERPLANT /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /COOLING PONDS

COUNCIL ON ECONOMIC PRIORITIES

1974

LEASED AND LOST: A STUDY OF PUBLIC AND INDIAN COAL LEASING IN THE WEST.

SAME AS AUTHOR, NEW YORK. 48 P.

PUBLIC COAL LANDS IN THE WEST HAVE BEEN LEASED TO LARGE CORPORATIONS FOR A PITTANCE. FIFTEEN LEASEHOLDERS CONTROL 70 PERCENT OF THE COAL LAGOS. THE LEASED LANDS ARE HARDLY MINED: 89 PERCENT OF ALL LEASED LAUD IS INACTIVE, AND 93 PERCENT OF LAND LEASED BY THE TOP FIFTEEN CORPORATIONS. OF THE 474 LEASES GRANTED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 171 WERE CONCLUDED WITHOUT COMPETITIVE BIDDING FOR 2 DOLLARS AND 87 CENTS PER ACRE. IN ADDITION TO POINTING CUT THE UNUSUALLY LOW PRICE THE GOVERNMENT HAS CHARGED FOR THE LEASED COAL LANDS, THE REPORT NOTES THAT VERY LITTLE EFFORT HAS BEEN AT RECLAMATION 3Y THE COMPANIES. IT IS DOUBTFUL IF MUCH OF THE LAND CAN EVER BE RECLAIMED. THE COUNCIL BELIEVES THAT INCOME FROM THE LEASED COAL LANDS MUST BE RAISED, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFEGUARDS WRITTEN INTO THE LEASES.

COALS /LEASES /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /PUBLIC LANDS /RECLAMATION /LAND RESOURCES

DAVIS, R.K.

1973 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RESOURCE USE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ENERGY AND WATER. IN K.E. STORK, ED., THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE ENERGY CRISIS; PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE AT LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, OCTOBER 23 -24, 1973, P. 39 -45. NEBRASKA WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LINCOLN. PUBLICATION. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -232 404.

ECONOMISTS BELIEVE THAT OPTIMUM SOCIAL WELFARE IS COINCIDENT WITH BEST ECONOMIC USE OF RESOURCES. BEST ECONOMIC USE IS DEFINED WITH REFERENCE TO ALL BENEFITS ANO COSTS. IF WATER IS ALLOCATED AMONG USES SO THAT THE RATIO OF MARGINAL SOCIAL BENEFITS TO MARGINAL SOCIAL COSTS IS EQUAL IN ALL USES, THE LOGIC INVOLVED STATES THAT THE MOST EFFICIENT USE OF WATER IS ACHIEVED. IF, AS BETWEEN TWO USES OF WATER 146

THE RATIO OF BENEFITS TO COSTS IS UNEQUAL AT THE MARGIN, THEN ITIS POSSIBLE TO Its ?ROVE SOCIETY S WELFARE BY REALLOCATING WATERFROM THE USE WITH THE LOWER RATIO OF BENEFITS TO COSTS TO THE USE WITHTHE HIGHER RATIO OF BENEFITS TO COSTS, AND TO CONTINUE SHIFTING THE RESOURCE FROM ONE USE TO THE OTHER JNTIL THE RATIO OF BENEFITSTO COSTS OF THE LAST INCREMENT SHIFTED IS EQUAL IN BOTH USES. PUBLIC DECISION- MAKING, AS IT AFFECTS THE USES OF WATER AND ENERGY, IS CHARACTERIZED BY FAILURES TO ADDRESS A RANGE OF ALTERNATIVESBROAD ENOUGH TO GIVE SCME HOPE OF INCLUDING SUPERIOR POLICIES. ANO THE EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES IS SERIOUSLY HAMPERED BY COST SHARINGOR SUBSIDIES WHICH BADLY WARP CHOICES IN FAVOR OF UNECONOMIC ALTERNATIVES. (USGS)

WATER OEMANO /ENERGY /ECONOMICS /POLITICAL ASPECTS /REGULATION /WATER UTILIZATION /ENVIRONMENT /LEGISLATION /WATER MANAGEMENT(APPLIED)/RESOURCE ALLOCATION /COST -BENEFIT ANALYSIS

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS

DIALS, G.E. / MOORE, E.C.

1974

THE COST OF COAL.

ENVIRONMENT 16(7)(18 -24, 30 37.

PART OF THE REAL PPICE OF COAL IS THE PRICE OF RECLAIMING THE LAND MINED, AND OF PROVIDING A SAFE WORK PLACE FOR THE MEN WHO MINE IT. IN THE PAST, THESE TWO FACTORS HAVE NOT REALLY ENTERED INTO THE PRICEFOR THE CONSUMER. NOW THEY MUST, ACCORDING TO THE AUTHORS. LAND RECLAMATION IS ESSENTIAL AS STRIP MINING BECOMES A MAJOR SOURCE OF COAL. SAFETY BECOMES ESSENTIAL AS WE LEARN MORE ABOUT MINE HAZARDS AND ABOUT THE PREVALENCE OF LUNG DISEASES AMONG MINERS. IF THESE HITHERTO IGNORED FACTORS WERE INCLUDED IN THE PRICE OF COAL, IT WOULD STILL BE A HIGHLY COMPETITIVE FUEL. THE AUTHORS INCLUDE A GREAT DEAL OF DETAILED INFORMATION ON RECLAMATION AND SOCIAL COSTS.

STRIP MINES /LAND RECLAMATION /HAZARDS /SAFETY /SOCIAL IMPACT /COALS /COSTS /PRICING

DIPESO, C.C.

1971 USE AND ABUSE OF SOUTHWESTERN RIVERS. THE PUEBLO DWELLER. IN HYDROLOGY ANO WATER RESOURCES IN ARIZONA AND THE SOUTHWEST. 1 :381 -385.

AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION, ARIZONA SECTION /ARIZONA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. HYDROLOGY SECTION, PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1971 MEETINGS, TEMPE, ARIZONA. SWRA W72- 02236.

IN RESPONSE TO THE 20TH CENTURY CRISIS OF ENVIRONMENTALOESTRUC'iION BY UNRESTRICTED TECHNOLOGICAL EXPLOITATION, SOME ARCHAEOLOGISTSARE STUDYING ALTERNATIVE MODES OF RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AS PRACTICED BY EARLIER MEN. THE PUEBLO INDIANS OF THE ARID SOUTHWESTERN DESERTS WERE BASICALLY UPLAND CORN FARMERS, WHO, AFTER A.D. SOOJ, FOUND IT NECESSARY TO EXPLOIT THEIR ENVIRONMENT BECAUSE OF VARYING COMBINATIONS OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ANO INCREASED POPULATION PRESSURES. IN NORTHEASTERN PART OF THE STATE OF CHIHUAHUA, URBAN ENGINEERS, CA1050, HARNESSED THE ENTIRE CASAS GRANDES DENDRITIC PATTERN BY INSTALLING A SET OF LINKED HYDRAULIC APPOINTMËNTS WHICH INCLUDE) VARIOUS UPSLOPE PROTECTIVE DEVICES SUCH AS LINEAR BORDER, CHECK DAMS ANO RIVERSIDE AND 147

HILLSIDE TERRACES. NOT ONLY WERE THEY ABLE TO VISUAL.IZ_E AN ENTIRE DENDRITIC PATTERN AS THE TARGET AREA, BUT ALSO THEY WcRE ABLE TO CONCEIVE OF RAINFALL AND TOPSOIL AS A SINGLE FACTO' IN THEIR CONTROL DESIGNS. ALTHOUGH LARGE AMOUNTS OF HUMAN LABOR WERE NEEDED TO CONSTRUCT ANO MAINTAIN THESE SYSTEMS, FEW RAW MATERIALS WERE NEEDED. WHEN THE MOUNTAIN -BORN WATERS PEACHED THE LOWER VALLEYS, THEY WERE CLEAR ANO SLUGGISH, DIO NOT FL000 THE BOTTOMLANDS, ANO BECAUSE OF THE REDUCED SPEED, COULD EASILY BE DIVERTED INTO CANALS AND RESERVOIRS, SUPPLYING THE CITIES WITH DOMESTIC MATER AND THE FARMERS WITH IRRIGATION WATER. MANY- FURTHER STUDIES ARE NEEDED OF THESE PRE - COLUMBIAN SYSTEMS. (OALS)

HISTORY /ARID LANDS/WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMFNT /IRRIGATION SYSTEMS/ SOIL CONSERVATION /IRRIGATION PRACTICES /RAINFALL /MODES OF ACTION/ DENDRITIC /RIVER BASINS /VALLEYS /EXPLOITATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /PRE -COLUMBIAN TECHNOLOGY

DONOVAN, P. ET AL

1972

AN ASSESSMENT OF SOLAR ENERGY AS A NATIONAL ENERGY RESOURCE.

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND. DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, REPORT. 85 P. NSF -RANN ENERGY ABSTRACTS 1(7)2004.

THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION AND THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION ORGANIZED THE SOLAR ENERGY PANEL TO ASSESS THE POTENTIAL OF SOLAR ENERGY ASA NATIONAL ENERGY RESOURCE, TO EVALUATE TECHNOLOGY IN THE VARIOUS SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATION AREAS, AND TO RECOMMEND NECESSARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS TO INCREASE THE POTENTIAL IN THOSE AREAS CONSIDERED IM'ORTANT. THE SCOPE OF THE PANEL S ACTIVITIES WAS DEFINED TO INCLUDE ALL APPLICATIONS OF DIRECT SOLAR ENERGY, AS WELL AS POWER FROM WIND. OCEAN THERMAL DIFFERENCES, AND USEFUL ENERGY FROM REPLENISHABLE ORGANIC MATERIALS. THIS REPORT PRESENTS THE FINDINGS OF THE PANEL. (AFTER AUTHOR)

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /RESOURCE INVENTORY /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS /ALTERNATIVE FUELS /WIND POWER /OCEAN THERMAL GRADIENT ENERGY

DOVE, F.H.

1973 GROUNDWATER IN THE NAVAJO SANDSTONE: A SUBSET OF SIMULATION OF THE EFFECTS OF COAL -FIRED POWER DEVELOPMENTS IN THEFOUR CORNERS REGION.

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA (PH.D. DISSERTATION). 146 P. 148

ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS 1N THE SOUTHWEST HAVE ESTABLISHE'l A PASTS FOR THE EXAMIi :ATION OF COMPLEXITIES INVOLVED IN ENVIRONMENTAL UECISI(JN MAKING. THE COAL- FIRE, GENERATION FACILITIES EXHIJIT AN IMPACT POTENTIAL ON THE SOCIAL, PHYSICAL. AND ECONOMIC SURROUNOING`.i OF BOTH LOCAL AND DISTANT COMMUNITIES. A SIMULATED GROUNDWATER MODEL IS OSLO TO ESTIMATE HEAD DECLINE IN THC CJFINED ANJ UNCONFINED PORTIONS OF THE NAVAJO SANDSTONE ANU THE MLSAVERJE FORMATION ON BLACK MESA. AS A RESULT OF THE SMALL AMOUNT OF PUBLISHED AQUIFER DATA, MINIMUM 0R K-LOW MINIMUM VALUES OF AQUIFER PROP=ERTIfES AND A SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS WERE INCOR?ORATEO INTO MODEL CONSIDERATIONS. PUMPING RATES AND PUMPING OJRATIONS OF GROUNDWATER FOR SLURRY TRANSFER OF COAL DEFINE THE DECISION SPACE. THE MINING P(JMP1GE WILL HAVE A NEGLIGIBLE EFFECT UPON THE INOTAN WELLS LOCATED IN RECHARGE APEAS OF THE NAVAJO SANDSTONE. THE EFFECTS OF MINING PU1PAGE UPON PCTEVTIOMETRIC SURFACES- IN THE ARTESIAN PORTION OF THE NAVAJO SANDSTONE WILL RANGE. FROM ZERO TO TWENTY nFRCENT OF THE ARTESIAN HEAD DEPENDING UPON LOCATION AND AQUIFER PROPERTIES. TH- ORETICAL EFFECTS OF GROUNDWATER POMPAGE ON FOUR MONITOR LOCATIONS ARE QUANTIFIED IN TERMS OF RANGES OF VARIATION. THESE RESULTS CAN HELP 10 EVALUATE DEVELOPMENT PLANS FOR DECISION MAKERS AND OTHER INTEREST GROUPS. WITH THE FUTURE ACQUISITION OF MEASURED DRAWDOWNS, CONSIDERATION 0= THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL RESULTS CAN PROVIDE ADDITIONAL PRECISION TO AQUIFER.PARAMETER ESTIMATES.

ENERGY /SOUTHWEST U.S. /SANDSTONES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /COAL MINES/ ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /PUMPING /WATER DEMAND /SLURRIES /AQUIFER SYSTEMS /MODEL STUDIES

= IDEN1IFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS AREA /BLACK MESA

ELECTRIC RESEARCH COUNCIL

1971

SURVEY OF RESEARCH: PROJECTS REPORTED BY ELECTRIC UTILITY SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES.

SAME AS AUTHOR, NEW YORK. 259 P.

THIS REPORT LISTS ALL STUDIES EITHER COMPLETED OR UNDERWAY BETWEEN 1967 AND 1970 BY ELECTRIC UTILITY SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES. EACH PROJECT REPORTED HAS AN EXPLANATORY PARAGRAPH. AN I:JDEX BREAKS DOWN THE STUDIES BY SUBJECT MATTER.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /NUCLEAR ENERGY /HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS

57 EL PASO NATURAL GAS COMPANY

1972

PROJECT WAGON WHEEL.

SAME AS AUTHOR, EL PASO, TEXAS, TECHNICAL STUDIES REPORT 2. 215 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PNE- WW -13. SWRA W73- 08991.

ASPECTS OF THE PROPOSED PROJECT (STIMULATION OF NATURAL GAS BY FIVE 1CC- KILOTON NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS) ARE EVALUATED IN SEPARATE REPORTS ON EFFECTS OF PREDICTED GROUND MOTION, ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION, OFF -SITE WATER -WELL AND NATURAL- SPRING DOCUM= NTATION, TEMPERATURE OF THE CHIMNEY. INITIAL COMPOSITION OF THE GAS, RELEASE OF RADIOACTIVITY, STRESSES IN THE GAS RESERVOIR, AND ECOLOGY OF THE ENVIRONS. 149

1VIRONMENTAL- RADIATION MONITORING PROGRAMS AND EQUIPMENT WERE TESTED AND RASE-LINE DATA WERE OBTAINEL) BY MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLES OF AIRBORNE PARTICLES, SURFACE WATER, MUNICIPAL ANO WELL WATER, PRECIPITATION, MILK. SOIL, URINE. VEGETATION, BOTTOM SEDIMENT, FISH AND ANIMALS. SIXTY -TWO WATER WELLS ANO NATURAL SPRINGS WERE IDENTIFIED WITHIN A1C -MILE RADIUS. 363 WITHIN A 20 -MILE RADIUS AND MANY WERE SURVEYED FOR LATER COMPARISON WITH POST -EVENT DATA. NEGLIGIBLE ENVIRGNMENTAL IMPACT DUE_ TO RADIOACTIVITY FROM BURNING OF THE GAS DURING WELL TESTING IS SHOWN. BASE -LINE DATA ON NATIVE VEGETATION WERE PROVIDED BY INSPECTION AT 43 LOCATIONS. SEVERAL VARIETIES OF SAGEBRUSH AND GRASS ARE THE PRINCIPAL VEGETATION IN THE IMMEDIATE AREA. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS FROM FARMING, RANCHING, CONSTRUCTION, AND OTHER ACTIVITIES WERE EVIDENT. (ORNL)

RADIOACTIVITY EFFECTS /RADIOECOLOGY /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /MONITORING/ WATER WELLS /WELL DATA /TEXAS /BASELINE STUDIES /FEASIBILITY STUDIES/ PUBLIC HEALTH /NATURAL GAS /SEISMIC PROPERTIES /SEISMIC WAVES /WATER POLLUTION EFFECTS /AIR POLLUTION /DESERT PLANTS /SAGEBRUSH /SEMIARID CLIMATES /ON -SITE INVESTIGATIONS /PATH OF POLLUTANTS /NUCLEAR WASTES/ BIOTA /RADIOISOTOPES /ABSORPTION /HAZARDS

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT WAGON WHEEL

'S8

ENGELBERT, E.A.

1973

THE POLITICAL- SOCIAL ASPECTS OF ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS. IN K.E. STORK, ED., THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE ENERGY CRISIS: PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE AT LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, OCTOBER 23 -24, 1973, P. 18 -37.

NEBRASKA WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE. LINCOLN, PUBLICATION. AVAILABLE NTIS AS.PB -232 404. SWRA W74- 07963.

THE POLITICAL -SOCIAL ASPECTS OF WATER- ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS HAVE BEEN GREATLY NEGLECTED BOTH IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE SHOWS THAT WHERE NONPHYSICAL ASPECTS OF ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS HAVE BEEN ANALYZED. THE FOCUS IS LIMITED PRIMARILY TO FUNCTIONAL PROCESSES OF POWER GENERATION, POLLUTION OR SIMILAR INTERLINKING ACTIVITY. THE MORE PERVASIVE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF WATER AND ENERGY TO SOCIETY APPEAR TO 3E TOO EPHEMERAL ANO COMPLEX TO WARRANT PENETRATING INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS. THE FAILURE TO COMPREHEND ANO PROJECT ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS IN BROADER SOCIAL SETTINGS IS PRODUCING UNFORTUNATE POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES. INTEREST GROUPS POLARIZE AROUND SPECIFIC CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES WHICH MAY BE NARROWLY FORMULATED OR WRONGLY CONTRIVED. AMIDST THE POLITICAL CONTENTIOUSNESS OF WELL- MEANING BUT SHORT- SIGHTED POLITICAL COALITIONS, MORE BASIC ASPECTS OF SOCIETAL WELL -BEING BECOME OBSCURED OR LOST. NEW ANALYTICAL APPROACHES MUST BE FASHIONED FOR PERCEIVING AND DEALING WITH THE SOCIAL PARAMETERS OF ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS. THE PREVAILING SYSTEM OF ANALYSIS WHICH RESTS PRIMARILY UPON UNILATERAL PROJECTIONS OF ENERGY AN] WATER REQUIREMENTS TO MEET THE NEEDS OF A GROWING ECONOMY WILL NO LONGER SUFFICE. A SYSTEM OF ANALYSIS MUST SHOW HOW ENERGY -WATER INTERRELATIONSHIPS CAN BE UTILIZED TO CLARIFY AND SHAPE SOCIAL GOALS AND DEVELOPMENTS. (USGS)

POLITICAL ASPECTS /SOCIAL ASPECTS

= IDENTIFIERS= /ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS 150

ENGINEERI(JG NEWS -RECORD

1971 GLASS TUBING, LIQUID SODIUM EXTRACT ENERGY FROMSUN.

SAME AS AUTHOR 186(22) :14.

SCIENTISTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA HAVEDEVELOPED A NEW SOLAR HEAT CONVERSION SYSTEM THAT UTILIZES HUGE ARRAYSOF GLASS TUBING TO TRAP HEAT BY ABSORBING SUNLIGHT ANO PREVENTINGINFFRARED RADIATION FROM R_RADIATING. TEMPERATURES OF 1000 DEGREES F. WOULD BETRANSFERRED TO FLOWING LIQUID SODIUM THEN MOVED INTO A CONVENTIONALSTEAM- GENERATING PLANT.

POWERPLANTS /SOLAR RADIATION /HEAT BUDGET /ARIZONA

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGYCOLLECTORS

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1972

FEDS EYE REGULATIONS FOR STRIPPERS.

SAME AS AUTHOR 6(11:27 -29. OF THE STRIPPABLE COAL IN THE UNITED STATES, 77 PERCJNT LIESWEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. SUCH ADVOCATES OF STRIP MINING AS MINING COMPANIES CONTEND THAT THE FUEL IS NEEDED TO MEET PROJECTEDELECTRICAL POWER DEMANDS, AND THAT RECLAMATION SKILLS ARE PRESENTLY SUFFICIENTTO PRESERVE THE LANG. OPPONENTS, BOTH IN ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS AND CONGRESS, ARE SKEPTICAL THAT STRIPPED LAND IN THE ARID WEST CAN OR WILL BE RECLAIMED. OPPONENTS ALSO QUESTION THE ACCUKACY AND THE DESIRABILITY OF PROJECTED ENERGY CONSUMPTION GROWTH RATES. BILLS BEFORE CONGRESS WOULD EITHER LIMIT. CONTROL OR END STRIP MINING. ONE SOURCE OF CONTINUED DEBATE IS THE ECOVOMIC FEASIBILITY OF STRIPMINING IF ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE AND THE COST OF TOTAL RECLAMATIONIS ADDED TO THE COST OF THE FRODUCT.

ENERGY /ENERGY CONVERSION /STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /CCAL MINES/ REVEGETATION /RECLAMATION /ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY /ENVIRONENTAL EFFECTS/ WATER POLLUTION /LEGISLATION /COSTS

ERGASHEV, S.E.

1973 A HYDROGEOTHERMAL DESCRIPTION OF GROUNDWATER IN UPPER CRETACEOUS DEPOSITS IN THE SOUTHEAST ARAL SEA AREA.

UZBEKSKIY GEOLOGICHESKIY ZHURNAL 1:76-78. SWRA W74-02609.

FOUR HYDROGEOTHERMAL REGIONS SOUTHEAST OF THE ARAL SEA WERE IDENTIFIED ON THE BASIS OF GROUNDWATER TEMPERATURES. THE FIRST REGION CHARACTERIZED BY LOW TEMPERATURES (18 -25 DEGREES C.1 IS CONFINED TO THE AMU -OAR YA ARCH ANO THE SULTANUIZDAG- BUKANTAU HORST ANTICLINAL ZONE. THE DEPTH OF GROUNDWATER OCCJRRENCE IS 3 TO 15 M. THE SECOND REGION WITH MODERATELY WARM WATER (25 -30 DEGREES C.) IS CONFINED TO THE ZONE OF THE BUZGUL SKIY ARCH. THE THIRD REGION WITH WARM WATERS (28 -35 DEGREES C.) BELONGS TO THE TADZHIKAZGANSKIY DEPRESSION. THE 151

FOURTH REGION WITH HIGH GROUNDWATER TEMPERATURES (28 -56 DEGREES C.) IS CONFINED TO THE SOUTH ARAL SEA DEPRESSION. THE INCREASE IN GROUNDWATER TEMPERATURE DEPENDS LARGELY ON DEPTH OF OCCURRENCE OF WATER -BEARING ROCKS AND ON STRUCTURAL AND TECTONIC CONDITIONS OF THE AREA. THE NORMAL GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT FOR GROUNDWATER OF THE AREA IS 3.6-3.5 DEGREES C. PER 100 M IN PERIPHERAL SËCTIONS AND 4.5 -5.0 DEGREES C. IN CENTRAL PARTS. THERMAL WATER OF THE SOUTH ARAL SEA DEPRESSION CAN 3E USED TO HEAT GREENHOUSES,'SCHOOLS, HOSPITALS, AND OTHER BUILDINGS. (USGS)

GROUNDWATER /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /TEMPERATURE. /THERMOCLINE /THERMAL WATER/ /BOREHOLE GEOPHYSICS /STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY /GEOLOGIC TIME /AQUIFERS /WATER QUALITY

= IDENTIFIERS: /USSR /ARAL SEA AREA /CRETACEOUS PERIOD /TECTONICS

EVANS, N. A.

1973

REGIONAL ENERGY -WATER PROBLEMS: COLORADO RIVER -GREAT BASIN. IN K.E. STORK, ED., THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE ENERGY CRISIS: PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE AT LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, OCTOBER 23 -24, 1973, P. 192 -194.

NEBRASKA WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LINCOLN, PUBLICATION. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -232 434. SWRA W74- 07977.

A LARGE PORTION OF THE NATION S URANIUM DEPOSITS ARE CONTAINED WITHIN THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN. GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES ARE KNOWN BUT NOT FULLY INVENTORIED. IT IS THOUGHT THAT MOST OF THIS ENERGY IS ASSOCIATED WITH SALINE WATERS WHICH PRESENT DISPOSAL PROBLEMS. POWER GENERATION BY COAL REQUIRES AROUND 15 ACRE -FEET PER MEGAWATT. WITH 30.000 MW COAL GENERATION EXPECTED BY 1990. THE WATER DEMAND IN THE BASIN FOR THIS PURPOSE WILL BE 450.300 ACRE -FEET PER YEAR. THIS AMOUNT OF WATER IS AVAILABLE WITHIN THE VARIOUS STATE ALLOCATIONS FROM THE COLORADO RIVER. AN GIL SHALE OPERATION PRODUCING ONE MILLION BARRELS PER DAY WILL REQUIRE 12u,000 ACRE -FEET OF WATER PER YEAR. TO THAT REQUIREMENT MUST BE ADDED APPROXIMATELY 4,000 ACRE -FEET PER YEAR WHICH WILL BE REQUIRED TO SUSTAIN VEGETATION ON RECLAIMED LAND AND SHALE RESIDUE. THIS AMOUNT OF WATER IS EXPECTED TO BE AVAILABLE FROM THAT RESERVED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, ALTHOUGH CLAIMED FEDERAL RIGHTS ARE IN DISPUTE. NUCLEAR STIMULATION OF NATURAL GAS RESERVOIRS HASA VERY SMALL WATER REQUIREMENT. THE IMPACT OF THIS POTENTIAL ENERGY SOURCE ON WATER SUPPLIES CAN BE CONSIDERED NIL. IN GENERAL, STATE POLICIES ON ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ARE LACKING. THE INTERMINGLED LAND OWNERSHIP CREATES MULTI -JURISDICTIONAL PROBLEMS BECAUSE ENERGY RESOURCES DO NOT FOLLOW JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES. THE ISSUE IS HOW TO OBTAIN HARMONY IN LAND USE REGULATION. ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDELINES ARE NEEDED WHICH WILL PROTECT THE LAND ANO WATER RESOURCES. (USGS)

GREAT BASIN /OIL SHALES /LAND TENURE /WATER DEMAND /ENERGY /ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /WATER MANAGEMENT(APPLILD) /MUNICIPAL WATER /INDUSTRIAL WATER

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS

FAIRCHILD, W.D.

1973 THE ROLE OF WATER TN THE ENERGY CRISIS. IN K.E. STORK, ED., THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE ENERGY CRISIS: PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE AT LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, OCTOBER 23 -24, 1973, P. 10-17. 152

NEBRASKA WATET'. RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LINCOLN, PUBLICATION. AVAILABLE NTIS AS Pa-232 4L4. SWRA W74- L7962.

ENERGY IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE ALL WATER SUPPLIES WHETHER IT IS SUN ENERGY NECESSARY FOR RAINFALL OR ELECTRICAL OR MECHAdICAL ENERGY TO PUMP WATER SUPPLIES FROM LAKES, RIVERS OR UNDERGROUND SOURCES. EVEN THE LARGE GRAVITY IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN THE WEST RE.)UIRE ENERGY TO CONSTRUCT THE WORKS AND MAINTAIN THEM. CONVERSELY, WATER IS NECESSARY FOR MAN TO PRODUCE ENERGY. THIS CAN RANGE FROM NATURAL RAINFALL TO PRODUCE CROPS, FALLING WATER TO PRODUCE HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY, WATER REQUIRED TO MINI ANO PROCESS COAL AND OTHER ENERGY FUELS, OR THE LARGE CONSUMPTIVE USAGE OF WATER FOR COOLING WHEN FOSSIL OR NUCLEAR FUEL IS UTILIZED IN STEAM PLANTS. (USGS)

WATER DEMAND /ENERGY /POWERPLANTS /WATER SUPPLY /WATER UTILIZATION/ GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /WATER, MANAGEMENT(APPLIEDI /THERMAL POWERPLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENERGY CRISIS /ENERGY -MATER RELATIONSHIPS

FASSETT, J.E./HINDS, J.S.

1971 GEOLOGY AND FUEL RESOURCES OF THE FRUITLAND FORMATION AND KIRTLAND SHALE OF THE SAN JUAN BASIN, NEW MEXICO AND COLORADO.

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, PROFESSIONAL PAPER 676. 76 P.

STUDY EMPHASIZES THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHY ANO DISTRIBUTION, THICKNESS AND QUALITY OF MINERAL RESOURCES. INDICATIONS SUGGEST THAT THE FRUITLAND FORMATION CONTAINS APPROXIMATELY 2úiì BILLION TONS OF COAL, AT DEPTHS OF UP TO 45OJ FEET.

COALS /STRIP MINES /SOUTHWEST U.S. /FUELS /LAND RESOURCES /RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT /NATURAL RESOURCES /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /COLORADO /NEW MEXICO

= IDENTIFIERS: /SAN JUAN RIVER BASIN /FRUITLAND FORMATION /NAVAJO INDIANS

FELTIS, R.D.

1968

PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF GROUND WATER IN THE GREEN RIVER FORMATION, UINTA BASIN, UTAH.

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, PROFESSIONAL PAPER 600 -B :200 -204. MGA 20.1 -695 THE GREEN RIVER FORMATION OF EOCENE AGE CONTAINS NUT ONLY LARGE RESERVES OF HYDROCARBONS IN THE PORN OF BITUMINOUS SAND AND OIL.. SHALE BUT ALSO AQUIFERS THAT YIELD SMALL TO LARGE OUANITIES OF WATER TO WELLS AND SPRINGS. THUS, SUFFICIENT WATER FOR PROCESSING THE HYDROCARBONS MAY BE LOCALLY AVAILABLE FROM SUBSURFACE SOURCES. THE GROUND WAFER RANGES FROM FRESH TO BRINY. DETAILED HYDROLOGIC STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO DETERMINE THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF WATER IN THE FORMATION.

OIL SHALES /HYDROLOGIC DATA /UTAH /WATER SOURCES /GROUNDWATER BASINS/ SUBSURFACE WATERS

= IDENTIFIERS: / UINTA BASIN /GREEN RIVERFORMATION 153

FIREMAN, B.

1971

USE AND ABUSE OF SOUTHWESTERN RIVERS. HISTORIC MAN- -THE ANGLO. IN HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES IN ARIZONA AND THE SOUTHWEST, 1:397 -463.

AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION, ARIZONA SECTION /ARIZONA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, HYDROLOGY SECTION, PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1971 MEETINGS, TEMPE, ARIZONA. SWRA W72- 62238.

THE EXPLOITATION OF SOUTHWESTERN RIVERS IS DISCUSSED IN THE CONTEXT OF AMERICAN INTRUSION, ACQUISITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARIZONA. THE FIRST AMERICANS IN THE REGION WERE 3EAVER TRAPPERS WHO QUICKLY DECIMATED THE SONORAN BEAVER BUT OTHERWISE WROUGHT LITTLE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT. IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING THE ACQUISITION OF THE REGION BY THE U.S. AFTER THE MEXICAN WAR, GOLD MINERS DESCENDED UPON IT FROM CALIFORNIA. THEY QUICKLY SCARRED HILLS AND STREAMS, DIVERTING WATER FOR PLACERS, BUILDING PILES OF RUBBLE ANO LOGGING OFF ENTIRE FORESTS. THE LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE AND TOWNS THAT FOLLOWED CREATED A NEED FOR MORE HOME GROWN FOOD PRODUCTS AND LARGE STORAGE DAMS WERE SOON BUILT. WHEN THESE WASHED OUT THE STORED FLCODWATERS DID MORE SHARP, TRAGIC DAMAGE DOWNSTREAM THAN EVEN THE SEASONAL FLOODS OF THE PAST. THE COMMON MUNICIPAL PRACTICE OF DUMPING RAW SEWAGE INTO WATERWAYS SOON 3POUGHT WATER POLLUTION. FOLLOWING THE NATIONAL RECLAMATION ACT OF 19G2, LARGE DAMS WERE SOON BUILT ON MAJOR WATERWAYS AND THE MULTIPLE USE PROJECTS CAME INTO EXISTENCE. TODAY, EVEN THE INDIANS HAVE LEARNED A MAJOR LESSON FROM THE WHITES --THE RIVERS THEY USED ONLY FOR BASIC NEEDS A CENTURY AGO, MAY BE MORE PROFITABLE IF OVERUSED WITHOUT REGARD FOR TOMORROW.(DALS)

HISTORY /RIVER BASINS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /DAMS /ARID LANDS/ ARIZONA /WATER CONSERVATION /EXPLOITATION

FISCHER, L.K.

1973

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS. IN K.E. STORK, ED., THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE ENERGY CRISIS: PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE AT LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, OCTOBER 23 -24, 1973, P. 46 59.

NEBRASKA WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LINCOLN, PUBLICATION. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -232 404. SWRA W74- 07965.

PUBLIC POLICIES RELATIVE TO WATER DEVELOPMENT, WHICH HAVE IN THE PAST TENDED TO TRANSFER COSTS AWAY FROM THE PkINCIPAL BENEFICIARIES, HAVE RESULTED IN SUBSTANTIAL QUANTITIES OF WATER BEING COMMITTED TO USES WHICH YIELD LOW RETURNS. INCREASES IN THE COST OF WATER TO USERS SHOULD INDUCE THOSE WHO HOLD RIGHTS TO WATER TO UTILIZE THE WATER MORE JUDICIOUSLY AND THUS REDUCE WATER REQUIRcEMENTS. OF EQUAL IMPORTAACE, THOSE WHO WOULD INITIATE WATER-USING ACTIVITIES WILL HAVE INCENTIVES TO BUY OUT EXISTING WATER RIGHTS AS AN ALTERNATIVE COSTLY SUPPLY AUGMENTATION. FUTHERMORE, FULL -COST PRICING FOR RAW WATER WILLMAKE MORE ECONOMICALLY ATTRACTIVE THE RECYCLING OF WASTEWATER. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES IS A MAJOR USER OF WATER AND ENERGY: A USE OF WATER WHICH YIELDS ON THE MARGIN A SMALL VALUE OF PRODUCT PER UNIT OF WATER: A CLASS OF USE WHICH HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN FAVORED BY BOTH LEGAL PREFERENCES AND PUBLIC SUBSIDIES: AND A USE WHICH IS MORE TOLERANT OF LOW QUALITY THAN ARE MANY COMPETING USES. CONSEQUENTLY, 154

SUBSTANTIAL OPPOPTUNITIES EXIST OR WILL ARISE FOR REDUCING THE QUANTITY OF IRRIGATION WATER REQUIRED TO PRODUCE A GIVEN PRODUCT: IRRIGATING WITH NATTER WHICH HAS 3EEV 'MODIFIED SUBSTANTIALLY BY PREVIOUS USERS THUS FREEING WATER OF HIGHER QUALITY TO LESS TOLERANT USES: AND PROVIDING A SOURCE OF WATER. FL;R ALTERNATIVE HIGH -VALUE USES BY CEASING TO IRRIGATE UNDER CONDITIONS WHICH YIELD RELATIVELY LOW RETURNS. (USGS)

WATER DEMAND / ENERGY /AGRICULTURE /IRRIGATION WATER /ENVIRONMENT/ ECONOMICS /WATER UTILIZATION /INDUSTRIAL WATER

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS

FLETCHER, K.

1973

CRITICAL REVIEW: FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT FOR THE PROTOTYPE OIL SHALE LEASING PROGRAM OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 1973.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN CENTER ON ENVIRONMENT (ROMCOE), DENVER, COLORADO. 9 P.

THIS REVIEW FAULTS THE FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT ON SEVERAL GROUNDS. BASICALLY, THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAS BEEN PREMATURE IN LAUNCHING THE PROTOTYPE PROGRAM WITHOUT FURTHER STUDY. SEVERAL CRUCIAL UNKNOWNS REMAIN IN THE FINAL STATEMENT: HOW MUCH WATER WILL THE INDUSTRY NEED AND WHERE WILL IT COME FROì1: HOW MANY PEOPLE WILL THE INDUSTRY BRING TO THE REGION AND WHAT WILL BE THEIR IMPACT: CAN OIL SHALE WASTES BF RECLAIMED ANO AT WHAT COST: AND FINRLLY CAN THE COST OF OIL SHALE- DEVELOPMENT BE JUSTIFIED IN VIEW OF ITS SMALL CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATION S TOTAL ENERGY NEEDS.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /OIL SHALES /WATER UTILIZATICN /SOCIAL IMPACT /OIL WASTES /WATER REQUIREMENTS /WATER SOURCES /COSTS /ENERGY

= IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR /ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

FLETCHER, K./BALOWIN, M.F. EDS.

1973 A SCIENTIFIC AND POLICY REVIEW OF THE FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT FOR THE PROTOTYPE OIL SHALE LEASING PROGRAM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.

INSTITUTE OF ECOLOGY, WASHINGTON, D.C., ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROJECT. 197 P.

THE FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS)IS FOUND INADEQUATE ON SEVERAL COUNTS, INCLUDING INACCURATE DATA. THE EIS FAILS TO CONSIDER ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES: FOR EXAMPLE, THE OIL SHALE PRODUCTION PROJECTED IS 1 MILLION BARRELS PER DAY BY THE MIO 1930 S. A RECENT GOVERNMENT STUDY SUGGESTS 7 -8 MILLION BARRELS PER DAY COULD BE SAVED BY SIMPLE ACTS OF CONSERVATION SUCH AS INSULATING HOMES. DATA IN THE EIS ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE PROPOSED INDUSTRY VARIES FROM SKETCHY TO NON- EXISTENT. POSSIBLE SALT LEACHING FROM SPENT SHALE IS TREATED LIGHTLY, ANO THE EIS GIVES NO INDICATION AS TO WHAT ORGANIZATION IS GOING TO MAINTAIN IN PERPETUITY THE DAMS WHICH WILL KEEP THE SALINE SPOILS FROM CONTAMINATING THE COLORADO RIVER. ON THE IMPACT OF THE OIL SHALE PLANTS ON WILDLIFE, THE EIS ACKNOWLEDGES SOME DEGRADATION OF HABITAT BUT HARDLY SPELLS OUT WHAT WILL HAPPEN TO THE NATION S LARGEST MIGRATORY MULE DEER HERD WHICH RANGES OVER THE LEASED 155

OIL SHALES /LEASES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WILDLIFE HABITATS /SOCIAL IMPACT /MINE WASTES

= IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR /ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

FOSTER ASSOCIATES, INC.

1974

ENERGY PRICES, 1960 -1973.

BALLINGER PUBLISHING CO., CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. 288 P.

THIS STUDY DOCUMENTS THE RECENT SHARP INCREASE IN ENERGY PRICES; DURING THE PREVIOUS PERIOD ENERGY PRICES HAD STABLIZED OR, IN SOME INSTANCES, DECLINED. RETAIL AND WHOLESALE PRICE DATA IS COMPILED BY REGION AND BY MAJOR USES, HERETOFORE, THESE STATISTICS WERE SCATTERED IN GOVERNMENT AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS, ANO CONSUMER AN0 COMPANY RECORDS. IT IS THIS RAPID AND EXTREME PRICE INCREASE THAT HAS SHIFTED ATTENTION TO EXPLOITING THE ENERGY RESOURCES OF ARID LANDS, MANY OF WHICH NOW APPEAR COMPETITIVE WITH OLDER SOURCES.

PRICES /ENERGY /STATISTICS

FRIZ, T.O.

1973

GEOTHERMAL AS A FUTURE ENERGY SOURCE --BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING AND NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVE..

AWARE (37):13 -15.

TO GAUGE THE NATION S GEOTHERMAL POTENTIAL THE ABILITY MUST BE DEVELOPED TO DETERMINE THE AVAILABILITY OF ROCKS AT SIGNIFICANT TEMPERATURES AT DEPTHS LESS THAN 1ù,600 FEET. AT PRESENT TWO METHODS ARE FEASIBLE FOR THE RECOVERY OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -- HYDRAULIC FRACTURING AND NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS. SOME TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS HINDER USE OF THESE METHODS. ALSO. THERE IS THE QUESTION OF WHETHER ENVIRONMENTALISTS AND THE PUBLIC IN GENERAL WILL ACCEPT DETONATION OF NUCLEAR BOMBS AS A LEGITIMATE PART OF THE QUEST FOR ENERGY RESERVES.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /LAND RESOURCES/ NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /EXPLORATION /HYDROFRACTJRING

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 156

FRIZ, T.O.

1973

THREE MAJOR TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS -- BRINE. HOT DRY ROCK, HOT SPOT.

AWARE (34)(8 -11.

A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE THREE MAJOR TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS PREFACES A DISCUSSION OF A TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION WHICH COULD MAKE POSSIBLE ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION UTILIZING WATER AT TEMPERATURES BELOW ITS ATMOSPHERIC BOILING POINT.

ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL POWER /LAND RESOURCES /BRINES

c IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

FRIZZELL, T.

1974

SUMMARY OF COAL EXTRACTION R ANO D PROGRAM BY COAL EXTRACTION TASK FORCE, U.S.' DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 12/11/73 AS REVISED 12/27/73.

MONTANA ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY COUNCIL, CAPITOL STATION, HELENA. 8 P.

THIS REPORT PROJECTS THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY NEEDED BY THE U.S. (1975 -200;,) AND THE AMOUNT OF FUELS AVAILABLE TO MEET THIS PROJECTED DEMAND (HYDROPOWER, NUCLEAR, OIL, GAS, COAL, AND NATURAL GAS). TWO COAL STRATEGIES ARE DEVELOPED TO HELP MEET THIS PREDICTED DEMAND. IN THE FIRST, THERE IS MAJOR RELIANCE ON WESTERN SURFACE -MINED COAL WITH LITTLE PRODUCTION FROM EASTERN FIELDS. THE SECOND POSSIBILITY IS BALANCING PRODUCTION IN BOTH REGIONS WITH THE WEST EXPANDING ITS MINES UNTIL 198G, ANO THEREAFTER PLACING RELIANCE UPON UNDERGROUND MINES IN BOTH REGIONS. THE FIRST STRATEGY OF WIDE OPEN WESTERN STRIPPING WOULD EXHAUST THE REGION S CURRENT SURFACE MINE RESERVES BY 1996. THE SECOND PATTERN OF EXPLOITATION WOULD HAVE A MUCH LONGER PRODUCTIVE LIFE.

FORECASTING /RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT /SEPARATION TECHNIQUES /ENERGY/ STRIP MINES /COALS /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

GANUS, W.J.

1970

PROJECT AQUARIUS-- GEOHYOROLOGIC INVESTIGATION.

U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, 1970 CONFERENCE PAPER 2:1174 -1183. AVAILABLE NTIS AS CONE 700101, V. 2. SWRA W72- 00971.

A GENERAL DISCUSSION OF GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS FOR A CANYON SITE IN NORTH- CENTRAL ARIZONA IS GIVEN. GROUNDWATER RECHARGE BY CRATERING IN ALLUVIAL MATERIALS IS RATEO AS THE SECOND MOST FAVORABLE APPLICATION AND A SITE IN SOUTH- EASTERN ARIZONA IS DISCUSSED. OTHER APPLICATIONS ARE PRESENTED BUT HOLD LESS PROMISE DUE TO LACK OF GEOHYDROLOGIC AND NUCLEAR EXPLOSION DATA NECESSARY FOR PROPER EVALUATION. PRIMARY CONSIDERATION WAS GIVEN TO DISTANCE OF SITE FROM POPULATION CENTERS AND TO THE QUANTITY OF WATER THAT COULD BE DEVELOPED AND MANAGED. FOR SURFACE WATER RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT BY NUCLEAR' EXPLOSIONS, ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SITE SELECTION 157

INCLUDED CANYON SHAPE FOR LANDSLIDE, THROW -OUT OR ROCK -FILL TECHNIQUES. CANYON MEANDERS NECESSARY FOR DIVERSION CHANNELS. LOW PERMEABLE ROCK TYPES FOR MINIMIZING PROBLEMS OF RADIOISOTOPE MIGRATION, ANO A CLEAR IOENTIFICATI3N OF ANY GROUNDWATER SYSTEM THAT COULD BE AFFECTED. IN THE SITE SELECTION FOR RECHARGE CRATERS, CONSIDERATIONS INCLUDED ADEQUATE SUBSURFACE STORAGE SPACE, AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS FAVORABLE TO RECHARGE AND RECOVERY, SUBSURFACE LITHOLOGIC TYPE AND DISTRIBUTION THAT WOULD PERMIT CONTROL OF RADIOISOTOPES BY EITHER MONITORING OR REMOVAL, SUSPENDED SEDIMENT LOAD OF WATER SOURCE, AND ESTIMATED INCREASED EFFICIENCY OF ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE OVER NATURAL RECHARGE.

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /HYDROGEOLOGY /HATER STORAGE/WATERSHEDS(BASINS)/DAM CONSTRUCTION /ROCK MECHANICS /SURFACE RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS /SURFACE WATERS /WATERSHED MANAGEMENT /AQUIFERS/ GROUNDWATER /RADIOISOTOPES /WATER POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /ARIZONA /ROCK FILL /LANDSLIDES

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT AQUARIUS /ARIZONA ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

GARDNER, B.O. /LEBARON, A.D.

1968 SOME NEIGHBORHOOD EFFECTS OF OIL -SHALE DEVELOPMENT.

NATURAL RESOURCES JOURNAL 8(41:569 -586. SWRA W69- 34854.

FEW OF THE ISSUES CONNECTED WITH OIL -SHALE DEVELOPMENT HAVE BEEN AS CONTROVERSIAL AS THOSE SURROUNDING WATER REQUIREMENTS. OPINIONS RUN THE GAMUT FROM BELIEF THAT WATER SUPPLIES ARE QUITE ADEQUATE TO THE NOTION THAT WATER SHORTAGES WILL CONSTRAIN THE SIZEE OF THE INDUSTRY. WATER COULD BE ALLOCATED LIKE ANY OTHER MARKETED COMMODITY ANO WOULD BE PRICE- RATIONED TO THE HIGHEST BIDDER. THE ECONOMIC IMPACT ON THE LOCAL ECONOMY, ESPECIALLY THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR, WILL BE DETERMINED LARGELY BY TRANSFER FLEXIBILITY AND WHETHER NEW WATER SUPPLIEE_S BECOME AVAILABLE. IF FARMERS ARE FREE TO SELL WATER OR CONTINUE TO HOLD AND USE IT, THEN SALE OF WATER SHOULD PROVIDE AMPLE COMPENSATION AND MINIMIZE NEIGHBORHOOD EFFECTS. IF IT IS ASSUMED THAT TECHNOLOGY ANO WATER PRIES ARE SUCH THAT THE INDUSTRY WILL DEMAND APPROXIMATELY 250, 000 ACRE -FEET OF WATER PER YEAR, WHAT ARE THE PROSPECTS FOR OBTAINING THIS QUANTITY OF WATER. THESE POSSIBILITIES ARE EITHER TO FILE FOR RIGHTS ON NEWLY -DEVELOPED WATER OR PURCHASE RIGHTS FROM PRESENT USERS OF ALREADY APPROPRIATED WATER. THE DIFFICULTY WITH THE FIRST ALTERNATIVE IS THAT INTERSTATE COMPACTS AND AN INTERNATIONAL TREATY WITH MEXICO GREATLY LIMIT THE AMOUNT OF WATER AVAILABLE. THEREFORE, ADDITIONAL IRRIGATION RIGHTS WILL HAVE TO BE PURCHASED FROM AGRICULTURAL USERS, BUT THESE ARE MARGINAL PRODUCERS IN THE OIL-SHALE REGION.

OIL SHALES /WATER REQUIREMENTS /WATER POLLUTION /COLORADO RIVER BASIN/ MEXICAN WATER TREATY /TECHNOLOGY/ WYOMING /UTAH /RAOIOACTIVITY /INTERSTATE COMPACTS /WATER RIGHTS /PRIOR APPROPRIATION /WATER SHORTAGE /IRRIGATION WATER /ALTERNATIVE WATER USE /WATER RATES /SURFACE WATER AVAILABILITY

GARNSEM, H.E.

1969

NEW TOWNS FOR THE SOUTHWEST.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. SOUTHWESTERN AND ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. COMMITTEE ON DESERT AND ARIO ZONE RESEARCH, CONTRIBUTION 12:47-63. SWRA W73- 33125. 158

THREE HYPOTHESES APE PRESENTED FOR FUTURE GROWTH TN 1HESOUTHWEST. THE FIRST IS THE FILLING -UP HYPOTHESIS, WHICH STATES THATTHE CONTINUED POPULATION GROWTH OF THE U.S. HAS BEENACCOMPANIED AT VARIOUS FLRIODS 1;YA FILLING -UP OF THE SPARSELY POPULATED SOUTHWEST. THE SECOND HYPOTMESIS TS THAT THIS NEW POPULATION WILLBE CONCENTRATED IN NEW CITIES Ai& SATELLITE CITIES CLUSTERED WITHIN A 2.00 -MILE RADIUS OF THE FOUR COR'!ER`, AREA. THE THIRD HYPOTHESIS IS THAT THE CREATION OF ENTIRELY NCW TOWNS BASED ON RADICAL CONCEPTSANO TECHNIQUES OFFERS THE BEST HOPE FOP. PkESEPVING THE SOUTHWEST. THE CONVENTIONAL TO4N NOT ONLY GROWS BY UcUE'LANNFO ACCRETIONS BUT ALSO BY UNPLANNEDDEVASTATIONS OF THE LANDSCAPE. T40 MAIN POINTS APE EMPHASIZED: 11 DISECONOMIES OF AGGLOMERATION HAVE BECOME A THREAT TO OUP CIVILIZATION AND 2)NEW TOWNS CAN BE DESIGNED IN SUCH A'SAY THAT THEY WILL OPTIMIZE THE ECONOMIES OF URBANIZATION AND AGGLOIIERATION IN WAYSWHICH WILL MEET THE APPROVAL NOT ONLY OF ECONOMISTS AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENTISTS,bUT ALSO OF THE ORDINARY CITIZEN WHO WILL SPEND HIS LIFE INAN URBAN SOCIETY. (OALS)

PLANNING /COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT /CITY PLANNING /LONG -TERMPLANNING/ ZONING /DECISION MAKING /ECONOMICS /POLITICAL ASPECTS /SOCIALASPECTS/ URBANIZATION

GARSIOE, L.J./SCHILLING, J.H.

1972 GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NEVADA. IN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERNUNITED STATES, 1972, EL CENTRO CONFERENCE, FEB. 16 -18, 1972, PROCEEDINGS. PAPER H, 7 P. GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, DAVIS, CALIFORNIA. PUBLICATION. SWRA W73- 03427. NEVADA S GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES APPEAR TO HAVE GREATPOTENTIAL, ALTHOUGH ONLY A FEW OF THE MANY AREAS WITH PROSPECTIVEVALUE HAVE BEEN EXAMINED IN ANY DETAIL. ONLY IN THE LAST DECADE HAVE SERIOUS ATTEMPTS BEEN MADE TO EXPLOIT NEVADA S GEOTHERMAL RESOURCESAS A SOURCE OF POWER. DRILLING BEGAN IN 1959 ANO CONTINUED THROUGH 1965. NEVADA RANKS SECOND TO CALIFORNIA IN EXPLORATION. TWELVE GEOTHERMAL AREAS IN NEVADA WERE TESTED BY DRILLING OURING THE 6 YEARS 3FEXPLORATION WERE ACTIVITY. AT 3 OF THESE (BEOWAWF, BRADY S. AND STEAMBOAT) WELLS ENCOUNTERED WITH WATER TEMPERATURES GREATER THAN 350DEGREES F. AND APPRECIABLE VOLUMES OF WATER WITH 5 PERCENT TO 10 PERCENTSTEAM FLASHOVER. THE DEEPEST WELL DPILLED (AT THE NEEDLES) IS 5,888FEET DEEP. NO DRILLING HAS BEEN DONE SINCE 1965, WHEN PRJrLE ;.SOF LEASING ON FEDERAL LAND, AS WELL AS OTHERPROBLEMS, COMBINED TO COMPLETELY STIFLE ACTIVITY. AS FEDERAL REGULATIONS BECOME CLEARER, IT IS ANTICIPATED THAT EXPLORATION WILL INCREASE GREATLY. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SUBSURFACE WATERS / THERNAL DOWER/NEVADA /THERMAL WATER /THERMAL SPRINGS /WATER TEMPERATURE /HYDROGEOLOGY/THERMAL PROPERTIES/ GEOPHYSICS /EXPLORATION /DRILLING

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL

1972 GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERN UNITEDSTATES, 1972, EL CENTRO CONFERENCE, FEBRUARY 16 -18. 1972, PROCEEDINGS.

SAME AS AUTHOR, DAVIS, CALIFORNIA. PUBLICATION. SWRA W73 -03419. 159

THIRTEEN PAPERS WERE PRESENTED AT THE FIRST NATIONAL MEETING OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL HELD I4 EL CENTRO, CALIFORNIA, IN FEBRUARY 1972. THE PRESENTATIONS INCLUDE GEOTHERMAL DATA FROM THOSE WESTERN STATES WITH GEOTHERMAL POTENTIAL. EACH PAVER WAS CONTRIBUTED BY AN INDIVIDUAL WHO IS DIRECTLY CONCERNED WITH THE -REGULATION OF DEVELOPMENT OF HIS STATE S GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE PAPER ON THE IMPERIAL VALLEY PROJr_CT, EACH PAPER IS CONCERNED WITH AN INDIVIDUAL STATE: ARIZONA. CALIFORNIA, COLORADO, HAWAII, IDAHO. MONTANA, NEVADA, NEW MEXICO, OREGON, UTAH, '4ASHINGTON, AND WYOMING. FOR A GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR TO HAVE APPRECIABLE POTENTIAL FOR EXPLOITATION, IT MUST MEET THE FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS: 1) RELATIVELY HIGH TEMPERATURE (GREATER THAN 150 TO 400 DEGREES F., DEPENDING ON PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY): 2)A DEPTH SHALLOW ENOUGH TO PEPMIT DRILLING (CURRENTLY 1û,060 FEET OR LESS); 3) SUFFICIENT ROCK PERMEABILITY TO ALLOW THE HEAT TRANSFER AGENT (WATER AND (OR) STEAM) TO FLOW CONTINUOUSLY AT A HIGH RATE: AND 4) SUFFICIENT WATER RECHARGE TO MAINTAIN PRODUCTION OVER MANY YEARS. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SUBSURFACE WATERS /THERMAL POWER /THERMAL WATER/ WATER TEMPERATURE /THERMAL PROPERTIES /HYDROGEOLOGY /THERMAL SPRINGS FAULTS( GEOLOGIC) / VOLCANOES /EXPLORATION /LEGISLATION /DRILLING /WATER QUALITY /GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

GERAGHTY AND MILLER, PORT WASHINGTON, N.Y.

1973 GROUND WATER AND THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE.

SAME AS AUTHOR. SPECIAL REPORT. 14 P. SWRA W74- 34586.

GROUNDWATER IS ONE OF THE TWO BASIC INGREDIENTS IN THE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCE. MOST OF THE HOT WATERS AND STEAM IN KNOWN GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS ARE OF METEORIC ORIGIN AND NOT PRODUCED FROM MAGMAS AS HAD FEEN THOUGHT PREVIOUSLY. THUS, THE WATER INVOLVED IS ORDINARY GROUNDWATER AND THE OUANTITY AVAILABLE IN A GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM IS DETERMINED BY THE SAME GEOLOGIC FACTORS THAT CONTROL THE OCCURRENCE AND MOVEMENT OF ALL SU3TERRANEAN WATERS. HEAT IS THE OTHER BASIC INGREDIENT ANO ITS POSITION AND QUANTITY IN RELATION TO THE AVAILABLE GROUNDWATER DETERMINES THE CHARACTER OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE AND EVENTUALLY ITS USEFULNESS TO MAN. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL WATER /THERMAL SPRINGS /HEAT FLOW /THERMAL POWER /GROUNDWATER

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL POWER

GILLETTE, R.

1973

NASI WATER SCARCITY MAY LIMIT USE OF WESTERN COAL.

SCIENCE 181(4099)3525. IN A SPECIAL REPORT THE NAS HAS STATED THAT UNLESS AMERICANS ARE WILLING TO PAY FOR MASSIVE DIVERSIONS OF WATER INTO THE COALFIELDS OF THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS AND ARIO SOUTHWEST, THERE. WILL NOT BE ENOUGH WATER IN THESE REGIONS TO RECLAIM STRIP -MINED LAND ANO TO RUN COAL GASIFICATION PLANTS. THE IMPACT OF THIS POTENTIAL WATER SHORTAGE ON THE EXPLOITATION) OF WESTERN ENERGY RESOURCES IS ASSESSED.

POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES /COAL MINES /REVEGETATION /LANG RECLAMATION /MINE WASTES /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /SOIL EROSION/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /ENERGY /DIVERSION /WATER SHORTAGE 160

GLASER, P.E. /BURKE, J.C. /LITTLE, A.).

1973

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR SOLAR ENERGY.

BULLETIN OF THE ATOMIC SCIENTISTS 29(81:40-42.

RATINGS ON THE TECHNOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY FOR USE OF SOLAR ENERGY IN CLIMATE CONTROL ARE ANALYZED. SOLAR ENERGY IS ALREADY ECONOMICALLY COMPETITIVE WITH ELECTRICITY FOR HEATING. A COST -BENEFIT ANALYSIS SHOWED THAT FOR COMBINED HEATING AND COOLING THE COST CAN ALSO BE REASONABLE.

HEATING /COOLING /ECONOMICS /EVALUATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS /CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT

GLASER, P.E. /LITTLE, A.D.

1972

THE FEASIBILITY OF A SATELLITE SOLAR POWER STATION.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, ASME PAP 72- WA /SOL -6.

THE CONCEPT OF A SATELLITE SOLAR POWER STATION WHICH WOULD HAVE. THE CAPABILITY TO CONVERT SOLAR ENERGY TO MICROWAVES. WHICH IN TURN WOULD BE BEAMED TO A RECEIVING ANTENNA TO PRODUCE POWER ON EARTH, IS PRESENTED. THE STATE -OF-THE -ART OF THE TECHNOLOGY REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE EFFICIENT SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION, MICROWAVE POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND RECTIFICATION IS REVIEWED. APPROACHES TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN, FLIGHT CONTROL AND EARTH -TO -ORBIT TRANSPORTATION ARE PRESENTED.

SATELLITES(ARTIFICIAL) /ENERGY TRANSFER /ENERGY CONVERSION /i-iICROWAVES/ DESIGN CRITERIA

= IDENTIFIERS : /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /SOLAR CELLS /SOLAR POWER GENERATION

GOLDSMITH, M.

1971

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN CALIFORNIA -- POTENTIALS AND PROBLEMS.

CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. PASADENA, ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY LABORATORY, EQL REPORT 5. 45 P. NSF GI- 29726. SWRA W72- 10550. 161

THE TECHNOLOGY, COST AND POTENTIAL OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN CALIFORNIA ARE EXAMINED. THE TWO FORMS IN WHICH THE NATURE OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE MANIFESTS ITSEL= ARE DRY STEAM AND VERY HOT WATER IN THE GROUND. THE PER MEGAWATT INVESTMENT IN A GEYSER S GEOTHERMAL PLANT IS SUBSTANTIALLY LESS THAN THAT FOR A MODERN FOSSIL PLANT AND FUEL, AND OPERATING COSTS ARE ABOUT 85 PERCENT OF THOSE FOR A MODERN FOSSIL PLANT. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF A GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT INCLUDE INTRUSION OF AN INDUSTRIAL OPERATION INTO NON- INDUSTRIAL AREAS, DISCHARGE OF SURPLUS HOT WATER WHICH MAY 9E HIGH IN MINERAL CONTENTS, LAND SUBSIDENCE, SEISMIC ACTIVITY AND WELL BLOWOUT. NOXIOUS GASES ARE OFTEN A BY- PRODUCT OF GEOTHERMAL WELLS. THE NON -CONDENSABLE GASES CONSTITUTE FROM 0.2 TO 1.8 PERtENT OF THE STEAM FLOW AT THE GEYSERS. PRESENT GEOPHYSICAL EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT THE POSSIBILITY FOR SUPPLEMENTING SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ELECTRIC GROWTH OVER THE NEXT 10 OR 20 YEARS MIGHT BE MET BY THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES OF THE IMPERIAL VALLEY.

THERMAL POWERPLANTS /COSTS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /CALIFORNIA/ DESALINATION /COOLING TOWERS /HEATED WATER /LAND SUBSIDENCE /SEISMIC WAVES /AIR POLLUTION /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /GEYSERS /STEAM

= IDENTIFIERS: /IMPERIAL VALLEY /DRY STEAM FIELDS /IMPURITIES

GORDON, S.

1973

BLACK MESA: THE ANGEL OF DEATH.

JOHN DAY COMPANY, NEW YORK. 113 P. THIS PHOTOGRAPHIC ESSAY CONTENDS THAT THE STRIP MINE AT BLACK MESA AND THE POWERPLANTS OF THE FOUR CORNERS AREA ARE CONTRARY TO THE DESIRES OF THE MAJORITY OF THE RESIDENT NAVAJO AND HOPI INDIANS, AND DESTRUCTIVE OF THE REGION S ENVIRONNENT. BOTH THE POWER COMPANIES AND PEABODY COAL COMPANY HAVE BEEN DECEITFUL IN THEIR EXPLOITATION OF THE AREA S LAND, AIR, WATER AND PEOPLE. LOCAL AGRICULTURE ANO THE WATER TABLE WILL SUFFER IRREPARABLE DAMAGE. THE SITING OF MAMMOTH POWERPLANTS IN SUCH AN ARID, SCENIC REGION IS OUESTIONED, AND THE AUTHOR DOUBTS THAT SUCH A POWER PROJECT WOULD PE ECONOMLCALLY VIABLE IF PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT WERE PART OF ITS COST.

ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /STRIP NINES /COAL MINES /FLY ASH /SULFUR/ NITROGEN /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /COLORADO RIVER BASIN/ ENERGY /REVEGETATION /RECLAMATION /MINE WASTES /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /SOUTHWEST U.S. /CLEAN AIR ACT /LAND RECLAMATION/ ENERGY CONVERSION /SCENERY /AESTHETICS

= IDENTIFIERS: /BLACK MESA /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /PEABODY COAL COMPANY /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE/ NITROGEN OXIDES

GREENBURG, W.

1973

CHEAP COAL AND HOLLOW PROMISES.

SIERRA CLUB BULLETIN 58(31:10-15. 162

STRIP-MINED LAND IS L?;PLNST JE TO Rí Ct.."-.T WEST GE MANY ANL: GREAT e='ITATNSE'L1i0 ih 10(,1:i!Ú 'I.JLLS PER A(:i;' ON RE.ìTí.;ATi'l'!, WHILE IN THE UVITE.D STATES, THETEf4N_5'ì'[. Vtt_LFY j:tJ1H0=:ITY(TVA) LI]t"ATE'; COSTS FROM 25) TO H:0 f101 L t?tiS AC;gE. dE r1o51 CJt'";LU'.lï' 11i'TIF i UR'D)'i:ANS ARE MORE SJCUESSrUL AT RECLAIMING LAND, IT t:, RLí:AtJ>'. OF THEIR WILLINGLAf,O TO SPEND 00Rë Mv,l"Y NN THE-I? `1LV.:(,!_T:;TTOJE'Ftr'ì'Ti. Ty STAT=N._.Nì`.'; t;-- COAL CC'-ANIFS IN THE UNITED STATE"; A;3t;UT THLIP A3ILITY (GR LA M< OF A'3TLITY) TO RECLAI'l t.AND APE C(JE_C!P-Df;Y THE FACT THAT THEY HA'1;.HlT JPIC;ALLY ^-FUSr ß TU S''LNO LARGE SU'S;C2ra LAND RECLAMATION `_îGCAUSf-IT WOULD RAISE THEP^_iCE OF COAL.

STRIP MINES/M1.J1 WASTES/LAND PECLA'14TI(''':/ccVEGETATIIi?d/L(!':D RESOURCES/ /TENNE=SSEE VALLEY AUTHO^'ITY/LCONOMTC l'q-.;'ICTION/EUÚt'_/COS1 COMPARISONS

= IDENTIFIERS: /WEST GERMANY/GREAT BRITAIN

GRIFFIN, R.F.

197

AQUARIUS STUDY: ENGINEERING 4ND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS.

U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, 1977, CONFERENCE PAPER 2 :1184 -1137. AVAILABLE NTIS AS CONE 7LOa101, V. 2. SWRA W72-J0972.

SURFACE STORAGE BEHIND A DAM CREATED WITH THE USE OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVE WAS SELECTED FOR THE MAJOR EFFORT, P'IMARILY 9ECAUSE IT AFFORDED) THE MOST VALID DIRECT COMPARISON RHTWEEH NUCLEAR ANO CONVENTIONAL METHODS. THIS PATE: FOCU_S OA L.NGIN"_ERING AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DEVELOPI:G AND EVALUATING THREE CONCEPTS FOR CONSTRUCTING A ROCKFILL DAM USING tCiCLEAD EXPLOSIVES, THE PRINCIPAL RESPONSIRILITY OF BECHTEL CORPORATION:,A CONSULTANT IN ThE STUDY TO TiE ARIZONA ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION. HEAVY RELIANCE FOR INFORMATION WAS PLACED ON FEDERAL PARTICIPANTS, NOTANLY THE 5tJ-

CONSTRUCTION COSTS /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /STFJCTU °AL ENGINEERING/ STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY / ROCKFILL DAMS /DAMSIT__S /TOROGRAPHY /POLLUTANTS /SCIL CONTAMINATION /SEISMOLOGY /TRITIUM

= IDENTIFIERS: /NUCLEAR QUARRYING /THROWOUT DAM /RETA,C JAM /ARIZONA ATOMIC ENS.RGY COMMISSION

GRIMES, 4.E.

1972

AN ANNOTATED E313LIOGRAPHY ON WEATHER MODIFICATION, 1963 -1969.

U.S. NATIONAL OCEANIC ANC ATMOSPHERIC AONINISTRATIDN, TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM EDS ESIC -1. 4J7 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS CON -72 11287. SWRA W7- 07544.

CONTAINS 858 REFERENCES UN STATISTICAi. EVALUATION LE Ct OUD SEEDING OPERATIONS AND POTENTIALTTTLS, CLOUD S -LOINO THEO TF'ANO EXPERIMENTS, LEGAL ASPECTS OF WEATH:.P '1'PTrICATION, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS, HAIL CONTROL AND LIGHTNING +Jt PDESCION. CLOUD AND FOG DT SSIRATION, ATONIC EXPLOSION EFFECTS, HURRICANL CJNTPOL, AND LARGE- SCALE CLIMATE MODIFICATION FOR THE 1C- Y._Í4 PERIOD 1963 -1969. AUTHOR, SUBJECT, ANO GEOGRAPHIC INDICES ARE INCLUDED. 163

WEATHER MODIFICATION /BIBLIOGRAPHIES /ABSTRACTS /CLOUD SEEDING/ ARTIFICTAL PRECIPITATION /CLIMATOLOGY /FOG /HAIL /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ 00CUMENTATION /INFORMATION RETRIEVAL /ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

GUM. R.L. ET AL

1974 A COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION SYSTEM ON THE IMPACTS OF COAL -FIRED ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOUTHWEST, UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, TUCSON, DEPARTMENT OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES. 16 P. THIS REPORT BRIEFLY OUTLINES A COMPUTER SIMULATION OF POWER DEVELOPMENT FROM COAL IN THE FOUR CORNERS AREA. THE SIMULATION CONTAINS VARIOUS MODELS FROM AIR POLLUTION, WATER CONSUMPTION, INDIAN ACCULTURATION. ETC. BY MATCHING ANY NUMBER OF PROPOSED íLANTS WITH THESE DIFFERENT MODELS IT IS HOPED THAT A PREDICTION OF THEIR PROBABLE CONSEQUENCE WILL BE POSSIBLE. IDEALLY, THE SYSTEM WOULD BE USED TO DEMONSTRATE THE LIKELY CONSEQUENCES OF A PROJECT BEFORE CONSTRUCTION.

SOUTHWEST U.S. /ENERGY /COMPUTER MODELS /FORECASTING /COALS /MODEL STUDIES /AIR POLLUTION /WATER DEMAND /SOCIAL IMPACT

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS AREA

GYFTO °OULOS, E.P. ET AL

1974 POTENTIAL FUEL EFFECTIVENESS IN INDUSTRY.

BALLINGER PUBLISHING CO., CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. 112 P.

THIS TECHNICAL STUDY EXPLORES WAYS TO CUT FUEL CONSUMPTION IN SIX ENERGY INTENSIVE INDUSTRIES. ALSO. ENERGY CONSERVATION IN GENERAL IS DISCUSSED. TAKING EXISTING TECHNOLOGY, THE STUDY FINDS THAT FUEL USE BY MAJOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGY CONSUMERS CAN BE CUT BY ONE-THIRD. TECHNOLOGY ALMOST WITHIN REACH MAY MAKE FUTURE SAVINGS EVEN LARGER.

FUELS /EFFICIENCIES /ENERGY /TECHNOLOGY /ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY/ INDUSTRIES

HALACY, D.S., JR.

1972

THE SOLAR ALTERNATIVE TO ATOMIC POWER. SIXTH IN A SERIES.

SCIENCE DIGEST 71(31:45 -50. 164

SOLAR ENERGY WHICH IS POLLUTION FREE, SAFE, ANO AN ALMOST UNLIMITED RESOURCE IS A POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVE TO NUCLEAR POWER WHICH IS POLLUTI4G, UASAFE, AND CONSUMES LIMITED RESOURCES. ADVANCES IN SOLAP ENERGY OEVELOPMENT ARE OUTLINED. THE EXPLANATION IS ADVANCED THAT THE GENERAL LACK OF INTEREST IN THIS ENERGY SOURCE IS DUE TO THE PREDICTED COSTLTt1ESS, BUT THAT ADVANCES IN TECHNOLOGY ANO MASS PRODUCTIONCAN OVERCOME ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

NUCLEAR ENERGY /EVALUATION /COSTS /ENERGY CONVERSION

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR PONER GENERATION/ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

HAMMOND, A.L.

1971

SOLAR ENERGY: A FEASIBLE SOURCE OF POWER.

SCIENCE 172(3841:660.

SOLAR HEAT STORAGE THROUGH COATED SURFACES THAT ABSORB AND RETAIN NEARLY ALL SUNLIGHT IN A THERMAL RESERVOIR IS PROPOSED. TURBINES, STEAM BOILERS AND ELECTRICAL GENERATING EQUIPMENT WOULD PE ATTACHED TO THE RESERVOIR2. VARIOUS COATINGS CONSISTING OF A LAYER OF SEMI - CONDUCTIBLE MATERIAL, OPAQUE TO VISIBLE LIGHT AND TRANSPARENT TO INFRARED LIGHT, AND A LAYER UNDERNEATH WITH LOW EMISSIVITY PROPERTIES IN INFRARED LIGHT, WOULD ALLOW FOR LARGE SCALE DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS. USE OF THESE SYSTEMS OVER LARGE AREAS WOULD BECOME ECONOMICAL AND FEASIBLE, ONCE CRYOGENIC OR SUPER- CJNOUCITIVTY POWER TRANSMISSION LINES ARE EXTENDED BEYOND PRESENT CONCENTRATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST. ALTHOUGH THE SYSTEM WOULO ELIMINATE AIR POLLUTION AND RADIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION, THERMAL POLLUTION COULD RESULT FROM STEAM TURBINE COOLING WATER.

ABSORPTION /ENERGY CONVERSION /REFLECTANCE /SOLAR RADIATION /COSTS/ SOUTHWEST U.S. /TFANSMISSION LINES /THERMAL POLLUTION

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /ENERGYSTORAGE

HARDWAY, J.P.

1970 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN COMBINING ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION WITH SEA WATER DESALINATION. U.S. OFFICE OF SALINE WATER, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRESS °REPORT 637. 34 P. SWRA W71- 07833. THIS DOCUMENT CONTAINS A GENERAL DISCUSSION CONCERNING THE MANAGEMENT. OPERATION, AND INFORMATION GAINED IN COHRINTNG A COMMERCIAL. ELECTRIC UTILITY POWERFLIINT WITH DESALINATION PLANTS. THE POWEPPLANT PROVIDES ELECTRIC POWER AND STEAM (íi)TH DIRECTLY FROM THE BOILERS AND THROUGH TURBINL EXTRACTION) TO THE DESALTING PLANTS. THE DESALTING PLANTS CONSIST OF A 1,000.OJ0 GALLON PER DAY MULTI EFFECT, MULTI STAGE, HIGH PERFORr1AACE PLANT AND A 2,500,600 GALLON PER DAY PLANT. THE POWERFLANT IS A 167 MEGAWATT STEAM CYCLE, FUEL FIRED, COMPOUND DOUBLE FLOW TURBINE UNIT O= THE SAN DIEGO GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY. 165

DESALINATION /SALINE WATER CONVERSIOV /FLASH DISTILLATION /ELECTRIC POWER/POWERPLANTS/ROWER SYSTEMS OPERATIONS /MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION/ DESALINATION PLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SAN DIEGO GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY

HARSHBARGER, J.W.

1972

OVERVIEW OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES POTENTIAL IN ARIZONA. IN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES, 1972, EL CENTRO CONFERENCE. FEB. 16 -18. 1972, PROCEEDINGS. PAPER A, 13 P.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, DAVIS, CALIFORNIA. PUBLICATION. SWRA W73- 03420. THERE ARE DATA INDICATING A POSSIBILITY THAT LATENT GEOTHERMAL ENERGY MAY BE PRESENT AT DEPTH AT SEVERAL AREAS IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA. A LISTING IS PRESENTED OF LOCALITIES WHERE THERMAL WATERS OF 100 DEGREES F. OR GREATER ARE KNOWN. THE LOCATIONS OF THESE OCCURRENCES ARE RELATIVELY CLOSE TO POPULATION CENTERS WHICH COULD POSSIBLY UTILIZE THERMAL ENERGY. THERE ARE NO KNOWN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES AREAS WHICH PRODUCE GEOTHERMAL STEAM IN ARIZONA AND NO KNOWN BOREHOLES HAVE BEEN DRILLED TO EXPLORE THE POTENTIAL OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL WATER /SUBSURFACE WATERS /ARIZONA /GEOPHYSICS /WATER TEMPERATURE /THERMAL PROPERTIES /THERMAL SPRINGS /THERMAL POWER

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

HARWOOD, B.

1971 ENERGY EXPERTS LOOK TO COAL GASIFICATION TO AVERT FUEL SHORTAGE IN 21ST CENTURY. WALL STREET JOURNAL, JULY 26, 1971.P. 14.

COAL COMPANIES ARE TURNING TOWARD THE 19TH CENTURY PROCESS OF COAL GASIFICATION IN HOPES OF FINDING A CLEAN 21ST CENTURY FUEL. LAST YEAR GAS RESERVES DROPPED 10.3 TRILLION CUBIC FEET TO 259.6 TRILLION CUBIC FEET. PRESIDENT NIXON REQUESTED 10 MILLION DOLLARS FOR GASIFICATION RESEARCH, AND INDUSTRY WILL SPEND A LIKE SUM OF ITS CWN. A PLANT WITH A DAILY PRODUCTION OF 25C MILLION CUBIC FEET WOULD REQUIRE THE OUTPUT OF THE NATION S LARGEST COAL MINE. EXPERTS BELIEVE THAT ONLY STRIP MINING CAN PRODUCE SUFFICIENT COAL FOR SUCH PLANTS. ENVIRONMENTALISTS SEEK PARTIAL OR TOTAL ABOLITION OF STRIP MINING.

STRIP MINES /COAL MINES /ENERGY CONVERSION /NATURAL GAS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /LENVIRCNMENTAL EFFECTS /AIR POLLUTION /LAND RECLAMATION ..

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION 166

HAY, H.R.

19'11

SUME SOLAR RADIATION ADAPTATIONS ANO IMPLICATIONS.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, ASME PAP 71 -WA /SOL -3. 11 P.

THE AUTHOR DISCUSSES ANCIENT METHODS FOP PRODUCING ICE AT AIR TEMPERATURES A3OVE FREEEZIN(. A NEW SOLAR -STILL DESIGN AND PLASTICS FOR ROOFTOP APPLIANCES ADD TO THE FEASIBILITY OF EXTENSIVE USE OF ROOFTOP RADIATION COLLECTORS AND DISSIPATORS IN HOT DRY REGIONS. 17 REFERENCES.

SOLAR STILLS /ARID LANDS /COOLING /DESIGN CRITERIA /SOLAR RADIATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING

HERB, D.H.

1972

SOME ECONOMIC FACTORS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY.

MINES MAGAZINE 62(71 :15 -19.

WHEN COMPARED WITH OTHER TYPES OF ENERGY, GEOTHERMAL POWER HAS AN ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE. SUCH POWERPLANTS ARE EXPENSIVE TO BUILD, BUT CHEAP TO PUN. ONE LARGE PRODLEM LIES IN POSSIBLE DAMAGE TO THE ENVIRONNENT BY GEOTHERMAL WELLS AND PLANTS. SOME EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE ADVERSE AFFECTS ARE: NOISE AND VISUAL POLLUTION, ATMOSPHERIC AND HYDROSPHERIC THERMAL POLLUTION, AND SEISMIC STIMULATION FROM THE RE- INJECTION OF WASTE WATERS.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION / ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY /COSTS /THERMAL POWER

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENEPGY SOURCES

HESS, O.N.

1971

NUCLEAR POWER IN PERSPECTIVE: THE PLIGHT OF THE BENIGN GIANT.

NUCLEAR SAFETY 13(4):283 -291. 167

THIS SURVEY OF 762 ARTICLES IN POPULAR PERIODICALS, NEWSPAPERS, AND SEMI -TECHNICAL MAGAZINES IS DIVIDED INTO 12 CATAGORIS: WASTES: REACTOR ACCIDENTS ANO NUCLEAR SAFETY: ATOMIC INSURANCE AND SUBSIDIES: SAFEGUAROS: THERMAL POLLUTION; SITING OF POWERPLANTS; ENVIRONMENT: AEC REGULATION, AND ANTI - TRUST LAWS: LAW AND LEGISLATION; AESTHETICS; AND GENERAL. A BRIEF REVIEW INDICATE.) THAT MOST OF THE ARTICLES FOCUSED ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR IN THE IMMEDIATE AREA AND THAT MOST CRITICISM CAME IN THE CATAGCRIES OF SAFEGUARDS. ANTI- TRUST, INSURANCE AND LAW ANO LEGISLATION.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS/NUCLEAR REACTORS /SAFETY /RADIOACTIVITY/ BIBLIOGRAPHIES /LEGISLATION /THERMAL POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /AESTHETICS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /RADIOACTIVE WASTES /LAND RESOURCES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

=IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

HIATT, B.

1974

COAL TECHNOLOGY FOR ENERGY GOALS: NO FUEL LIKE AN OLD FUEL.

RESEARCH NEWS 24(12). 18 P. TWO BASIC ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLIE THIS REPORT: THE UNITED STATES IS CONFRONTEO BY AN ENERGY CRISIS, AND COAL IS THE ONLY NATIONAL RESOURCE CAPABLE OF SEEING US THROUGH. JUDGING COAL RESOURCES AS ADEQUATE FOR SEVERAL CENTURIES, THE REPORT E XAMINES VARIOUS TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONVERTING COAL TO ENERGY. GASIFICATION APPEARS THE MOST IMMEDIATELY ACCESSIBLE (ANO THE CLEANEST), BUT FUTURE BREAKTHROUGHS ARE NECESSARY TO IMPROVE THE LOW EFFICIENCY OF THE CURRENTLY -USED LURGT PROCESS. COAL LIQUEFACTION IS POSSIBLE ON AN EXPERIMENTAL SCALE, BUT MORE TIME IS REQUIRED TO WORK OUT PROBLEMS OF THE EXISTING SMALL -SCALE TECHNOLOGY. CHEMICAL BENEFICIATION OF COAL (CLEANING IT OF POLLUTANTS SUCH AS SULFUR WITHOUT EXTREME LOSS OF ENERGY) DEMANDS SPECIAL COALS: IT IS STILL A SMALL -SCALE COMMERCIALLY UNTESTED TECHNOLOGY. FLUIDIZED -BED BOILERS OFFERS AN ENERGY -EFFICIENT WAY OF REMOVING SULFUR FROM COAL BY USING LIMESTONE, BUT THE LIMESTONE PRESENTS A MASSIVE DISPOSAL PROBLEM. IN SITU GASIFICATION OF CAL HAS BEEN LARGELY UNSUCCESSFUL, ANO ANY BREAKTHROUGH LIES AT LEAST A DECADE AWAY. THUS, THE REPORT, WRITTEN IN NON -TECHNICAL LANGUAGE FOR THE LAYMEN. CONCLUDES THAT COAL WILL BE A MAJOR ENERGY RESOURCE, BUT THAT CURRENTLY IT CAN EITHER BE BUFNE0 TO HEAT BOILERS OR CONVERTED INTO SYNTHETIC GAS. AT LEAST ON A COMMERCIAL SCALE, OTHER USES REMAIN IN THE FUTURE.

COAL MINES /ENERGY /TECHNOLOGY /ENERGY CONVERSION /FORECASTING

= IDENTIFIERS* /COAL GASIFICATION

HILLHOUSE, R.A.

1968 THE FEDERAL RESERVED WATER DOCTRINE -- APPLICATION TO THE PROBLEM OF WATER FOR SHALE OIL DEVELOPMENT.

LAND ANO WATER LAW REVIEW 3(1) :75 -102. SWRA W68- 00102. 168

OIL SHALE IS- LOCATED IN ARIO REGIONS: YET SIGNIFICANT AMOUNTS OF WATER WILL BE REOUIREO FOR THE EXTRACTION OF OIL. ONE METHOD OF ACQUIRING WATER RIGHTS FOR GOVERNMENTAL SHALE OIL DEVELOPMENT IS THROUGH AN APPLICATIDN OF THE FEDERAL RESERVED WATER DOCTRINE. THIS GIVES THE FEDERAL GOVEPNMENT POWEP TO RESERVE ALL NON- NAVIGABLEWATER CONTIGUOUS WITH PUBLIC LAND,A POWER LIMITED IN THAT BY CREATING A RESERVATION THE GOVERNMENT CAN ONLY WITHDRAW THAT AMOUNT OF WATER CONSISTENT WITH THE PURPOSE BEHIND THE WITHDRAWAL OF THE LAND FROMTHE PUBLIC DOMAIN. STATE CREATED WATER RIGHTS ACQUIRED AFTER THE RESERVATION ARE SUBORDINATE TO THIS FEDERAL POWER. THE ARTICLE CONCLUDES THAT THE DOCTRINE AS APPLIED TO SHALE OIL BEARING LAND WITHDRAWN FOR INVESTIGATION BY EXECUTIVE ORDERS ISSUED IN 1916, 1924, AND 1935, DOES NOT RESULT IN THE RESERVATION OF WATER RIGHTS FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT, SINCE THIS WOULD NOT BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE PURPOSE BEHIND THE RESERVATION. AN OPPOSITE CONCLUSION IS REACHED AS TO CERTAIN LANDS RESERVED FOR DEVELOPMENT BY THE NAVY. HOWEVER, THE AUTHOR FINDS THAT THE POLICY OF MAXIMUM BENEFICIAL UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES WEIGHS AGAINST APPLICATION OF THE DOCTRINE TO BOTH RESERVATIONS.

OIL SHALES /WATER ALLOCATION(POLICY)/ COLOPADO RIVER BASIN / COLORAO0 / UTAH /WYOMING /FEDERAL RESERVATIONS /RESERVATION DOCTRINE /FEDERAL -STATE WATER RIGHTS CONFLICTS /LONG -TERM PLANNING /LAND RESOURCES /NON- NAVIGABLE WATER /RESOURCE ALLOCATION /COMPETING USES /WATER RIGHTS /WATER ALLOCATION(POLICY) /SOCIAL VALUES /WITHDRAWN LANDS /BËNEFICIAL USE /WATER RIGHTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /COLORADO DOCTRINE /FEDERAL RESERVED WATERDOCTRINE /PELTON DOCTRINE /NAVAL OIL SHALE RESERVES

100

HODGES, C.N. /HOOGE, C.O.

1969

POWER, WATER AND FOOD FOR DESERT COASTS: AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM FOR PROVIDING THEM.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE, 66TH ANNUAL MEETING, PULLMAN, WASHINGTON, 1969, PAPER PRESENTED. 16 P. SWRA W7G- C0694.

AN INTEGRATED CLOSED -ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM HAS BEEN DEVISED TO FURNISH POWER -WATER -FOOD FOP DESERT COASTAL AREAS, USING WASTE HEAT FROM ENGINE -DRIVEN ELECTRIC GENERATOR SETS TO DESALT SEAWATER. AND USING THE FRESH WATER TO IRRIGATE VEGETABLES PLANTED IN PLASTIC AIR -INFLATED GREENHOUSES. THE OPERATING FACILITY ON THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA ANO ONE PLANNED FOR THE PERSIAN GULF COULD BRING NEEDED DEVELOPMENT TO THE WORLD S 2G,000 MILES OF ARID COASTS.

OFSALINATION /WASTE DISPOSAL /WATER SOURCES /DESALINATION PLANTS /HEAT/ ENVIRONMENT /ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING /ECOLOGY /BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES/ COASTS /DESERTS /ARID LANDS

= IDENTIFIERS: /WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION 169

101

HUDSON, W.

1971

THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS HYDROELECTRIC AND IRRIGATION SCHEME (AUSTRALIA).

ROYAL SOCIETY, LONDON, SERIFS Al PROCEEDINGS 326(1):23 -37. SWRA W72- 12824.

ALTHOUGH AUSTRALIA IS RICHLY ENDOWED WITH MINERAL RESOURCES. NATURE HAS BEEN FAR LESS GENEROUS WITH WATER. IT IS THE DRIEST OF ALL CONTINENTS WITH AN AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL OF LESS THAN 18 INCHES COMPARED WITH 29 INCHES FOR NORTH AMERICA ANO 26 INCHES FOR THE TOTAL LANE) AREAS OF THE WORLD. EVAPORATION ANO TRANSPIRATION CONSUME 9G PERCENT OF THE RAINFALL, COMPARED TO 70 PERCENT FOR THE U.S. THERE IS A PAUCITY OF RELIABLE FRESH WATER SJPPLIES BOTH BECAUSE OF THE LOW AVERAGE RAINFALL AND BECAUSE OF THE ABSENCE OF ANY HIGH MOUNTAIN RANGES. THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS, LOCATED IN THE SOUTHEASTERN PART OF THE COUNTRY, ARE THE NATION S HIGHEST LAND MASS. FROM THIS REGION 2 IMPORTANT RIVER SYSTEMS ARISE. THE MURRAY AND MURRUMBIDGEE RIVERS FLOW WESTWARD THROUGH THOUSANDS OF SO KM OF DRY BUT FERTILE ALLUVIAL PLAINS WHILE THE SNOWY RIVER FLOWS TO WASTE ACROSS THE WELL- WATERED COASTAL STRIP. THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS SCHEME IS DESIGNED TO TRAP THE UNUSED WATERS OF THE SNOWY RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES AND TO DIVERT THEM TO THE MURRAY ANO MURRUMBIDGEE RIVERS TO AUGMENT AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION. THE PROJECT SHOULD RESULT IN BRL(GING OVER 1Cú0 SO MI OF ARIO LANDS INTO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND PRODUCING 3.75 MILLION KW OF MUCH -NEEDED PEAK LOAD POWER. POWER SALES SANS IRRIGATION WATER REVENUES MUST BEAR THE ECONOMIC BURDEN OF THE SCHEME. ENGINEERING AND ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE SCHEME ARE TREATED WITH SOME DETAIL AS WELL AS THE METHODS DEVISED IN HANDLING A LARGE WORK FORCE INCLUDING MANY FOREIGN SCIENTISTS AND TECHNICIANS. (OALS)

RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT /DIVERSION STRUCTURES /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /SOCIAL ASPECTS /ARID LANDS /HYDROELECTRIC POWER /ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY /IRRIGATION SYSTEMS /ENGINEERING GEOLOGY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /VEGETATION EFFECTS /POLITICAL ASPECTS /TOPOGRAPHY /AUSTRALIA

= IDENTIFIERS: /SNOWY MOUNTAINS PROJECT

102

INGRAM, H. /CORTNER, H. /DETTLOFF. J.

1974

ARIZONA ENERGY: A RESOURCE CATALOG.

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, INSTITUTE OF GOVERNMENT RESEARCH. VARIOUS PAGINGS.

PROVIDES A LISTING OF WHO S WHO IN ARIZONA ENERGY, BOTH INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL. INCLUDES A COURSE OUTLINE ANO BIBLIOGRAPHY` OF A SEMINAR COURSE OFFERED AT THE U OF 4 DURING 1973 AS AN EXAMPLE OF HOW ENERGY PROBLEMS MAY BE APPROACHED FROM AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE. PART OF THE PUBLICATION PROPOSES A NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY, CONSIDERING TECHNOLOGICAL, ECONOMIC. AND POLITICAL FACTORS THAT NEED TO BE ANALYZED.

ENERGY/ ARIZONA /BIBLIOGRAPHIES /POLITICAL ASPECTS /HUMAN RESOURCES

= IDENTIFIERS: /RESOURCE INVENTORY /SOLAR ENERGY 170

103

JACOBS, O.G. ET AL

1972

THEORETICAL EVALUATION OF CONSUMER PRODUCTS FROM PROJECT GASBUGGY. PHASE II: HYPOTHETICAL POPULATION EXPOSURES OUTSIDE SAN JUAN BASIN.

OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORIES, OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE. 27 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS ORNL -4748. SWRA W73- 00794.

THE HYPOTHETICAL IMPACT OF THE USE OF NATURAL GAS, PRODUCED BY NUCLEAR -DETONATION STIMULATION, IN WEST COAST CITIES IS CONSIDERED (FOR COMMERCIALLY USEFUL NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVE DESIGNED TO PRODUCE LOW LEVELS OF TRITIUM). RADIATION EXPOSURES OF 2 PERCENT ABOVE THE PERMISSIBLE LEVEL WOULD RESULT FOR HOHES HEATED WITH UNVENTED SPACE HEATERS, OR FROM GAS -FUELED POWERPLANT PLUMES AT THE PEAK CONCENTRATION DURING INVERSION PERIODS. UNDER CONDITIONS OF AVERAGE DAILY USAGE OF GAS AND AVERAGE WIND FREQUENCIES AND SPEED, THE DOSE AT POINTS OF PEAK CONCENTRATION WOULJ BE ABOUT 0.1 PERCENT OF THE PERMISSIBLE LEVEL IN THE LOS ANGELES BASIN AND 0002 GERCENT IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA. EXPOSURES SEVERAL ORDERS BELOW THE PERMISSIBLE LEVEL WOULD RESULT VIA THESE PATHS: EMISSIONS FROM CARRON BLACK MANUFACTURE, USE OF FEPTILIZER CONTAININGG AMMONIA MANUFACTURED FROM NATURAL GAS, FATS AND OILS PROCESSED WITH HYDROGEN MANUFACTURED FROM NATURAL GAS, OR DRINKING OF ALCOHOL DERIVED FROM ETHANE FROM NATURAL GAS. (ORNL)

NATURAL GAS /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /NATURAL RESOURCES /TRITIUM /PATH OF POLLUTANTS /WATER POLLUTION CONTROL/ CALIFORNIA /AIR POLLUTION /FERTILIZATION /FOOD CHAINS /FORECASTING /LIPIDS/ /ALCOHOLS /HEATING /AIR CIRCULATION /WINDS /RADIOACTIVITY EFFECTS/ ABSORPTION /HAZARDS /PUBLIC HEALTH

= IDENTIFIERS : /PROJECT GASBUGGY

104

JACOBSEN, S.

1972

TURNING OF THE GAS.

BULLETIN OF THE ATOMIC SCIENTISTS 18(5):35 -39.

IN EXAMINING THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION S FIRST GAS STIMULATION BLAST IN COLORADO IN 1969 THE AUTHOR RAISES QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WHOLE PLOWSHARE PROGRAM. THE DETONATIONS ARE DANGEROUS IN SEVERAL WAYS. RADIOACTIVITY COULD CONTAMINATE GROUNDWATER. ACCIDENTAL VENTING COULD RELEASE RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. DURING FLARING, KRYPTON -85 AND TRITIUM COULD BE LET LOOSE INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. UNDERGROUND MINEPAL DEPOSITS, SUCH AS OIL SHALES, COULD RE CONTAMINATED. IN SHORT, HE ASKS, IS IT A REASONABLE IDEA TO BLOW UP NUCLEAR BOMBS IN THE HOPE THAT SOME NATURAL GAS MAY BE STIMULATED.

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING /UNDERGROUND /OIL SHALES/ COLORADO /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /RADIOACTIVITY /AIR POLLUTION /SAFETY /NATURAL GAS /KRYPTON RADIOISOTOPES /TRITIUM/ FALLOUT

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT PLOWSHARE /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION 171

105

JACOBSEN, S.

1973

THE GREAT MONTANA COAL RUSH.

BULLETIN OF THE ATOMIC SCIENTISTS 29(4):37 -43. THE AMERICAN APPETITE FOR CLEAN ENERGY HAS TRIGGERED A COAL RUSH IN EASTERN MONTANA WHERE 30 BILLION TONS OF COAL CAN BE STRIP -MINED. AN ENVIRONMENTAL DEBATE HAS ERUPTED OVER THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR S RELUCTANCE TO STOP STRIP MINING UNTIL A THREE -YEAR TASK FORCE STUDY IS COMPLETED. THE STUDY WILL ASSESS T4E ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL, ANO ECONOMIC IMPACT OF STRIP MINING. SINCE STIFF FEDERAL LAWS HAVE NOT BEEN PASSED ON STRIP MINING, REGULATION HAS BEEN LARGELY A STATE RESPONSIBILITY. IN MONTANA FIVE STATE DEPARTMENTS PLUS THE MONTANA ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY COUNCIL ARE ENGAGED IN RESEARCH ON THE IMPACT OF COAL DEVELOPMENT. WHAT IS ALMOST A RACE HAS DEVELOPED BETWEEN EXPLOITATION OF THE COAL FIELDS ANO THE EFFORTS TO PASS ADEQUATE LAND RECLAMATION LAWS.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /LAND RECLAMATION /EROSION /GREAT PLAINS /COALS/ MONTANA /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER POLLUTION/ /REVEGETATION /PLANTING MANAGEMENT /LAND RESOURCES /EXPLOITATION/ REGULATION

106

JACOBY, G.C./STOCKTON, C.W.

1974 WATER BUDGET AT LAKE POWELL AND ITS RELATION TO SURFACE -WATER SUPPLY IN THE UPPER COLORADO BASIN. PAPER DELIVERED AT THE

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, SAN FRANCISCO MEETING, FEBRUARY 24-MARCH 1, 1974. 11 P.

THIS PAPER ATTEMPTS TO CORRECT SOME CONCLUSIONS OF THE SOUTHWEST ENERGY STUDY. THE STUDY (WHICH INVESTIGATED THE IMPLICATIONS OF POWERPLANT CONSTRUCTION AND STRIP MINING IN THE SOUTHWEST) CONCLUDED THAT COLORADO RIVER AT LEE FERRY WOULD HAVE A FLOW ON A LUNG TERM BASIS OF 14,952,000 ACRE FEET PER YEAR. THIS AMOUNT WOULD LEAVE A COMFORTABLE SURPLUS FOR DOWNSTREAM USE EVEN AFTER FUTURE UPPER BASIN DEVELOPMENTS. THE AUTHORS FINO A LONG -TERM FLOW OF THE COLORADO AT LEE FERRY OF 13,000,OG0 ACRE FEET. THIS FIGURE WHEN PLACED AGAINST UPPER BASIN USE AND THE OBLIGATION TO SUPPLY WATER TO MEXICO LEAVES A POSSIBLE DEFICIT OF 726,000 ACRE FEET PER YEAR BY THE YEAR 1990. THUS, THE AUTHORS QUESTION WHETHER THE RIVER CONTAINS ENOUGH WATER FOR THE AGRICULTURAL ANO ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS NOW BEING PLANNED.

HYDROLOGIC BUDGET /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /SURFACE WATER AVAILABILITY/ MEXICAN WATER TREATY /FLOW MEASUREMENT

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOUTHWEST ENERGY STUDY /LAKE POWELL

107

JOSEPHY. A.M., JR.

1973

AGONY OF THE NORTHERN PLAINS.

AUDUBON 75(4):68 -93. 172

THE NORTH CENTRAL POWER STUDY, ISSUED IN 1971 BY THE DEPARTMENT OF TiE INTERIOR ANO 35 PRIVATE AND PU3;.IC ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLIERS, PROPOSED THE EXPLOITATION OF COAL ANO WATER RESOURCES IN 250,000 SQUARE MILES OF WYOMING. MONTANA, NORTH AND SOUTH DAKOTA. RANCHERS, FARMERS, ENVIRONMENTALISTS AND MOST TOWNSPEOPLE OF THE REGION REACTED NEGATIVELY, BELIEVING THE AREA WOULD BE DESPOILED, AND THAT WITHOUT REAL PLANNING, CONTROL, IMPACT STATEMENTS OR OBSERVANCE OF THE LAW, ANOTHER APPALACHIA WOULD BE IN THE MAKING.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /LAND RESOURCES/WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /ENERGY CONVERSION /ADMIVISTPATIVE AGENCIES /LAND RECLAMATION /REVEGETATION/ COALS /POWERPLANTS /WYOMING /MONTANA /NORTH DAKOTA /SOUTH DAKOTA /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /GREAT PLAINS

= IDENTIFIERS: /NORTH CENTRAL POWER STUDY

108

KAMAL, I.

1968 PROSPECTS OF DESALINATION FOR SOLVING WATER PROBLEMS ON THE MAKRAN COAST.

WATER FOR PEACE 6:782 -790. SWRA W69-04776.

BASIC FACTS ON PAKISTAN ARE GIVEN WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO WEST PAKISTAN AND THE AREAS OF THE FORMER BALUCHISTAN PROVINCE, AND THE EFFECT OF THE ABSENCE OF WATER SUPPLIES IN HAMPERING DEVELOPMENT OF THE AREA AND IN CAUSING SOIL EROSION. THERE IS ARCHAELOGICAL EVIDENCE TO SHOW THAT IN ANCIENT TIMES BALUCHISTAN WAS A WELL IRRIGATED AND CULTIVATED AREA --THE DESERT IN BALUCHISTAN IS LARGELY :IAN -MADE. DESALINATION OF SEA WATER CAN BE APPLIED TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF 2 OF THE 7 PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF BALUCHISTAN WHICH LIE ON THE ARABIAN SEA COAST. THESE ARE THE SOUTHERN COASTAL SUB -REGION, OCCUPIED BY THE LOWER VALLEYS OF THE PORALI, THE KHARARI AND THE WINDAR, WITH THE FISHING PORT OF SONMIANI AS A POTENTIAL SITE, AND THE MAKRAN COASTAL SUB -REGION, WITH THE FISHING PORTS OF GWADAR, JIWANI ANO PASNI AS POTENTIAL SITES. THE GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF THESE REGIONS ARE DESCRIBED WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR IMPORTANCE IN ABSORBING THE OVERFLOW OF POPULATION PROM THE INDUS BASIN AND THE KARACHI AREA. AND PROVIDING SITES FOR 1 OR 2 ADDITIONAL PORTS TO RELIEVE THE PRESENT CONGESTION AT KARACHI HARBOUR. A NUCLEAR POWER AND DESALINATION PLANT ON THE MAKRAN COAST MUST BE APPLIED NOT ONLY FOR IMPROVING THE EXISTING FISH AND DATE PROCESSING INDUSTRIES (WHICH WILL PROVIDE VALUABLE FOREIGN EXCHANGE) BUT MUST ALSO BE ACCOMPANIED BY AN OVERALL INDUSTRIAL AND, POSSIBLY, AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE AREA. THE EXISTING NATURAL WATER RESOURCES OF THE AREA ANO THE EXTENT TO WHICH THEY CAN BE EXPLOITED ARE DESCRIBED. MOST OF THE RIVERS OF THE AREA UNDER DISCUSSION ARE DRY FOR THE GREATER PART OF THE YEAR AND THE SEA, IF PROPERLY EXPLOITED, CAN BE THE ONLY PERMANENT AND RELIABLE SOURCE OF FRESH WATER. A DUEL- PURPOSE PLANT ON THE MAKRAN COAST IS DISCUSSED WITH REFERENCE TO EXISTING AND FUTURE COST ECONOMICS AND THE USE TO WHICH THE INCUMBENT ELECTRICITY SUPPLY CAN DE PUT. (USGS1

DESALINATION /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /WATER SOURCES /ARID LANDS/COASTS/ WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /RECLAMATION /LAND RECLAMAT1ON /IRRIGATION

=IDENTIFIERSi/BALUCHISTAN(PAKISTANI/MAKRAN COAST(PAKISTANI/PAKISTAN 173

109

KAMAL, I.

1971 PROSPECTS OF A DUAL- PURPOSE NUCLEAR PLANT FOR MEETING WATER AND POWER REQUIREMENTS OF THE GREATER KARACHI AREA.

PAKISTAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISION. KARACHI. 16 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS A /CONF.49/P/299. SWRA W72- 03310. IN VIEW OF THE LIMITATIONS OF NATURAL ENERGY RESOURCES, THE PAEC HAS INITIATED A MODEST PROGRAM OF NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION IN PAKISTAN. CONDITIONS IN THE KARACHI AREA, EXPERIENCING RAPID INDUSTRIALIZATION AND SITUATED FAR FROM THE HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS IN THE NORTH, ARE PARTICULARLY FAVORABLE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER. AT THE SAME TIME A SERIOUS WATER SHORTAGE IS ANTICIPATED IN KARACHI FROM 1980 ONWARDS. AS THE ALLOCATION OF ADDITIONAL WATER FROM THE INDUS RIVER AT THE COST OF IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS APPEARS HIGHLY IMPROBABLE. IN VIEW OF THESE CIRCUMSTANCES, THE PAEC IS STUDYING THE FEASIBILITY OF A DUAL - PURPOSE NUCLEAR POWER- CUM -DESALINATION PLANT FOR THE KARACHI AREA. AS PRELIMINARY INDICATIONS APPEAR FAVORABLE FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SUCH A PLANT, THE PAEC PROPOSES TO UNDERTAKE MORE DETAILED STUDIES ON THE WATER AND POWER DEMAND, ALTERNATIVE CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF SUPPLY (WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR AVAILABILITY AND COST ECONOMICSI. INTEGRATIONS OF THE PRODUCTS INTO THE EXISTING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS, ANO OTHER TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF THE DUAL-PURPOSE PLANT.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /DESALINATION PLANTS /NUCLEAR REACTORS /WATER SUPPLY /WATER SOURCES /WATER QUALITY /WATER, YIELD /WATER PURIFICATION /WATER UTILIZATION /WATER DEMAND /ECONOMICS /IRRIGATION /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS/ ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND

= IDENTIFIERS: /PAKISTAN

110

KARNAVAS, J.A. /LAROSA, P.J. /PELCZARSKI, E.A.

1973 TWO-STAGE COAL COMBUSTION PROCESS.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS 69(31:54 -55.

BY USING A MOLTEN IRON GASIFICATION METHOD IT IS HOPED THAT AN ESSENTIALLY SULFUR DIOXIDE FREE GAS CAN BE PRODUCED FOR FIRING POWERPLANT BOILERS. THE SYSTEM PROMISES TO GENERATE NO POLLUTION - CAUSING BY- PRODUCTS, AND TO YIELD ELECTRICAL POWER WITH OPERATING COSTS COMPARABLE TO PRESENT PLANTS LACKING SULFUR DIOXIDE REMOVAL METHODS.

COALS /ENERGY CONVERSION /AIR POLLUTION /SULFUR /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ WATER POLLUTION /NATURAL GAS /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /EQUIPMENT /COSTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION /SULFUR DIOXIDE 1T/EQI,

FIERS : /l 174

111

KAUFMAN, A.

1971

AN ECONOMIC APPRAISAL OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY. PUBLIC UTILITIES FORTNIGHTLY 88(7):19 -24.

BECAUSE AMERICA S ENERGY DEMANDS ARE OUTSTRIPPING HERCURRENT POWER PRODUCTION, NEW RESOURCES SUCH AS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SHOULD BE EXPLORED. AT PPESENT THE PACIFIC GAS ANO ELECTRIC CO. GEOTHERMAL PLANT AT THE GEYSERS IN CALIFORNIA IS THE ONLY OPERATING FACILITY USING THIS SOURCE. BASICALLY IT HAS BEEN LEGAL AND NOT ECONOMIC PROBLEMS THAT HAVE HINDERED DEVELOP`1ENT IN THIS FIELD. MOST GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES ARE ON FEDERAL LAND AND ONLY RECENTLY HAS THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR ESTABLISHED A LEASING PROGRAM. THERE IS A VAST POTENTIAL TO BE TAPPED, ABOUT 500 TIMES THE NATION S COAL RESERVES. THE PLANTS APPEAR TO BE ECONOMICALLY COMPETITIVE WITH OTHER METHODS OF POWER PRODUCTION. HOW VER, CERTAIN POLLUTION PROBLEMS WILL HAVE TO BE SOLVED. DISCHARGES FROM THE PLANTS ARE BRINY AND CAN CONTAIN SODIUM AND POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS. THE INSTALLATIONS THEMSELVES MAY BLIGHT MANY AREAS PRESENTLY USED FOR RECREATION.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL POWER /WATER POLLUTION /ENERGY CONVERSION/ ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /LAND RESOURCES/ ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY

= IDENTIFIERS : /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES /GEYSERS FIELD,CALIFORNIA

112

KEENE. J. /ARDEN, T.

1971 GEOTHERMAL STATIONS HAVE POLLUTION PROBLEMS, TOO.

POWER 115(5) :96 -97. PACIFIC GAS ANO ELECTRIC S GEOTHEPMAL PLANT IN CALIFORNIA HAS DAMAGED THE ENVIRONMENT BY DISCHARGING STEAM. BCGIiNNING IN 1960 (WITH THREE UNITS ON LINE BY 1968) THE PLANT HAS BEEN RELEASING STEAM. THIS IN TURN HAS LED TO A BUILD UP IN BORON, HYDROGEN, SULFIDE. AND AMMONIA SALT LEVELS IN THE LOCAL WATER ANO ENDANGERED STEELHEAOS AND SALMON. A SOLUTION NOW BEING TRIED INVOLVES REINJECTING THE CONDENSATE INTO DEEP STEAM WELLS.

THERMAL POWER /CALIFORNIA /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER POLLUTION /SALMON /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /EQUIPMENT /INJECTION WELLS /STEAM /DEEP WELLS

= IDENTIFIERS : /GEYSERS FIELD, CALIFORNIA /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES/ GEOTHERMAL POLLUTION

113

KELLEY, M.J. ET AL

1972 RELATIVE RISKS FROM RADIONUCLIDES FOUND IN NUCLEARLY STIMULATED NATURAL GAS.

U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, 1972 CONFERENCE PAPER. 27 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS CONE 721168 -4. SWRA W73- 07941. 175

THE RISKS FROM MAN-MADE RADIONUCLIDES POSSIBLY PRESENT IN NUCLEARLY STIMULATED NATURAL GAS ARE CONSIDERED IN THREE STEPS: 1) RADIONUCLIDES ARE RANKED ON THE BASIS OF THEIR ESTIMATED RADIATION DOSE POTENTIALS; 2) PPOJECTED DOSES EXPECTED TO RESULT FROM GAS USAGE A2E COMPARED WITH ESTLIATEO DOSES FROM OTHER RADIATION SOURCES: ANO 3) RISK PROJECTIONS FOR THE ESTI'IATF_D DOSES ARE COMPARED WITH OTHER RISKS ENCOUNTERED IN THE NORMAL ACTIVITIES OF LIFE IN TECHNOLOGICALLY DEVELOPED NATIONS. IT IS PRUDENT TO ASSESS THE RADIOLOGICAL IMPACT OF NUCLEAR GAS STIMULATION TECHNOLOGY, BECAUSE THE RESULTS OF THIS DEVELOPMENT COULD AFFECT MILLIONS OE PEOPLE. CAUTION SHOULD BE EXERCISED IN ESTABLISHING ACCEPTABLE CONCENTRATIONS OF 11A°á -MADE RADIOACTIVITY IN NATURAL GAS FOR INDUSTRIAL ANO DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION. (ORNL)

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /UNE,ERGROUND /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING /RADIOACTIVITY/ NATURAL GAS /RADIOISOTO °ES /KRYPTON RADIOISOTOPES /STRONTIUM RADIOISOTOPES /TRITIUM /RADIUM RADIOISOTOPES /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /PUBLIC HEALTH

114

KHANNA, M.L.

1965

PROBLEMS OF ARIO REGIONS.

SUN AT WORK 10(2)38 -9.

PROVIDES A BRIEF SUMMARY OF PAPERS PRESENTED ON SOLAR ENERGY, WIND POWER, AND FUEL POWER AT A SYMPOSIUM HELD IN JODHPUR, INDIA, 1964, AS PART OF AN OVERALL CONSIDERATION OF THE PROBLEMS OF THE INDIAN ARID ZONE.

REVIEWS /ARID LANDS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /INDIA /WIND POWER

115

KOENIG, J.B.

1973

WORLDWIDE STATUS OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT. IN P. KRUGER AND C. OTTE, EDS., GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -- RESOURCES, PRODUCTION, STIMULATION. SPECIAL SYMPOSIUM OF AMERICAN NUCLEAR SOCIETY, 1972, PROCEEDINGS. P. 15 -58.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, STANFORD, CALIFORNIA. SWRA W73- 13216.

A CONSERVATIVE PROJECTION OF WORLDWIDE GEOTHERMAL GENERATING CAPACITY BY 1980 IS ON THE ORDER OF 2,500 MW, OR THREE TIMES PRESENT DAY CAPACITY. BECAUSE WORLD CONSUMPTION OF ELECTRICITY DURING THE 8 -YEAR PERIOD IS LIKELY TO DOUBLE, THE GEOTHERMAL POWER COMPONENT OF WORLD OUTPUT WILL REMAIN AT LESS THAN 1 PERCENT OF TOTAL GENERATING CAPACITY. HIGH -ENTHALPY GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS ARE KNOWN ONLY IN REGIONS OF YOUTHFUL VOLCANISM, CRUSTAL RIFTING, ANO RECENT MOUNTAIN BUILDING. THE MAJOR GEOTHERMAL ANO VOLCANIC BELTS ARE THE CIRCUM -PACIFIC MARGIN, ISLAND GROUPS OF THE MID -ATLANTIC RIFT. THE RIFT ZONES OF EAST AFRICA AND THE ADJACENT MIDDLE EAST, AND THE IRREGULAR BELT OF MOUNTAINS AND BASINS EXTENDING FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN OF EUROPE AND NORTH AFRICA ACROSS ASIA TO THE PACIFIC. LOWER- ENTHALPY FLUIDS ARE FAR MORE ABUNDANT IN VOLCANIC ZONES AND ELSEWHERE, ANO MAY REPRESENT A GREATER RESERVE OF USEFUL ENERGY BY AN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OR MORE. SIGNIFICANT AREAS OF LOWER -ENTHALPY GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS INCLUDE THE GULF COAST OF THE UNITED STATES, AN EXTENSIVE REGION IN WESTERN 176

SIHEPIA. AND PORTIONS OF CENTRAL EUROPE JUST NORTH OF THE ALPS AND THE CAG'.FATHIAN MOUNTAINS. GEOLOGICALLY, THESE ARE SUBSIDING SEDIMENTARY BASINS AT THE MARGINS OF FOLDED IOUNTAIN RANGES. THE DISTRIBUTION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES CN A WORLDWIDE SCALE IS SUMMARIZED, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES ARE REVIEWED, AND THE POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPMENT OVER THE NEXT DECADE IS EVALUATED. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ELECTRIC POWER /ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND /THERMAL POWER ° LANTS /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /HYOROGEOLOGY /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /ENERGY /STEAM TURBINES /WELLS

= IDENTIFIERS: / GEOTHERMAL POWER

116

KOLLMORGEN, W.M.

1969

THE WOODSMAN S ASSAULTS ON THE DOMAIN OF THE CATTLEMAN.

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS, ANNALS 59(2):215 -239. SWRA W71- 06072.

THE OPEN, ARID LANDS OF THE WESTERN U.S. WERE ORIGINALLY SETTLED 0Y LARGE CATTLE OPERATORS. THIS LAND -USE ETHIC CAME INTO CONFLICT WITH THE CULTURAL AND SOCIAL VALUES OF THE EASTERN U.S. WOODSMAN MENTALITY, WHICH IN TURN LED TO A CENTURY -LONG SERIES OF ASSAULTS BY THE WOODSMAN ON THE CATTLEMAN S DOMAIN. THE CATTLEMAN S SURVIVAL WAS THEN DETERMINED BY THE EXTENT TO WHICH HE PERJURED HIMSELF ANO CIRCUMVENTED THE INTENT AND INSTITUTIONS OF THE WOODSMAN, PARTICULARLY AS EXPRESSED BY A SERIES OF CONGRESSIONAL LAND ALIENATION LAWS. THE PRIORI ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE WOODSMAN S POSITION WERE 1) CONGRESSIONAL INCAPABILITY IN DEALING WITH WESTERN LAND PROBLEMS, 2) CULTURAL CONFLICT, IN WHICH THE ETHIC OF SMALL, FAMILY FARM CROE OPERATIONS TOOK PRECEDENCE OVER LARGE, PARTLY NOMADIC OPERATION) AND 3) GEOGRAPHIC PERCEPTIONS COLORED BY EASTERN CONDITIONS WHICH LED TO MISCONCEIVED LAND MANAGEMENT ATTEMPTS, ABETTED BY CONGRESSIONAL LEGISLATION, THAT PROVED INOPERATIVE IN ARID REGION GRASSLANDS. AS EXAMPLES OF GEOGRAPHICAL IGNORANCE, 3 MAJOR FALLACIOUS WATER SUPPLY CONCEPTS GAINED GREAT CURRENCY AT DIFFERING TIMES ANO LED TO TRAGICALLY MISCONCEIVED PROGRAMS. THESE INCLUDE THE THEORY THAT TREE - PLANTING INCREASES AREA RAINFALL, THAT IRRIGATION WAS A PANACEA FOR WIDESPREAD CROP INTRODUCTION AND THAT DRY LAND FARMING THROUGH FALLOWING WAS REALISTIC. IT IS ARGUED THAT SUCH MISCONCEPTIONS STILL COLOR OUR WESTERN LAND USE POLICIES ANO THAT GOVERNMENTAL ATTEMPTS TO DEAL WITH THE PROBLEM, EVEN NOW, AS IN THE PAST, RESULT IN CONFUSION AND CHAOS. (GALS)

ARID LANDS /LAND USE /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /FEDERAL GOVERNMENT/ GREAT BASIN /GREAT PLAINS /DESERTS /LEGAL ASPECTS /SOCIAL ASPECTS /ECONOMIC IMPACT /IRRIGATION PROGRAMS /DRY FARMING /VEGETATION EFFECTS /GRAZING/ DESERT LAND ACT /WEATHER MODIFICATION /GRASSLANDS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ /LAND MANAGEMENT / RAINFALL /FALLOWING /INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /WESTERN U.S. 177

117

KRUGER, P. /OTTE, C. EDS.

1973

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -- RESOURCES, PRODUCTION, STIMULATION. SPECIAL SYMPOSIUM OF AMERICAN NUCLEAR SOCIETY, JUNE 19 -20, 1972, PROCEEDINGS.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, STANFORD, CALIFORNIA. 363 P. SWRA W73- 13214. AN ASSESSMENT IS GIVEN OF THE POTENTIAL OF GEOTHEPMAL ENERGY IN MEETING THE INCREASING ENERGY DEMAND WITHIN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE NEXT FEW DECADES AND IN CONSERVING OUR FOSSIL FUELS. WORLDWIDE STATUS, PRINCIPLES OF OCCURRENCE. RESOURCE POTENTIAL, ANO EXPLORATION

TECHNIQUES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ARE REVIEWED. THE DISCUSSION INCLUDES . PRODUCTION, FORMS OF UTILIZATION, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, ANO WELL STIMULATION BY NUCLEAR, CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL TECHNIQUES. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY WILL BE USED LARGELY FOR THE GENERATION OF ELECTRIC POWER. THE NATION S GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCE IS POTEENTIALLY VAST, PARTICULARLY THE PORTION THAT MAY BE TAPPED BY DEEPER DRILLING. MOST OF THE RESOURCES ARE OF THE LIQUID -DOMINATED TYPE, RATHER THAN THE VAPOR -DOMINATED TYPE EXEMPLIFIED BY THE FIELD AT THE GEYSERS, IN CALIFORNIA. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TECHNOLOGY FOR THE VAPOR- TURBINE CYCLE WILL PERMIT THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIQUID -DOMINATED RESOURCES OF INTERMEDIATE -RANGE TEMPERATURES (IN EXCESS OF 300 DEGREES F.), AND THUS VASTLY INCREASE AVAILABLE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCED FROM A GEOTHERMAL FIELD APPEARS TO BE ECONOMICALLY COMPETITIVE WITH THAT FROM FOSSIL -FUEL STATIONS. THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GEOTHERMAL POWER DEVELOPMENT IS MORE ACCEPTABLE THAN THAT OF FOSSIL OR NUCLEAR -FUEL POWER DEVELOPMENT. THE UNITED STATES COULD BE PRODUCING AT LEAST 132,000 MW OF ELECTRIC POWER FROM ITS GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN 1985. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ELECTRIC POWER /ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND /THERMAL POWERPLANTS /ELECTRIC POWER PROOUCTION /HYDROGEOLOGY /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /ENERGY /STEAM TURBINES /WELLS

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL POWER /GEYSERS FIELD, CALIFORNIA

118

LAGLER, K.F.

1969

ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF HYDROELECTRIC DAMS. PAPER PRESENTED AT

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENTAL ALTERATION, SYMPOSIUM, P. 133 -158.

HYDROELECTRIC DAMS HAVE VAST AND IN MANY RESPECTS LARGELY UNKNOWN CONSEQUENCES. IN CASES WHERE PLANNING HAS PRECEEDED CONSTRUCTION BY AS MUCH AS FIFTEEN YEARS, MECHANISMS HAVE STILL MALFUNCTIONED AND DIFFICULTIES NEVER FORESEEN HAVE ARISEN. THE AUTHOR DISCUSSES THE RELATED ECOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF A HYDROELECTRIC DAMS.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ECONOMIC IMPACT /HYDROELECTRIC POWER /DAMS/ RESERVOIRS 178

119

LAIRD, A.D.K.

1973 WATER FROM GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. IN P. KRUGER AND C. OTTE, EDS.. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -- RESOURCES, PRODUCTION. STIMULATION. SPECIAL SYMPOSIUM OF AMERICAN NUCLEAR SOCIETY, 1972. PROCEEDINGS, P. 177 -196.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, STANFORO, CALIFORNIA. SWRA W73- 13223.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS A POTENTIALLY CLEAN SOURCE OF LARGE AMOUNTS OF POWER. WATER CARRIES THERMAL ENERGY FROM (HE RESERVOIRS TO THE SURFACE. IN SOME CASES, CONDENSATE FROM STEAM TURBINES MAY BE AVAILABLE AS FRESHWATER SUPPLIES. DISTILLATION IS A MEANS OF USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FOR MAKING MORE FRESHWATER AVAILABLE. CONSEQUENTLY, LARGE -SCALE GEOTHERMAL DISTALLATION IS A COMPONENT OF SEVERAL ENERGY PRODUCTION SCHEMES. (USGS: DESALINATION /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ELECTRIC POWER /THERMAL POWERPLANTS/ ECONOMICS /DISTILLATION /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /ENERGY /WATER SOURCES

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL POWER

120

LAKE POWELL RESEARCH PROJECT

1974 COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH ON ASSESSMENT OF MAN S ACTIVITIES IN THE LAKE POWELL REGION.

SAME' AS AUTHOR, FLAGSTAFF, ARIZONA. 92 P.

THIS PROJECT SUPPORTED BY NINE INSTITUTIONS AND THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION WILL FOCUS ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THE LAKE POWELL REGION SUCH AS: THE DYNAMICS OF CHANGE IN THE LAKE POWELL REGION: REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND NATIONAL PRIORITIES; CHANGING PROCESSES OF INSTITUTIONAL DECISION MAKING: CHANGING PATTERNS OF URBAN -RURAL RELATIONSHIPS: THE IMPENDING GAP BETWEEN WATER SUPPLY ANO DEMAND IN THE UPPER COLORADO BASIN: THE LAKE ECOSYSTEM IN TRANSITION: AND ALTERNATIVE FUTURES FOR ENERGY PRODJCTION IN THE REGION. NINE BASIC REPORTS ARE SCHEDULED OVER THE NEXT FEW YEARS: LEVEL AND DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME AND WEALTH GENERATED BY RE SOURCE DEVELOPMENT; INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ANO PLANNING; INSTITUTIONAL DECISION- MAKING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION: THE IMPLICATION FOR FEDERAL INDIAN POLICIES OF ACCELERATED ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NAVAJO INDIAN RESERVATION: IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT ON DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE; CONSUMPTIVE WATER USE IN THE UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN: PREDICTION OF FUTURE SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN THE LAKE POWELL ECOSYSTEM; AND THE RECREATIONAL CARRYING CAPACITY AND UTILIZATION OF THE GLEN CANYON NATIONAL RECREATION AREA. BASICALLY, THE LAKE POWELL REGION IS AN ARID EXPANSE OF INCREDIBLE BEAUTY WITHIN WHICH VARIOUS CORPORATIONS PLAN TO OPERATE POWERPLANTS, STRIP MINES, AND COAL GASIFICATION PLANTS. THE VARIOUS STUDIES WILL TALLY THE CONSEQUENCES OF SUCH EXPLOITATION ANO THE EFFECT OF BUILDING GLEN CANYON DAM ITSELF. 179

RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /NATURAL RESOURCES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ DYNAMICS /REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT /DECISION MAKING /WATER SUPPLY /WATER DEMAND /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /ECOSYSTEMS /LAKE MORPHOLOGY /ENERGY/ ALTERNATIVE PLANNING /INDIAN RESE RVATIONS /RECREATION /POWERPLANTS /STRIP MINES /EXPLOTTATION /CONSUMPTIVF USE

= IDENTIFIERS: /NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION /LAKE POWELL /NAVAJO INDIANS/ GLEN CANYON NATIONAL RECREATION AREA /COAL GASIFICATION

121

LAPP, R.E.

1971

THE NUCLEAR PLANT CONTROVERSY. II: POWER AND HOT WATER.

NEW REPUBLIC 164(6):20-24. USING THE CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING MARYLAND S FIRST NUCLEAR POWERPLANT ON CHESAPEAKE BAY, THE PROBLEM OF THERMAL POLLUTION IS EXPLORED. ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF COOLING SUCH PLANTS SUCH AS COOLING TOWERS AND ARTIFICIAL COOLING PONDS ARE CONSIDERED. THERE IS NO DOUBT THAT U.S. WATER RESOURCES ARE SWIFTLY APPROACHING TOLERANCE LIAITS FOR USE AS HEAT SINKS. THIS COUPLED WITH THE FACT THAT NUCLEAR PLANTS NEED FAR MORE WATER THAN COAL -FIRED POWERPLANTS MAY LIMIT EXPANSION OF THE NUCLEAR PROGRAM.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /THERMAL POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /COOLING /COOLING TOWERS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES

= IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

122

LAVI, A. /ZENER, C.

1973

PLUMBING THE OCEAN DEPTHS: A NEW SOURCE OF POWER.

INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS, SPECTRUM 10(101 :22 -27.

THE SURFACE WATERS OF TROPICAL OCEANS COLLECT SOLAR ENERGY WHICH CAN FIRST BE CONVERTED INTO ELECTRIC POWER BY SOLAR SEA POWER PLANTS, THEN INTO CHEMICAL ENERGY BY ELECTROLYSIS, THEM SHIPPED TO THE MAINLAND TO HEAT HOMES AND POWER TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES. TECHNIC4L EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SYSTEM WITH DEVELOPMENT OF A HYDROGEN ECONOMY ARE GIVEN. THE AUTHOR BELIEVES THAT RELIANCE ON SOLAR ENERGY IS A SOUND OBJECTIVE TO BE CONSIDERED SERIOUSLY.

ELECTRIC POWER /ENERGY CONVERSION /HEATING /EVALUATION

= IDENTIFIEEERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /OCEAN THERMAL GRADIENT ENERGY /HEAT STORAGE/ / SOLkR POWER GENERATION /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 180

123

LEUNG, P./MOORE. R.E.

1971 THERMAL CYCLE ARRANGEMENTS FOR POWER PLANTS EMPLOYING ORY COOLING TOWERS. JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR PONER 93A(2):257 -265.

AS WATER AVAILABLE FOR STEAM ELECTRIC POWEPPLANTS DECLINES, USE OF DRY COOLING TOWERS WILL SPREAD. BECAUSE OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN TURBINE EXHAUST PRESSURES, THIS SUBSTITUTION WILL REQUIRE ALTERED DESIGNS FUR FOSSIL -FUELED AN3 NUCLEAR-FUELED GENERATING UNITS. ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF Dry COOLING TOWERS MUST BE BASE) ON WHOLE SYSTEMS, NOT SINGLE UNITS, BECAUSE OF THE SEVERE PLANT HEAT RATE AND CAPABILITY LOSSES ATTRIBUTABLE TO SUCH TOWERS.

COOLING TOWERS /THERMAL POWERPLANTS /ARID LANDS /EVAPDPATION /GENERATORS/ /COOLING /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY/ /WATER SHORTAGE c IDENTIFIERS: /DRY COOLING TOWERS

124

LEVY, H.B.

1972 EVALUATING THE HAZARDS OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION BY RADIOACTIVITY FROM AN UNDERGROUND NUCLEAR EXPLOSION.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LAWRENCE LIVERMORE LABORATORY. 23 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS UCRL- 51278. SWRW W73- 07782. THIS REVIEW DISCUSSES FACTORS AFFECTING THE AVAILABILITY OF RADIOACTIVITY TO GROUNDWATER AFTER FLOODING OF THE NUCLEAR -EXPLOSION CRATER (CHIMNEY). RADIONUCLIDE TRANSPORT THROUGH GROUNDWATER IS DESCRIBED BY EQUATIONS FOR THE SPECIAL CASES IN WHICH EITHER SORPTION BY RUCK OR GEOMETRIC DISPERSION IS NEGLIGIBLE, AND FOR THE GENERAL CASE IN WHICH BOTH ARE IMPORTANT. CITATIONS APE MADE TO FORTRAN LISTINGS OF COMPUTER CODES ANO TO EFFECTS FROM NONHOMOGENITIES IN AQUIFER PROPERTIES. (ORNL) NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /WATER POLLUTION /GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT /RADIOISOTOPES /ABSORPTION /DISPERSION /COMPUTER PROGRAMS /MATHEMATICAL STUDIES/ EQUATIONS /NUIERICAL ANALYSIS /FPACTURE PERMEA3ILITY /HYDROLOGY /AQUIFERS/ /PATH OF POLLUTANTS /UNDERGROUND

125

LIKENS. G.E. /BORMANN, F.H.

1974

ACID RAIN: A SERIOUS REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM.

SCIENCE 184(4142)21176 -1179. 181

PRESENTLY, MOST OF THE NORTHEASTERN U.S. EXPERIENCES ACID RAIN OR SNOW. ON THE AVERAGE THE PH IS ABOUT 4, BUT INDIVIDUAL STORMS HAVE RAN'GEJ FROM PH 2.1 TO 5. APPARENTLY, ACIDITY OF PRECIPITATION HAS INCREASED IN ABOUT THE LAST TWENTY YEARS. INCREASING USR OF NATURAL GAS AND THE INSTALLATION OF PARTICLE- REMOVAL EQUIPMENT IN SMOKESTACKS MAY 9E ASSOCIATCD WITH THIS RISING ACIDITY. VERY LITTLE IS KNOWN AT PRESENT ABOUT THE ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF SUCH AN INTRODUCTION OE STRONG ACIDS INTO THE ENVIRONMENT. ANY FUTURE PROPOSALS FOR NEW ENERGY SOURCES MUST CONSIDER THESE FACTS IN SETTING AIR QUALITY EMISSIONS STANDARDS.

WATER POLLUTION /WATER QUALITY /AIR POLLUTION /SULFUR /NATURAL GAS/ ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /CLEAN AIR ACT /ACIDS /ECONOMIC IMPACT/ POWERPLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SULFURIC ACID /EMISSIONS CONTROLS /PARTICLE REMOVAL EQUIPMENT /SULFUR DIOXIDE

126

LINDEN, H.R.

1974

PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS OF COAL GASIFICATION. PAPER PRESENTED AT PUBLIC HEARINGS ON WESTERN REGIONAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, INCLUDING COAL, OIL SHALE ANO SYNTHETIC FUELS.

U.S. FEDERAL ENERGY ADMINISTRATION, PROJECT INDEPENDENCE HEARINGS, AUGUST 6-9, 1974, DENVER, COLORADO. 14 P.

SPEAKING ON BEHALF OF THE INSTITUTE OF GAS TECHNOLOGY, LINDEN STRE$SES THE NEED FOR GASIFICATION IN THE WEST SINCE 80 PERCENT OF THE SITES WITH SUFFICIENT COAL AND WATER FOR GASIFICATION ARE WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. IN VIEW OF THE LOW GAS RESERVES IN THE NATION, IMMEDIATE ACTION MUST BE TAKEN TO BUILD GASIFICATION PLANTS. THE WATER PROBLEM FOR THE PLANTS SITUATED IN THE ARID WEST IS QUOTE, NOT AS BAD AS SOME HAVL SUGGESTED. UNDUDTE. BASICALLY. THE AUTHOR SEES THE PROBLEM AS GETTING ENOUGH CAPITAL AND EXPERTISE FOCUSED ON THE GASIFICATION PROJECT TO KEEP UP WITH PREDICTED RATES OF GAS CONSUMPTION. ENVIROSMENTAL CONCERNS ARE NOT DISCUSSED IN HIS STATEMENT.

WATER REQUIREMENTS /COALS

= IDENTIFIERS: /INSTITUTE OF GAS TECHNOLOGY, CHICAGO /COAL GASIFICATION/ PROJECT INDEPENDENCE

127

LINVILLE, B.

1971

PETROLEUM AND OIL -SHALE RESEARCH OF THE BUREAU OF MINES, FISCAL YEAR 1969

U.S. BUREAU OF MINES, INFORMATION CIRCULAR IC 8525. 117 P.

IN 1969 THE BUREAU OF MINES ENGAGED IN 66 PROJECTS CONCERNED WITH PRODUCING AND UTILI7ING PETROLEUM, NATURAL GAS AND OIL SHALE. OVER 100 TECHNICAL PAPERS WERE. PUBLISHED ON THIS RESEARCH. THIS REPORT BRIEFLY EXPLAINS EACH OF THE 66 PROJECTS.

OIL SHALES /OIL/NATURAL GAS /ENERGY /ENERGY CONVERSION /LAND RESOURCES/ ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /MINERAL_ INDUSTRY 182

128

LITTLETON, R.T.

1973 GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOUTHWEST STORAGE BASINS.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, WATER RESOURCES CENTER, REPORT 26:46 -4.g. INFORMATION ABOUT THE AMOUNT OF WATER STORED IN DEBRIS- FILLED BASINS IN A LARGE PART OF THE SOUTHWEST IS REVIEWED. THE TOTAL FIGURE IS 1.7 BILLION ACRE -FEET OF RECOVERABLE STORAGE UNDER PRESENT ECONOMICS AND WATER QUALITY STANDARDS. THE ENERGY CONTAINED IN THE HEATED WATER IN SOME OF THESE BASINS MAY BE USED TO DESALT THE MINERALIZED WATER ANO TO GENERATE POWER. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /GROUNDWATER BASINS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /CALIFORNIA /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

129

LOEFFLER, M.J.

1970

AUSTRALIAN -- AMERICAN INTERBASIN WATER TRANSFER.

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS, ANNALS 60(3)1493 -5í6.SWRA W71- 05477. THE AUSTRALIAN INTERIOR AND THE AMERICAN WEST ARE BOTH ARID, WATER - STARVED AREAS. THE CONCEPT OF INTERBASIN WATER TRANSFER IS NOT NEW TO EITHER COUNTRY, BUT THE ENTRY OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT INTO WATER DIVERSION IS NEW TO BOTH. THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS PROJECT OF AUSTRALIA, TRANSFERRING WATER FROM THE SNOWY TO THE MURRAY RIVER AND THE COLORADO -BIG THOMPSON PROJECT OF THE U.S., TRANSFERRING WATER FROM THE COLORADO TO THE BIG- THOMPSON RIVER, ARE THE FIRST FEDERALLY -BUILT PROJECTS ON EITHER CONTINENT. AS SUCH, THEY ARE PRECEDENT- SETTING. THERE WERE ARGUMENTS AGAINST BOTH. MOST OF THE AUSTRALIAN POPULATION LIVES NEAR THE OCEAN, GIVING RISE TO DOUBT ABOUT THE WISDOM OF DIVERTING WATER INTO THE ARID INTERIOR. THE COLORADO RIVER, IN TURN, DRAINS THE MOST ARID REGION OF THE U.S., AND CAN LITTLE AFFORD WATER LOSS THROUGH INTERBASIN TRANSFER. THE 2 MAJOR REASONS FOR THE WATER DIVERSIONS. HYDROELECTRIC POWER AND IRRIGATION, ARE THURCUGHLY EXAMINED FOR BOTH REGIONS IN TERMS DF ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY. BOTH FACTORS ARE CLOUDED BY CONSIDERATIONS NOT ACCOUNTED FOR IN THE PLANNING STAGES. THERE IS SOME QUESTION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION IN THE U.S. IN TERMS OF IT S PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL POWER PRODUCTION. ALSO, THE IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS FOR INCREASING FARM PRODUCTION IN AN ALREADY SATURATED MARKET IS QUESTIONABLE. HOWEVER, THERE ARE MANY DENEFITS, SUCH AS INCREASED RECREATIONAL FACILITIES. BOTH THE MERITS AND THE OBSOLESCENCE OF THESE PROJECTS ARE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL. (OALS)

UTILIZATION /WATER ALLOCATION(POLICY) /LEGAL ASPECTS /SOCIAL ASPECTS/ ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY /POLITICAL ASPECTS /FEDERAL GOVERNMENT /RECREATION DEMAND /HUMAN POPULATION /WATER TRANSFER /WATER CONSERVATION /COLO000/ REGIONAL ANALYSIS /COLORADO RIVER /AUSTRALIA

= IDENTIFIERS$ /SNOWY MOUNTAINS PROJECT 183

130

LOF, G.O.G. /CLOSE, O.J. /OUFFIE, J.A.

1968

A PHILOSOPHY FOR SOLAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT.

SOLAR ENERGY 12(21:243 -250.

WITH THE EXCEPTION OF SALT FACTORIES, WATER HEATERS, STILLS AND SOLAR CELLS, SOLAR PROCESSES AND DEVICES ARE NOT YET SUFFICIENTLY ECONOMICAL, RELIABLE OR CONVENIENT TO MEET REAL NEEDS. WITH THESE EXCEPTIONS, THEY HAVE NOT UNDERGONE SUFFICIENTLY THOROUGH AND COORDINATED DEVELOPMENT TO MAKE THEM COMPETITIVE WITH CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS. TO ENABLE THEM TO MAKE NEW MARKETS OR EVEN TO ESTABLISH IF THEY ARE MARKETABLE. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT. AND ECONOMIC ANO SOCIAL ANALYSIS ARE NEEDED TO ACHIEVE PRACTICAL USE OF SOLAR ENERGY BEFORE IT WILL BE A SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO AN ENERGY ECONOMY THROUGH A PHILOSOPHY OF IMAGINATIVE IDEAS WITH THEIR LOGICAL, SYSTEMATIC AND COMPREHENSIVE DEVELOPMENT.

ECONOMICS /EVALUATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS

131

LOF, G.O.G. /WARD, J.C.

1970 ECONOMICS OF THERMAL POLLUTION CONTROL.

WATER POLLUTION CONTROL FEDERATION. JOURNAL 42(121 :2102 -2116. SWRA W71- 04733. APPROXIMATELY 80 PERCENT OF ALL WATER USED BY INDUSTRY IS USED FOR COOLING PURPOSES. PLOTS ARE GIVEN SHOWING THE ESTIMATED COOLING WATER WITHDRAWAL TO THE YEAR 1980 AND FOR ESTIMATES OF PAST ANO FUTURE RECIRCULATION. IF THE COST OF SUPPLYING COOLING WATER IN A ONCE THROUGH SYSTEM, INCLUDING WITHDRAWAL, PUMPAGE, AND TREATMENT IF NECESSARY, EXCEEDS ABOUT 0.01 DOLLARS/13C0 GALLON (0.3 MILL/KWH GENERATED IN FOSSIL FUEL PLANTS) RECIRCULATION COOLING WOULD USUALLY BE EMPLOYED. ON -SITE COST WOULD BE MINIMIZED BY SUCH DECISION. REGULATIONS PROHIBITING UNLIMITED THERMAL DISCHARGE IS THE OTHER REASON FOR USING RECIRCULATION COOLING. EQUATIONS ARE GIVEN FOR CALCULATING ANNUAL INVESTMENT EXPENSE AND OPERATING COST FOR RECIRCULATION COOLING USING A FORCED -DRAFT COOLING TOWER. THE RESULTS OF A DOWNSTREAM POWERPLANT USING WARMER CONDENSER WATER THAN WOULD NATURALLY HAVE BEEN AVAILABLE ARE A DECREASE IN TOTAL ELECTRIC GENERATION AND A OECREASE IN THERMAL EFFICIENCY. HENCE. AN INCREASE IN COST PER KILOWATT HOUR. THERMAL DISCHARGE HAS THE EFFECT OF DIMINISHING DOWNSTREAM FLOWS AND TAKE VOLUMES JUST AS DOES RECIRCULATION COOLING TO AVOID THERMAL DISCHARGE.

THERMAL POLLUTION /THERMAL POWERPLANTS /ECONOMICS /COOLING WATER/ EFFICIENCIES/ TEMPERATURE /EVAPORATION /ECOLOGY /COSTS /COOLING TOWERS/ WATER POLLUTION CONTROL

= IDENTIFIERS : /RECIRCULATION COOLING /ONCE- THROUGH COOLING 184

132

LOFERSKI, J.J.

1972

SOME PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION OF EELECTRICAL POWER FROM SOLAR ENERGY VIA THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, ASME PAPER 72 -WA /SOL -4.

THIS PAPER ILLUSTRATES THAT ABOUT 0.1 PERCENT OF THE LAND AREA OF THE UNITED STATES WOULD HAVE TO RE COVERED BY 10 PERCENT EFFICIENT SOLAR CELLS TO PRODUCE ALL THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY CURRENTLY CONSUMED IN THE U.S. VARIOUS TECHNOLOGICALLY FEASIBLE METHODS OF STORING LARGE AMOUNTS OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY ARE DISCUSSED. THE COST GOALS WHICH MUST BE MET BY SOLAR ARRAYS INTENDED FOR LARGE SYSTEMS ARE SUMMARIZED, ANO METHODS OF ACHIEVING THESE GOALS ARE CONSIDERED.

ENERGY CONVERSION /LAND USE /COSTS /ENERGY TRANSFER

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /SOLAR ENERGY /PHOTOVOLTAICEFFECT /SOLAR CELLS /SOLAR POWER GENERATION

133

MACMEEKIN, U.H.

1971 THE NAVAJO TRIBE S WATER RIGHTS IN THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN. PAPER AVAILABLE

COLORADO PLATEAU ENVIRONMENTAL ADVISORY COUNCIL, C/O MUSEUM OF NORTHERN ARIZONA, FLAGSTAFF. 63 P. THIS EXPLORATION OF NAVAJO WATER RIGHT S. FINOS THE TRIBE S SHARE OF THE COLORADO RIVER RUNNING AS HIGH AS TEN MILLION ACRE FEET. THE RIVER S ENTIRE ANNUAL FLOW IS PROBABLY SLIGHTLY MORE THAN THIRTEEN MILLION ACRE FEET. THUS, IN LIGHT OF THE WINTER S DOCTRINE OF RESERVED WATER RIGHTS FOP INDIAN LANDS, THE NAVAJO S HOLD A PRIOR AND SUPERIOR CLAIM TO THE COLORADO RIVER, THE MAJOR SOURCE OF WATER FOR THE ARIO SOUTHWEST. THE ESSAY EXPLORES IN DETAIL RECENT ATTEMPTS TJ GET THE TRIBE TO WAIVE OR REPUDIATE THIS RIGHT, ANO CONCLUDES THAT THE TRIBE STILL RETAINS ITS RIGHT TO THE WATER. SHOULD THE NAVAJO S EXERCISE THIS RIGHT TO THE RIVER, ALL CURRENT DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN THE UPPER AND LOWER BASINS WOULD RE PREFMPTEJ AND THE CURRENT GROWTH IN POWER PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST ENERGY COMPLEX WOULD HAVE TO ENO.

INDIAN RESERVATIONS /WATER RIGHTS /COLORADO RIVER /SOUTHWEST U.S. /ARID LANDS /WATER SUPPLY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /LEGAL ASPECTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /NAVAJO INDIANS /WINTER S DOCTRINE

134 MANY FARMS HIGH SCHOOL, MANY FARMS, ARIZONA

1971

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC ISSUE: THE STRIP MINING ON BLACK MESA AND THE COAL BURNING POWER PLANTS IN THE SOUTHWEST.

SAME AS AUTHOR. TEACHERS AND STUDENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION CLASSES. 39 P. MAPS, CHARTS. 185

STRIP MINING AND COAL -FIRED ELECTRIC PRODUCTION WERE STUDIED FOR THEIR EFFECT ON LOCAL INDIAN CULTURE, Ti{F WATER TAHLE, AIR POLLUTION, NAVAJO RIGHTS TO THE COLORADO RIVER, SOIL STA3ILITY, AND REGIONAL BEAUTY. PEABODY COAL COMPANY IS FOUND TO PRODUCE INADEQUATE RETURN FOR THE CONSUMPTION OF A NON -RENEWABLE RESOURCE, TO EMPLOY INSIGNIFICANT NUMBERS OF TRHESMEN. AND TO THREATEN BLACK MESA WITH PERMANENT DEVASTATION. THE POWERPLANTS OF THE FOUR CORNERS AREA CONSUME SO MUCH WATER AND PRODUCE SO MUCH AIR POLLUTION THAT THEY ARE SERIOUS DANGERS TO THE FUTURE OF THE NAVAJOS ANO HOPTS. TWO FUTURE COURSES OF ACTION ARE SUGGESTED: 1) A RENEGOTIATED COAL ANO WATER CONTRACT WITH PEABJDY COAL COMPANY, MORE STRINGENT AIR POLLUTION CONTROLS, BETTER SAFEGUARDS AGAINST EROSION, AND A BETTER RESEEDING PROGRAM FOR STRIP -MINED LAND, OR 2) CANCELLATION OF ALL POWER PRODUCTION AND COAL MINING PLANS FOR THE FOUR CORNERS AREA, WITH GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FROM IMPERIAL VALLEY BEING SUBSTITUTED AS AN ENERGY SOURCE.

ENERGY /ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTICF /STRIP MINES /COAL MINES /MINE WASTES /FLY ASH /SULFUR /NITROGEN /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /INDIA,) RESERVATIONS /REVEG_TATIO4 /SCENERY /SOUTHWEST U.S./ WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /POWERPLANTS /COALS /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES/ ALLOTMENTS /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /COLORADO RIVER /POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY/ /GROUNDWATER AVAILABILITY /WATER UTILIZATION /SOIL EROSION /CONTRACTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /BLACK MESA /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /oEABCDY COAL COMPANY /MINE-MOUTH PLANT /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS /SULFUR DIOXIDE/ NITROGEN OXIDES /INDIAN CULTURE

135

MARINELLI, G.

1973

DEEP DOWN POWER.

DEVELOPMENT FORUM 1(3):5-10. IF PROPERLY OPERATED A GEOTHERMAL FIELD CAN PRODUCE AN ENDLESS SUPPLY OF STEAM. AIR POLLUTION HAS AROUSED KEEN INTEREST IN THIS RESOURCE IN RECENT YEARS. 3ECAUSE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS CHEAP AND CLEAN, RESEARCH FUNDS SHOULD BE POURED INTO THIS FIELD, REGARDLESS OF ANY NATION S CURRENT ENERGY SUPPLY. PERHAPS THIS SOURCE OF POWER CAN SPUR INDUSTRIALIZATION IN POOR COUNTRIES.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /AIR POLLUTION /COSTS /COST EFFICIENCY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /EUROPE /THERMAL POWER

= IDENTIFIERS: /ITALY /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

136

MAX -NEEF, M.A.

1971

RESOURCE -- ALLOCATION PROBLEMS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARID ZONES. IN FOOD, FIBER AND THE ARIO LANDS, P. 17 -38.

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA PRESS, TUCSON. SWRA W72- 03654.

MANY OF TODAY S DESERTS WERE FLOURISHING MEADOWS DURING THE LIFE SPANS OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS. ANCIENT IRRIGATION SYSTEMS, SUCH AS THOSE OF THE INCAS, WERE MODELS OF HIGHLY COMPLICATED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. THESE ANCIENT DESERT CULTURES HAD 2 THINGS IN COMMON, WATER CONSCIOUSNESS AND GREAT CAPACITIES TO DEVELOP THE LIMITED POTENTIALS OF THE DESERT TO THEIR FULLEST. FROM THESE ACHIEVEMENTS AROSE SOME OF THE WORLD S GREATEST CIVILIZATIONS. THE GOAL OF RESOURCE ALLOCATION THEORY IS TO CHOOSE ONLY THOSE INVESTMENTS THAT WILL RESULT IN AN OPTIMAL IMPACT ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS. AN EXTENSIVE REVIEW OF TRADITIONAL CONCEPTS CONCERNING DEVELOPMENT AND INVESTMENT LEAD TO THE CONCLUSION THAT ARIO LANDS DEVELOPMENT WOULD 186

HAVE TO BE REJECTED AY MANY OF THESE CRITERIA, ALTHOUGH THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE ANCIENTS WOULD SEEM TO EFLIE THIS. A SET OF CRITERIA ARE THLREFO4.L PROPOSED, SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED FOR ARID ZONES. THE FUNDAMENTAL CRITERION IS THAT NO ISOLATED 1NVEO;TMENT PROJECT CAN BE PLANNED WITHOUT SIMULTANEOUS CONSIDERATION OF ALL THE NECESSARY TITER- RELATED SERVICE PROJECTS P.OIIIR_(J FOR ITS MAINTENANCE. INVESTMENT GOALS SHOULD EE THE HIGHEST GROWTH RATES OVER TIME, WHICH CAN ONLY BE ACHIEVED 9Y WIOES4READ PARTICIPATION OF THE POPULACE. THEREFORE SYMMETRIC INCOME DISTRIBUTIONS ARE ALSO A NECESSARY GOAL. (OALS)

ARID LANDS /INVESTMENT /RESOURCE ALLOCATION /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /HISTORY /DECISION MAKING /ECONOMIC F= ASIBILITY /SOCIAL ASPECTS /PLANNING/ /INTANGIBLE BENEFITS

= IDENTIFIÉRS: /OEVELOPING COUNTRIES

137

MAY, T.N. /KU3E, W.R.

1973 A SURVEY OF WATER COOLING METHODS FOR WESTERN NORTH DAKOTA.

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA, GRANO FORKS, ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION. 47 P. WESTERN NORTH DAKOTA HAS LOW RAINFALL AND, EXCEPT FOR THE MISSOURI RIVER AND FEW IMPOUNDMENTS, LITTLE SURFACE WATER. GASIFICATION AND ELECTRIC GENERATING PLANTS PLANNED FOR THIS AREA WILL RECUIRE A GREAT DEAL OF WATER FOR COOLING. THIS REPORT SURVEYS AVAILA3LE INFORMATION ON COOLING METHODS WITH EMPHASIS ON CONDITIONS IN WESTERN NORTH DAKOTA. BASICALLY, COOLING PONDS ARE THE MOST DESIRABLE METHOD NOW FEASIBLE Ar:D AVAILABLE. DRY COOLING TOWERS WOULD 3E MORE DESIRABLE FROM A WATER CONSERVATION POINT OF VIEW, BUT ARE CONSIDERABLY MORE EXPENSIVE.

NORTH DAKOTA /WATER DEMAND /COOLING WATER /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION /DRY COOLING TOWERS

138

MCBRIDE, L.L.

1972

ARIZONA S COMING DILEMMA: HATER SUPPLY AND POPULATION GROWTH.

ECOLOGY LAW QUARTERLY 2:357 -384. SWRA W74- 01452.

A COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS IS PRESENTED OF THE WATER SUPPLY PROBLEMS FACING THE STATE OF ARIZONA. IT EXPLORES THE SUPPLY ANO DEMAND OF WATER RESOURCES IN ORDER TO DETERMINE WHETHER WATER SUPPLY WILL SET AN UPPER LIMIT ON THE POPULATION GROWTH. THE CURRENT LAW GOVERNING WATER RIGHTS IS DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO ITS EFFECT ON WATER CONSUMPTION AND ON GROWTH PATTERNS. PROS'ECTS ARE EVALUATED FOR MAINTAINING CONSUMPTION ANO THE PRESENT GROWTH RATES BY INCREASING THE WATER SUPPLY, OR, DY ALTERING THE CURRENT WATER RIGHTS SYSTEM TO PREVENT THE EXHAUSTION OF WATER RESOURCES. THE COLORADO RIVER IS THE MAJOR SOURCE OF SURFACE WATER FOR ARIZONA AND THE ADJOINING AREAS OF THE LOWER COLORADO BASIN, WHICH ALSO INCLUDES THE LAS VEGAS AREA OF NEVADA, AND THE IM °ERIAL AND COACHELLA VALLEYS OF SOUTHEASTERN CALIFORNIA. HOWEVER, AS ACCOMPANYING TABLES INDICATE, ARIZONA HAS COMPLETELY INSUFFICIENT SUPPLIES OF SURFACE WATER TO MEET THE TOTAL DEMAND.. POSSIBLE FUTURE SOURCES INCLUDE DASALINIZATION AND INTER -REGIONAL WATER DIVERSION. 187

ARIZONA /WATER RESOURCES OEVFLOPMENT /SOCIAL ASPECTS /LEGAL ASPECTS/ COLORADO kIVER/CCLORADO RIVER BASIN /WATER MANAGEMENT(APPLIEO) /WATER SUPPLY /WATER UTILIZATION /WATER SHORTAGE

139

MCCAUII, J.

1974

WRINGING OUT THE WEST.

ENVIRONMENT 16(7):10 -17.

NEW FEDERAL STUDIES (ONE OF THEM NOT YET PUBLISHED) SHOW THAT ENERGY DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN THE WEST WILL REQUIRE MORE WATER THAN IS AVAILABLE THERE. WITHIN A LIFETIME THE MISSOURI AND THE COLORADO RIVERS MAY BE DIMINISHED TO SHALLOW STREAMS. TO DEVELOP THE COAL FIELDS OF THE GREAT PLAINS. EXISTING AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIES MAY HAVE TO BE ELIMINATED TO FREE THE WATER FOR ENERGY PROJECTS. OIL SHALE IN WESTERN COLORADO MAY HAVE THE SAME EFFECT. THE COLORADO IS CURRENTLY OVEREXPLOITED AND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT WILL MAKE CONDITIONS FAR MORE CRITICAL. THE DEMANDS TO BE MADE ON THE MISSOURI WILL LOWER ITS WATER LEVEL DRASTICALLY AND THREATEN BARGE TRAFFIC. MINING DISTURBANCE COULD ALSO POLLUTE LARGE PORTIONS OF BOTH WATERSHEDS.

OIL SHALES /ENERGY /COLORADO RIVER /GREAT PLAINS /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION/ WATER DEMAND /COLORADO /MINE WASTES /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /WATER SHORTAGE /MISSOURI RIVER

140

MCCORMICK, J.L.

1974

FACTS ABOUT COAL IN THE UNITED STATES.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY CENTER, 324 C STREET. S.E., WASHINGTON. D.C. 20003. 32 P.

THE COAL INDUSTRY IS PROMOTING A SHIFT IN COAL PRODUCTION FROM THE TRADITIONAL METHOD OF UNDERGROUND COAL MINING IN THE EASTERN AND CENTRAL UNITED STATES TO SURFACE COAL MINING IN THE SOUTHWEST AND THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT S PROJECT INDEPENDENCE IS THE KEY WHICH CAN DE USED TO UNLOCK THE DOOR TO WESTERN COAL FIELDS FOR THE COAL INDUSTRY. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS WESTWARD SHIFT IS MASNIFIED BY THE HUGE INVESTMENTS THE INTERNATIONAL OIL COMPANIES ARE MAKING IN THE WESTERN COAL FIELDS AND THE COAL INDUSTRY. THIS REPORT PROVIDES AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH A POLICY OF EXPANDING WESTERN SURFACE COAL MINING AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SYNTHETIC FUELS INDUSTRY IN THE WEST.

SOUTHWEST U.S. /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /GREAT PLAINS /COALS /MINING /STRIP MINES /FUELS

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT INDEPENDENCE 188

141

MEINEL, A.B. / MEINEL, M.P.

1971

POWER FOR THE PEOPLE.

NO PUBLISHER (TUCSON, ARIZ,M41. 270 P. BY CONSTFUCTING A FIVE THOUSAND SQUARE MILE SOLAR ENERGY FARM IN THE MOHAVE DESERT NOT ONLY CAN ALL OF THE UNITED STATES ELECTRICAL ENERGY NEEDS BE MET, BUT ONE HALF OF THE NATION 3 WATER NEEDS CAN BE FULFILLED AS WELL, 3Y 7ESi&LINATI)N 3F S(,LT WATER USED IN THE PLANT S POWER PRODUCTION. THE AUTH,JRS 3 LIEVE THAT WHILE SUCH A PROJECT MIGHT TAKE A CENTURY TO FESEAPCH A!/0 CONSTP'JC7,IT IS IN T'iE REALM OF THE POSSIBLE. THEY ENVISION USING SOLAR LNENGY TO FIRE A CONVENTIONAL STEAM TURBINE GENERATING PLANT WITH THE N EDEO WATER 3EING BROUGHT IN FROM EITHER THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA OR THE PACIFIC OCEAN. DESALINATION OF THE SEA WATER WOULD BE A DLSIRAOLE BE FIT OF SUCH A PLANT. ONLY SOLAR AND THERMONUCLEAR ENERGY HAVE THE kESOURCES TO POSSIBLY MEET FUTURE ENERGY NEEDS.

SOLAR ENERGY /DESALINATION /STEAM TUR3INES /POWERPLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /GULF OF CALIFORNIA /MOJAVE DESERT

142

MEINEL, A.B. /MEINEL, M.P.

1972

A HARVEST OF SOLAR ENERGY.

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, OPTICAL SCIENCES CENTER, NEWSLETTER 6(31 :68 -75. SWRA W73- 1E216.

OF SEVERAL 'ENERGY OPTIONS OPEN FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT, THE MAJOR CONTENDER IS SOLAR POWER FARMS, AND THEY CAN NE OPERATIONAL BY 1985. A THERMAL CONVERSION SYSTEM WAS DESIGNED AS A PROTOTYPE. THAT ALLOWS SURFACE COLLECTORS TO PEACH THE HIGH TEMPEPATURES REQUIRED BY OPTICAL THIN FILM COATINGS THAT ABSORB SUNLIGHT BUT PREVENT HEAT LOSS IN THE INFRARED. MATERIAL USEO, SUCH AS SILICON, IS OPAQUE (ABSORBENT) TO SUNLIGHT BUT TRANSPARENT TO INFRARED .RADIATION. COSTS OF SUCH FILM IS NOW LOW ENOUGH TO MAKE THEIR USE FFAST3LE. TO REACH DESIRED OPERATING TEMPERATURE, SUNLIGHT IS CONCENTRATED ONTO THE COATINGS THROUGH LENS THAT FOCUS ON A GLASS PIPE AND A FOLLOWING SERIES OF TRANSFERS. IN DESCRIBING A PROPOSED SOLAR ENERGY FARM, THE DESIGNERS POINT OUT THAT ADDITIONAL RAINFALL RUNOFR FROM EXTENSIVE COLLECTORS CAN MATERIALLY IMPROVE THE ABILITY OF AN ARID LAND TO SUPPORT GROWTH OF GRASSES OF COMMERCIAL TMRORTANCE TO RANCHERS. PRIME LAND FOR SUCH A PROTOTYPE FARM APPEARS TO RE 5000 SQUARE MILES OF COLLECTORS OVER THE APPROXIMATELY 13C.CQC SQUARE MILES OF DESERT IN THE SOUTHWESTERN U.S. AND NORTHERN MEXICO. ENVIRONMENTALLY, THE ENERGY BALANCE WILL REMAIN UNCHANGED. IF THE WORLD IS TO BE PREPARED FOR ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY BY THE TIME CONVENTIONAL SOUCES ARE DEPLETED, THE SOLAR ENERGY FARMS HERE PROPOSED MAY BE THE ANSWER. (OALS)

SOLAR RADIATION /HEAT TRANSFER /ARIZONA /ENERGY CONVERSION /ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT /THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY /RAINFALL - RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /SOLAR POWER GENERATION 189

143

METNEL. A.B. /MEINEL, M.P.

1973

THE VILLAGE ENERGY CENTER: A NEW OPTION FOR SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION BY SAHEL COMMUNITIES. A REPORT PREPARED FOR UNESCO, PARIS, JULY 1973.

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, OPTICAL SCIENCES CENTER / HELIO ASSOCIATES, INC., TUCSON.

A REVIEW OF THE SUCCESSES AND FAILURES OF PRESENT ATTEMPTS TO UTILIZE SOLAR ENERGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES LEADS THE AUTHORS Tu CONSIDER A NEW PROPOSAL: THE VILLAGE ENERGY CENTER. IT BUILDS ON THE SUCCESSES OF COMMUNITY USES ANO RECOGNIZES THE FAILURES IN INDIVIDUAL FAMILY USES OF SOLAR ENERGY. THE VILLAGE ENERGY CENTER DISTRIBUTES ELECTRICAL POWER FROM A SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT TO MEET THE WIDE VARIETY OF NEEDS FOR ENERGY WITHIN THE COMMUNITY, AND TO POWER THE TU3E WELLS OF ITS SURROUNDING FIELDS. EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENERGY CENTER CAN PROFIT FROM CURRENT INTEREST IN SOLAR ENERGY IN THE UNITED STATES BECAUSE OF SIMILARITY IN SIZE OF EARLY DEMONSTRATION UNITS TO ACTUAL UNITS FOR ENERGY CENTERS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. ASPECTS OF THE VILLAGE ENERGY CENTER AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE SAHEL ARE SPECIFICALLY DISCUSSED.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT /EVALUATION /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS/ENERGY TRANSFER /AGRICULTURE /SOCIAL ASPECTS /ELECTRIC POWER/ENERGY CONVERSION

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAP ENERGY APPLICATIONS /SAHELIAN ZONE /SOLAR ENERGY/ SETTLEMENTS /SOLAR POWER GENERATION

144

MELCHER, A.G.

1972

WANTED - -A BETTER APPROACH TO ENERGY PLANNING: A REVIEW AND ANLYSIS OF THE PHASE I REPORT OF THE NORTH CENTRAL POWER STUDY.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN CENTER ON ENVIRONMENT( ROMCOE), DENVER, COLORADO. 32 P.

THE NORTH CENTRAL POWER STUDY IS FOUND TO BE A MODEL OF ENERGY PLANNING WITHOUT ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION. THE PROJECT, VARIOUSLY PEGGED AT FROM 50,030 MW TO 20O,0G3 MW, WILL SERIOUSLY ALTER THE LAND, AIR, WATER, FLORA AND FAUNA OF THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR ANO THE THIRTY FIVE UTILITIES WHO PRODUCED THE NORTH CENTRAL POWER STUDY (NCPS) FAILED TO TAKE THESE ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES OF ENERGY EXTRACTION INTO ACCCUNT. FOR EXAMPLE, THE NCPS FINDS POTENTIAL SITES FOR 13 POWERPLANTS OF THE 10. 000 MW SIZE IN AN APTA OF 30 BY 73 MILES. ALTHOUGH EACH PLANT IS 14 TIMES THE SCALE OF THE FOUR CORNERS PLANT WHEN IT WENT OP:LINE, LITTLE ATTENTION HAS BEEN PAID TO AIR POLLUTION. BESIDES DISRECARDING CONSEQUENCES TO THE ENVIRONMENT, ROMCOE FINDS THAT THE NCPS FAILS TO ADEQUATELY CONSIDER ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /GREAT PLAINS /SITES /POWERPLANTS /AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ENERGY /UTILITIES

= IDENTIFIERS: /NORTH CENTRAL POWER STUDY /U.S. DEPARTMENT uF THE INTERIOR /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 190

14S

METZ, W.D.

1973

OCEAN TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS: SOLAR POWER FROM THE SEA.

SCIENCE 186(4G92):1266 -1267. NSF -RANN ENERGY ABSTRACTS 1(9)2187.

POWER PLANTS UTILIZING OCEAN THERMAL GRADIENTS ARE EXPECTED TO COST VERY LITTLE MORE THAN CONVENTIONAL POWER PLANTS, SINCE THE OCEAN ACTS AS THE MEDIUI FOR COLLECTING SUNLIG.IT AND STORING ENERGY. ONE OF THE MAJOR P OPLE' "S IS THE SELECTION DF THE WORKING FLUID TJ BE USED IN THE HEAT EXCHANGERS AND TH.` DESIGN ,D,"THE HEAT EXCHANGERS, SINCE THE THERMAL EFFICIENCY OE THE PLANT ,COULD BE VERY LOW. iN 460ITION TO ELECTRICITY, TAT;. OCEAN THERMAL GRADIENT PLANT COULD PRODUCE FRESH WATER THROUGH Vi'POPI7_ATION ANn CDt.D7NSATION OF THE WARM LATER USED IN THE PLANT, ANO COULD ALSO PRODUCE HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN THOUGH ELECTROLYSIS. CULTIVATION OF ALGAE, CRUSTACEANS, ANO SHELLFISH COULD ALSO BE CARRIED ON AT THE PLANT. THE AUTHnR STATES THAT SOLAR POWER FROM THE SEA MAY WHIt. TURN OUT TO ßEA SOURCE OF CLEAN ENERGY THAT HAS BEEN OVERLOOKED TOO LONG. TIDAL POW:RPLA.NTS /DESIGN CRITERIA /SOLAR OISTILLATION= IDENTIFIERS:/ SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /ENERGY STORAGE /FOOD SUPPLY /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS /CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT /CCEEAN THERMAL GRADIENT ENERGY/ SOLAR E.Nr :kGY

146

METZ, W.D.

1974

OIL SHALE: A HUGE NEW RESOURCE OF LOW -GRADE FUEL.

SCIENCE 164(4143):1271 -1275. OIL SHALE HAS SEEN A POTENTIAL INDUSTRY FOR DECADES, AND VARIOUS METHODS OF EXTRACTING THE SYNCRUDE -)AVE BEEN TRIED OVER THE YEARS. AN OUTLINE OF OIL SHALE DEPOSITS DEMONSTRATES THAT THE RESOURCE EXISTS IN WATER SHORT AREAS THAT WILL MOST LIKELY LIMIT EXPi.UITATIiN OF THIS ENERGY _.SERVE TO A FEW PERCENT OF U.S. PETOLEUI? CONSUME TION, REGARDLESS OF THE PREVAILING PRICE OF CRUDE OIL. BOTH THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR AND THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION SEE A1- MILLION- BARREL- PER -DPY CEILING FOR OIL SHALE PRODUCTION RECAUSE iT REQUIRES THREE BARRELS OF WATER TO PRODUCE A BARREL OF SYNCRUDE WITH EXISTING TECHNOLOGY. IN SITU TECHNOLOGIES WOW BEING TRIED ,LIGHT ALTER THIS CONCLUSION. ALSO, STUDIES SUGGEST THAT OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT COULD RAISE THE SALINITY LEVEL BEHIND HOOVER DAM BY AS LITTLE AS 1.5 PERCENT OR AS MUCH AS 45 PERCENT BY REMOVING WATER FROM THE COLORADO RIVER AND BY BREACHING SALINE. AQUIFERS IN THE OIL SHALE DEPOSITS.

COLORADO /UTAH /WYOMING /MINERAL INDUSTRY /WATER REQUIREMENTS /MINING/ AQUIFER CHARACTE.PISTICS /CIL SHALES /COLORADO RIVER /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /WATER REQUIREMENTS /COLORADO RIVER BASIN/ENERGY CONVERSION /LAND RESOURCES /REV,EGETATION /SALINITY/ OVERBURDEN /DISSOLVED SOLIDS

= IDENTIFIERS : /REFINING OPERATIONS 191

147

METZGER, N.P.

1971

DEAR SIR: YOUR HOUSE IS BUILT ON RADIOACTIVE URANIUM WASTE.

NEW YORK TIMES MAGAZINE, OCTOBER 31, 1971. P. 14 -18.

FIVE THOUSAND HOMES IN GRAND JUNCTION, COLORADO ARE BUILT ON URANIUM MINE TAILINGS. THESE RADIOACTIVE FOUNDATIONS SUBJECT THE OCCUPANTS TO THE EQUIVALENT OF 5ûû CHEST X -RAYS A YEAR. AT FIRST THE AEC PROMISED A COMPLETE TAILINGS REVIEW IN 1964. IN 1966 THE AEC REVERSED ITSELF AND DENIED RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE TAILINGS. TO DATE, THERE HAS BEEN AN INCREASE IN CANCER ANO BIRTH DEFECTS AMONG CHILDREN IN THE HOMES. THE TAILINGS DECAY INTO RADON DAUGHTERS WHICH HAVE LONG BEEN A HAZARD IN URANIUM MINES.

NUCLEAR ENERGY /RADIOACTIVITY /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /RADIOACTIVE WASTES /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES/ COLORADO

= IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

148

METZGER, H.P.

1972

THE ATOMIC ESTABLISHMENT.

SIMON AND SHUSTER: NEW YOR . 318 P.

ACCORDING TO THIS AUTHOR, THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION HAS BEEN AN INEPT ADMINISTRATOR OF THE NATION S NUCLEAR RESOURCES AND A SHODDY PROMOTER OF ITS OWN NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM. SECTIONS OF HIS BOOK DISCUSS THE POLLUTION OF THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN 3Y RADIOACTIVE WASTES FROM URANIUM MINES AND MILLS. CURRENT METHODS OF DISPOSING OF NUCLEAR POWERPLANT WASTES ARE SEEN AS A THREAT TO THE PURITY OF THE WATER TABLE. PROJECT PLOWSHARE IS FAR TOO DANGEROUS TO WESTERN AQUIFERS TO JUSTIFY ITS POSSIBLE REWARDS. WHILE IN FAVOR OF SOME USES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY, THE AUTHOR FINDS THE AEC INADEQUATE AS AN AGENCY IN SUPERVISING DEVELOPMENT OF THIS LETHAL RESOURCE.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING /NUCLEAR REACTORS /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /NEW MEXICO /ARIZONA /UTAH /COLORADO /URANIUM RADIOISOTOPCS /SAFETY / ENVIRUNMENT4L EFFECTS/WATER POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /AIR POLLUTION /LAN'D RESOURCES

= IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION /PROJECT PLOWSHARE

149

MIDGLEY, D.C.

1970

WATER IN THE SERVICE OF MAN.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 66(11):350 -358. SWRA W71- 08465. 192

BOTH GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER ARE IN LIMITED SUPPLY IN SOUTH AFRICA. AND ESTIMATES OF FUTURE USE INDICATE THE COUNTRY IS NOT FAR FROM FULL EXPLOITATION OF CURRENT RESOURCES. THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE IS REVIEWED AND IT IS SHOWN THAT WHEN WATER ENTERS THE VAPOR PART OF THE CYCLE, IT IS LOST TO MAN. PRACTICALLY ALL USES OF WATER ENTAIL SOME CONVERSION TO THE VAPOR PHASE. IT THEREFORE FOLLOWS THAT A FUNDAMENTAL PRECEPT OF WATER PLANNING PHILOSOPHY I4 WATER -SHORT COUNTRIES NECESSITATES HIGHLY COORDINATED NATIONAL MULTI -USE PLANNING. THE TRAOITIONAL PRACTICE OF INDUSTRIAL AND POWER SITE LOCATIONS NEAR LOW COST WATER FOR CONSUMPTIVE USE MUST RE ABANDONED. MUNICIPALITIES USE 10 -20 PERCENT OF THEIR SOURCE WATER WHILE IRRIGATION AND THERMAL. CODLING STATIONS USE 8O -1G0 PERCENT. ALL SECTORS SHOULD THEREFORE BE LOCATED ANO COORDINATED SO THAT WATERS SHARED BY THEM ARE UTILIZED WITH OPTIMAL EFFICIENCY. IN ARID LANDS, VALUE ADDED FROM WATER CONSUMPTION IS 44 -51 DOLLARS /ACRE FT FOR IRRIGATION4, ABOUT 250 DOLLARS FOR RECREATION ANO 30E0-400G DOLLARS FOR INDUSTRY. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN SUCH REGIONS SHOULD BE AVOIDED, AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ENCOURAGED. COALS)

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE /PLANNING /CONSUMPTIVE USE /WATER PROPERTIES /WATER USERS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /IRRIGATION /COOLING /MUNICIPAL WATER/ GROUNDWATER /SURFACE WATEPS /DESALINATION /ARID LANDS /WATER ALLOCATION(POLICV) /WATER VAPOR /MULTIPLE -PURPOSE PROJECTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOUTH AFRICA

150

MILLS, G.A.

1971

GAS FROM COAL: FUEL OF THE FUTURE.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE ANO TECHNOLOGY 5(12111178 -1183.

THE GROWING NATIONAL APPETITE FOR ENERGY AND FOR CLEAN AIR TO BREATHE HAS HEIGHTENED A CRITICAL FUEL SUPPLY SITUATION. COAL GASIFICATION OFFERS A MASSIVE CLEAN -BURNING ENERGY SOURCE WITHIN THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES.

COALS /COAL MINES /ENERGY CONVERSION /ENVIRONMEN.TAL EFFECTS /NATURAL GAS/ /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /EOUIPNENT /FUELS

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION

151

MINES MAGAZINE

1971 TROUBLE PILING UP FOR POWER PLANT OPERATIONS IN FOUR CORNERS AREA.

SAME AS AUTHOR 61(71:12 -17.

REVIEWS THE DEBATE ABOUT THE FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE CLAIMS MADE IN THREE DIFFERENT LAW SUITS. THE FIRST CASE FILED BY 61 HOPI INDIANS CHARGES THE USDI WITH RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION IN PERMITTING THE DESECRATION BY STRIP MINING OF INDIAN LAND HELD TO BE SACRED: ANO ALSO WITH CONFLICT OF I1TEREST SINCE THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WOULD PURCHASE 23 PERCENT OF THE POWER PRODUCED BY MINED COAL. THE LEGALITY OF THE TRIBAL COUNCIL THAT SIGNED THE STRIP MINE CONTRACT IS ALSO OUESTIONED. NAVAJOS IN AN ATTEMPT TO CLOSE THE POWERPLANTS ON THEIR LAND ARE CHARGING THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR WITH NEGLIGENCE IN PROTECTING INDIAN RIGHTS. DEMANDING FURTHER INVIRONMENTAL STUDY, SEVERAL OTHER GROUPS - -THE ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND, THE NATIONAL WILDLIFE FEDERATION, AND THE NATIVE AMERICAN RIGHTS FUND- -ARE SEEKING TO STOP CONSTRUCTION OF POWERPLANTS. 193

INDIAN RE_SLRVATICNS /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION/ENVIRONMENT/ ENVIRONMENTAL E<

=TDENTIFIERS: /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT/ BLACK MESA /PEA9ODY COAL COMPANY/MINI-MOUTH PLANT/U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR /CENTRAL ARI7G,A PROJECT

152

MINING CONGRESS JOURNAL

1971 BLACK MESA MINING PROJECT DELIVERING COAL.

SAME AS AUTHOR 57(31:71 -76. THI5 IS AN INDUSTRY -ORIENTED LOOK AT PEABJDY COAL COMPANY S STRIP MINE ON BLACK MESA, ARIZONA. THE HISTORY OF THE OPERATION, FROM THE LEASING OF LAND FROM THE HOPI AND NAVAJO INDIANS TO THE PRESENT, IS RECOUNTED IN SOME DETAIL. THE TECHNOLOGY OF DRILLING, MINING AND PROCESSING THE COAL IS ALSO EXAMINED.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /LAND R= CLAMATION /EROSION/ /POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT/SOUTHWEST U.S./ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /COALS /GRCUNDWATER AVAILABILITY /ARIZONA

= IDENTIFIERS: /BLACK MESA /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS /INDIAN CULTURE/ NAVAJO POWERPLANT /MOHAVE POWERPLANT

153

MONTANA LAW REVIEW

1971 STRIP- MINING RECLAMATION REQUIREMENTS IN MONTANA --A CRITIQUE.

SAME AS AUTHOR 32(11:65 -79. REVISIONS PROPOSED FOP MONTANA S RECLAMATION ACT nF 1969 ARE. CONSIDERED. A LARGE LOOPHOLE IS DISCOVERED IN THE FACT THAT RECLAMATION IS TO BE DONE ON A CONTRACT BASIS BUT MO STANDARDS HAVE BEEN SET FOR THE LETTING OF CONTRACTS.

STRIP MTNES /COAL MINES /M11;E WASTES/ RECLAMATION /REVEGrTATION /ENERGY/ MONTANA /WATER POLLUTION /CONTRACTS

154

MOOMAU, H.F. /ZACHAR, F.R. /LEONARD, J.W.

1074 FEASIBILITY STUDY OF A NEW SURFACE MINING METHOD LONGWALL STR1 ?PING.

POTOMAC ENGINEERING AND SURVEYING CO., PETERS3URG, WEST VIRGINIA. EPA- 676/2 -74 -302. 74 P. SWRA W74- 30660.

LONGWALL STRIPPING IS A NEW SURFACE MINING CONCEPT DEVELOPED BY THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. LONGWALL STRIPPING ADAPTS EXISTING UNDERGROUND LONGWALL MINING TECHNOLOGY FOR USE IN RECOVERING SHALLOW COVER COAL WITHOUT THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH SURFACE MINTNG. THIS STUDY INVESTIGATES 1HE ENVIRONMENTAL, MINING AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF LONGWALL STRIPPING. 194

STRIP MINES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /TECHNOLOGY /COAL MINES /FEASIBILITY STUDIES

= IDENTIFIERS: /LONGWALL STRIPPING /U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTICN AGENCY

155

MOORE, R.E. /BARTON, C.J.

1973 OOSE ESTIMATIONS FOR THE HYPOTHETICAL USE OF NUCLEARLY STIMULATED NATURAL GAS IN THE CHEROKEE STEAM ELECTRIC STATION, DENVER, COLORADO.

OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORIES, OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE. 39 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS ORNL -TM -4026. SWRA W74- 04177.

WHOLE -BODY RADIATION DOSES TO MAN DUE TO TRITIUM WERE ESTIMATED FOR HYPOTHETICAL EXPOSURES TO STACK GASES DISCHARGED FROM THE CHEROKEE STEAM ELECTRIC STATION IN THE DENVER AREA BURNING 94 MILLION CUBIC FEET PER DAY OF NUCLEARLY STIMULATED NATURAL GAS CONTAINING 10 PCI PER CU CM OF TRITIUr1. THE HIGHEST DOSE THAT MIGHT BE RECEIVED BY ANY PERSON OUTSIDE THE PLANT AREA WAS ESTIMATED TO BE j.3ù56 MILLIREM PER YEAR. THIS VALUE INCLUDES 0.0047 AILLIREM PER YEAR ESTIMATED BY USE OF COMPUTER PROGRAM, STACKDOSE 2, TO RESULT FROM THE INITIAL EXPOSURE TO THE PLUMES FROM THE STACKS. STACKDOSE 2 CALCULATES THE TRITIUM CONCENTRATION EVERY 100 METERS FROM THE PLANT STACKS IN THE PREDOMINANT WIND DIRECTION ANO THE CORRESPONDING DOSE FROM INHALATION AND SKIN ABSORPTION OF TRITIATED WATER VAPOR. IT ALSO IDENTIFIES THE LOCATION OF MAXIMUii EXPOSURE. (ORNL)

TRITIUM /HYDROGEN /RADIOACTIVITY /EFFLUENTS /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS/ POPULATION /PUBLIC HEALTH /ABSORPTION /TOXICITY /NATURAL GAS /COLORADO/ NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /UNDERGROUND SECONDARY RECOVF_RY(OILI /COMPUTER PROGRAMS

= IDENTIFIERS: /CHEROKEE STEAM ELECTRIC STATION, DENVER, COLORADO

156

MORTON, R.C.B.

1972 STRIP -MINING REFORM- -SOME POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC IDEAS.

ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS 2(21:294 -303.

THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR CONTENDS THAT ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS ARE NOT INCOMPATIBLE. A TOTAL -APPROACH BASIS SUCH AS THE ADMINISTRATION -RECOMMENDED MINED AREA PROTECTION ACT OF 1971 WILL SET UP COOPERATION BETWEEN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND THE STATES IN CREATING REGULATIONS FOR SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND MINING. THE SECRETAPY BELIEVES THAT RECLAMATION OF MINED LAND SHOULD BEGIN BEFORE MINING IS CONCLUDED. STRESSING THE ADVANTAGES OF A TOTAL SYSTEMS APPROACH, MORTON REVIEWS FEDERAL EFFORTS IN THE FOUR CORNERS AREA.

STRIP MINES /COAL MINES /LAND RFCLAMATION /REVEGETATION /WATER POLLUTION /LAND RESOURCES /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ECONOMIC IMPACT /LEGISLATION /SOUTHWEST U.S.

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /MINED AREA PROTECTION ACT 195

157

MUFFLER, L.J.P.

1973

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. IN D.A. BROBST AND E.P. PRATT, EDS., UNITED STATES MINERAL RESOURCES. P. 251 -261.

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, PROFESSIONAL PAPER 820. NSF -RANN ENERGY ABSTRACTS 1(1C)2343.

THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES BASE IS DEFINED AS ALL THE HEAT ABOVE 15 DEGREES C.IN THE EARTH S CRUST, BUT ONLY A SMALL PART OF THIS BASE CAN PROPERLY BE CONSIDERED ASA RESOURCE. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE DEPENDS ON THE EVALUATION OF MANY PHYSICAL, TECHNOLOGICAL, ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND GOVERNMENTAL FACTORS. THE PHYSICAL FACTORS THAT CONTROL THE DISTRIBJTION OF HEAT AT DEPTH CAN BE EVALUATED, AT LEAST RUDELY. MORE TENUOUS ARE THE ASSUMPTIONS OF TECHNOLOGY, ECONGMICG, ANO GOVERNMENTAL POLICY. THESE ASSUMPTIONS ARE CRITICAL TO GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE ESTIMATION, AND DIFFERENCES AMONG THEM ARE IN GREAT PART RESPONSIBLE FOR THE VAST RANGE IN MAGNITUDE AMONG DIFFERENT GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE ESTIMATES. UTILIZATION OF A GREATER PROPORTION OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE BASE DEPENDS ON ACHIEVING ONE OR MORE OF THE FOLLOWING ITEMS: 1) TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES THAT WOULD ALLOW ELECTRICAL GENERATION FROM LOW- TEMPERATURE RESERVOIRS: 2) BREAKTHROUGHS IN DRILLING TECHNOLOGY THAT WOULD PERMIT LOW -COST DRILLING OF HOLES TO DEPTHS GREATER THAN 3 KILOMETERS; 3) DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES OF ARTIFICIAL STIMULATION THAT WOULD INCREASE THE PRODUCTIVITY OF GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS: AND 4) EXPANSION OF THE USE OF LOW -GRADE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES FOR SUCH PURPOSES AS SPACE HEATING, PRODUCT PROCESSING, AGRICULTURE, AND DESALINATION. (AUTHOR)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ENERGY CONVERSION /EVALUATION /RESOURCE INVENTORY/ GOVERNMENTS

158

MUNN, R.F.

1973

STRIP MINING, AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY.

WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY. MORGANTOWN. 110 P. SWRA W73- 13709.

CONTAINS 611 REFERENCES TO AID THOSE INTERESTED IN THE HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT, AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH STRIP MINING OF COAL IN THE UNITED STATES. REFERENCES TO OTHER APPLICATIONS OF STRIP MINING I.E., IRON ORE, BAUXITE, ETC., HAVE BEEN EXCLUDED AS HAVE REFERENCES TO OPERATIONS OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES. THE INCREASING ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF THE COUNTRY AND THE SHORTAGE OF OTHER FUELS MAKE NATIONWIDE ABOLITION OF STRIPPING SEEM UNLIKELY IN THE NEAR FUTURE. THUS DISPUTES OVER PRACTICES AND POLICIES WILL CONTINUE. THERE WILL DOUBTLESS BE SOME VARIATIONS IN BOTH THEME AND TONE. FOR EXAMPLE, MUCH OF THE STRIPPING MAY SHIFT FROM APPALACHIA TO THE NESTERÑ PLAINS. HOWEVER. THE BASIC CONCERNS, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL, WILL REMAIN. (USGS)

STRIP MINES/ COALS / BIBLIOGRAPHIES /DOCUMENTATION /ABSTRACTS /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /LEGAL ASPECTS /ECONOMICS /MINING /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 196

159 MYBURGH, R.I.D. MCC

1971

THE WATER PROJECTS OF THE NAMID D[S?RT.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE 67(31:152 -156. SWRA W72- 01475.

THE NAMIR DESERT IS ONE OF THE TRUE DESERTS OF THE WORLD, WITH AVERAGE RIINFALL VARYING OVER 0 -1G0 MILLIMETERS. 1URING PREVIOUS GEOLOGICAL ERAS, RIVERS CEBOUCHING FROM THE INTERIOR FORMED EXTENSIVE DELTAS, ANO LATER, PP=VAILING STITHFBLY i(INTS, CARRYING COASTAL BEACH SANDS, FORMED THE COASTAL DUNE PELT. WEAK RIVERS ARE COMPLETELY SWALLOWED BY THE DUNES. WATER DEVELOPMENT IN THE NAMIB HAS REQUIRED EXTREME INGENUITY. STARTING FROM TOE ORANGE RIVER IN THE SOUTH AND PROCEEDING TO THE CUNFN RIVER ON THE ANGOLAN 3ORCER, THE VARIOUS WATER PROJECTS ON THE NAMIDI ARE DESCRIBED. THE PROJECTS INCLUDE SEA WATER DISTILLATION, EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL OASES, TU3E WELLS IN THE DUNES, AND DEVELOPMENT OF LARGE WATER SUPPLIES BENEATH THE DESEET SANDS. THESE WATER PROJECTS WILL EVENTUALLY SUPPORT MODERN TU NS, INDUSTRIES AND MINERAL EXPLOITATION, BUT WILL NOT YIELD ENOUGH +CATER FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. SUCH PROJECTS MUST BE CAREFULLY PLANNED TO ENSURE MINIMAL DISTURBANCE OF THE NATURAL DESERT ENVIRONMENT BECAUSE OF ITS TOURISM POTENTIALITIES. (OALS)

ARIO LANDS /DUNES /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER SUPPLY /WATER RESOURCES /GEOMORPHOLOGY /CESERTS /RIVETS /WELLS /MINIt.G /REGIONAL ANALYSIS/ /HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS /WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT

= IDENTIFIERS: /OASES /KALAHARI- NA.MIB /NAMIBIA

160

NAS IM, M.

1970 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF KARACHI NUCLEAR POWER PLANT.

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY SYMPOSIUM 1A6 -51, P. 761-789. 1 P. SWRA W71- 09236.

TO ENSURE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL DOSE LIMITS FOR ROUTINE EXPOSURES ARE NOT EXCEEDED, A PROGRAM FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEY OF THE SITE HAS BEEN STARTED. ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEILLANCE DATA WOULD ALSO BE USED AS A BASIS FOP ESTIMATING POPULATION EXPOSURE. THE PROGRAM IS BASICALLY DIRECTED AT THE IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLE ROUTES (EXPOSURE PATHWAYS) OF CONTAMINATION TO THE POPULATION. THESE INCLUDE AIR AND WATER PATHWAYS ANO FISH AND AGRICULTURAL CROPS.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /EFFLUENTS /POLLUTANTS /PATH OF POLLUTANTS /SURFACE WATERS /WATER POLLUTION CONTROL /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /RADIATION/ RADIOISOTOPES /POPULATION /FOOD CHAINS /DIETS /OCEANS

= IDENTIFIERS :/PAKISTAN 197

161

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING, TASK FORCE ON ENERGY

1974

U.S. ENERGY PROSPECTS: AN ENGINEERING VIEWPOINT.

SAME AS AUTHOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. 141. P. WHILE ENERGY INDEPENDENCE IN A SINGLE DECADE IS THEORETICALLY POSSIBLE, SUCH A GOAL WILL INVOLVE UNDESIRABLE GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION AND ENORMOUS EFFORT. TO H_TGHTEN OIL AND NATURAL GAS EXTRACTION BY 1985 WILL REQUIRE 185 BILLION DOLLARS. GIL SHALE EXPLOITATION IS MORE A QUESTION BECAUSE TECHNIOULS TO RECLAIM TAILINGS AREAS IN WAYS THAT ARE ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND ARE PRESENTLY UNKNOWN OR UNCERTAIN. COAL RESERVES CAN THEORETICALLY SUPPLY ENERGY TO THE U.S. FOR CENTURIES, BUT LARGE AMOUNTS OF CAPITAL ARE NFEPED FOR NEW MINES, FUR TRANSPORT (UNIT- TRAINS) AND CONVERSION PLANTS TO PRODUCE COAL GAS AND ELECTRICITY. SEVERAL BASIC FACTS MUST IF RECOGNIZED ANO DEALT WITH IF SELF- SUFFICIENCY IN ENERGY IS TO BE ACHIEVED BY 1985. FOR EXAMPLE, IT WILL TAKE 500 TO 600 BILLION DOLLARS FOR NECESSARY PRODUCTION FACILITIES. COAL AND OIL SHALE EXPLOITATION ARE LIMITED BY THE LACK OF WATER IN THE WEST; LAND RECLAMATIONANO SULFUR REMOVAL DURING COMBUSTION MUST BE ACHIEVED IF THE ENVIRONMENT IS TO BE PROTECTED; A SUBSTANTIAL NUMBER OF TRAINED WORKERS WILL BE NECESSARY TO EXECUTE THE PROGRAMS PROPOSED.

ENERGY /NATURAL GAS /OIL /OIL SHALES /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /WATER DEMAND /ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS/ RECLAMATION /COSTS /FORECASTING /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION

162

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1972

SOLAR ENERGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: PERSPECTIVES AND PROSPECTS. REPORT OF AN AD HOC ADVISORY PANEL OF THE BOARD ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. OFFICE OF THE FOREIGN SECRETARY.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 49 P.

THE PAPER UNDERTAKES TO ASSESS THE STATE OF THE ART IN UTILIZING SOLAR ENERGY FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: TO REVIEW CURRENT PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: TO IDENTIFY PROMISING AREAS FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT; AND TO EXAMINE THE DESIRABILITY OF ESTAdLISHING AN INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ENERGY INSTITUTE IN NORTH AFRICA, TO CARRY OUT SOLAR ENERGY RESEARCH ANO DEVELOPMENT. CONCLUSIONS DRAWN INDICATE THAT ESSENTIAL PROBLEMS ARE ENERGY PROBLEMS. NOT SOLAR. AND THAT SOLUTIONS REQUIRE CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES. THE STATUS ANO POTENTIAL OF SUCH APPLICATIONS 3F SOLAR ENERGY AS EVAPORATION, WATER HEATING. DISTILLATION, AND DRYING, ALREADY IN USE ANO 'HOSE STILL IN EXPERIMENTAL STAGES, SUCH AS SPACE HEATING, AIR CONDITIONING, CONVERSION TO MECHANICAL OR ELECTRICAL ENERGY, COOKING, AND BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES ARE DISCUSSED. 198

ENERGY /SOLAR DISTILLATION: /ENERGY CONVERSION /AL1EPNATTVE PLANNING

=IDENTIFItRS:/SOLAP cNrRGY/SOLAR LNrRGY APPLICATIO(!S/SULAR COOK_RS/ SOLAR WATER HEATE.RS/N04TH AHRICA/ALTE RIJATIV:_ LN' TWA ;OUNCES

163 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIEICES

1974 REHABILITATION POTENTIAL OF WESTERN COAL LANDS. A REPORT TO THE ENERGY POLICY PROJECT OF THE FORD FOUNDATION.

BALLING_R PUBLISHING CO., CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. 197 P.

MORE THAN HALF OF THE NATION S REMAINING COAL RESOURCES LIE IN THE WEST, AND MUCH OF THIS COAL IS IN REGIONS WHERE REHABILITATION OF THE STRIP- t1INED LAND IS EITHER DIFFICULT OR IMPOSSIBLE. ALSO, SUFFICIENT WATER FOR BOTH MINING AND REHARILITATIO"1 OF STRIPPED LAND WILL BE AVAILABLE ONLY IF ENERGY CONVERSION PLANTS ARE LOCATED IN MORE HUMID AREAS OF THE NATION. BASICALLY, THE REPORT FINDS 13 INCHES OE RAINFALL PER ANNUM AS THE ABSOLUTE MINIMUM NECLSSA?Y FOR REHABILITATION TO HAVE ANY EFFECT AT ALL, AND READER S CCNMENTS APPENDED TO THE REPORT CALL THIS FIGURE INTO SERIOUS QUESTION. OVERALL. THE REPORT CONCLUDES THAT SOME SECTIONS OF THE WEST CAN POSSIBLY HE REHABILITATED IF NEW STATE AND FEDERAL LAWS ARE PASSED, CONSCIENTIOUS MANAGEMENT IS APPLIED, SUFFICIENT RAINFALL AND GOOD SOIL EXIST. AND THE WHOLE PROCESS IS SEEN AS A LONG -TER,1 AFFAIG. AREAS LACKING THESE CONDITIONS CANNOT BE RECLAIMED. THUS, EXPLOITATION OF WESTERN COAL LANDS IS PLACED IN A SOBERING PERSPECTIVE.

REHABILITATION /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /COALS /NATURAL RESOURCES/ RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER REQUIREMENTS /STRIP MINES /ENERGY CONVERSION /POWERPLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /FORD FOUNDATION. ENERGY POLICY PROJECT

164 NATIONAL PETROLEUM COUNCIL, COMMITTEE ON THE U.S. ENERGY OUTLOOK

1972 AN INITIAL APPRAISAL BY THE OIL SHALE TASK GROUP, 1971 -19P5. IN U.S. ENERGY OUTLOOK, AN INTERIM REPORT BY THE OTHER ENERGY RESOURCES SUBCOMMITTEE.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 122 P. OIL SHALE DEPOSITS IN THE WEST CAN BE DEVELOPED IF ADEQUATE WATER IS PROVIDED ANO GOVERNMENT RESERVES ARE OPENED TO EXPLOITATION. THE STUDY REVIEWS OPEN PIT MINING. UNDERGROUND MINING. ?ETORTING, ANO WASTE OISPOSAL. THE TASK GROUP URGES THAT WATER HE ()MAINE() FOR OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT BEFORE 1983, AT WHICH DATE PROJECTS BY THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTFRIUR WILL PROBABLYHAVE EXPROPRIATED SUkrACE RESOURCES REMAINING IN THE REGION. THE PROBLEM or DISPOSING OF SOLID WASTES IS SOLVED BY FILLING IN BOX CANYONS AND OTHER TOPOGRAPHICAL DEPRESSIONS. 199

OIL SHALES/LAND RECLAMATION /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WAS1E DISPOSAL /MINERAL INDUSTRY /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /WATER POLLUTION/ COLORADO /WYOMING /UTAH /OIL WASTES /REVEGETATION /COLORADO RIVER BASIN

= IDENTIFIERS: /REFINING OPERATIONS

165 NATIONAL PETROLEUM COUNCIL, COMMITTEE ON THE U.S. ENERGY OUTLOOK

1972 U.S. ENERGY OUTLOOK, AN INTERIM REPORT: AN INITIAL APPRAISAL BY THE NEW ENERGY FORMS TASK GROUP, 1971 -1985.

SAME AS AUTHOR, OTHER ENERGY RESOURCES SUBCOMMITTEE, WASHINGTON,D.C. 91 P. ONE OF EIGHT VOLUMES IN A SERIES OF REPORTS, THIS STUDYREVIEWS THE POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE POWER SOURCES BETWEEN 1971 -1985. AS A QUICK OVERVIEW OF THESE RESOURCES (HYDROELECTRIC, GEOTHERMAL, ENERGY FROM AGRICULTURE, SOLAR, TIDAL, FUEL CELLS, THERMIONICS, MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS) THE REPORT IS THIN IN SPOTS 9UT SUCCEEDS AS AN INDICATION OF THE ENERGY INDUSTRIES APPRAISAL OF NOVEL METHODS OF PRODUCING ENERGY. GENERALLY, THE INDUSTRY TAKES A DIM VIEW OF THESE RESOURCES. FOR EXAMPLE, SOLAR ENERGY IS SEEN AS A SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCE TO BE TAPPED SOMETIME IN THE NEXT CENTURY.

ENERGY CONVERSION /HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES /ALTERNATIVE ENERGYSOURCES /SOLAR ENERGY

166

NETSCHERT, B.C.

1971

THE ENERGY COMPANY: A MONOPOLY TRENO IN THE ENERGY MARKETS.

BULLETIN OF THE ATOMIC SCIENTISTS 27(81 :13 -17.

THIS IS PART OF A STATEMENT BEFORE THE U.S. SENATE SUBCOMMITTEE ON ANTITRUST AND MONOPOLY OF THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY. IT ASSERTS THAT HORIZONTAL ACQUISITIONS IN THE POWER INDUSTRY THREATEN COMPETITION. THERE IS A STRONG UPWARD PRICE PRESSURE IN ALL OF THE FUELS MARKETS, AND HORIZONTAL EXPANSION ELIMINATES THE COUNTERVAILING POWER OF INTE.'FUEL COMPETITION. THIS COULD MEAN THAT THE EMERGENCE OF NEW INDUSTRIES 9ASED ON NEW POWER SOURCES COULD BE CONSIDERABLY DELAYED.

FUELS /ENERGY /INDUSTRIES /ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY /UTILITIES /COMPETITION /PRICES /COMPETITIVE PRICES /OIL INDUSTRY /NUCLEAR ENERGY /POWER MARKETING /MONOPOLY /REGULATION 200

167

NEUMANN, J.

1968

SOLAR LAKES ANO SOLAR ENERGY.

NATURE 219(5156):851 -hE2.

A RECENTLY DISCOVEPFD SOLAR LAKE ON THE SHORES OF THE GULF OF A0A3A, RED SEA. ZO KILDETEGS SOUTH OF FTLAT IS DESCRIBED AS ALAKE CHA.RACTEEIZED OY A VERY SHARP INCREASE Or SALINITY AYOCONSEOUENTLY, OF DENSITY WITH DEPTH, r+TTH THE RESULT THAT A LAYER Or HIGH STATIC STABILITY IS PRODUCED NEAR THE BOTTOM. THE FORMATION OF A LAYER PREVENTS A LEVEL OE TURBULENCE., THUS ELIV.IUATING At, E1FECTIVEAGENCY A C ( G HA) tRE.I F L C * tION, IID U ST FO Xn (TED T1'D 1 2 3 4 5 E ONE OF FIGHT VOLUMES I'dA SERIES OF RETORTS, THIS STUDY REVIEWS THE POSSIBLE DEVELOPvENT OF ALTERNATIVE POWE::R SOURCES HETWr =EN 1971 -1985. AS A QUICK OVERVIEW OF THESE RESOURDES (KYDROE:LECT IC,GEOTHERMAL, ENERGY FR011 AGRICULTURE. SOLAR, TIDAL, FUEL CELLS, THERMIONIGS, MAGNETOHYDROOYNANI S) THE REPORT IS THIN IM SPOTS BUT SUCCEEDSAS AN INDICATION OF THE ENERGY INDUSTRIES APPRAISAL OF NOVEL METHODSOF PRODUCING ENERGY. GENERALLY, THE INDUSTRY TAKES A DIM VIEW OF THESE RESOURCES. FOR EXAMPLE, SOLAR ENERGY IS SEEN AS A SUPPLEMENTARY SOUFCE TO BE TAPPED SOì1ETIME IN THE NEXT CENTURY.

ENERGY CONVERSION /HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS : /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES /ALTERNATIVEENERGY SOURCES /SOLAR ENERGY

166

NETSCHERT, B.C.

1971 THE ENERGY COMPANY: A MONOPOLY TREND IN THE ENERGY MARKETS.

BULLETIN OF THE ATOMIC SCIENTISTS 27(81 :13 -17.

THIS IS PART OF A STATEMENT BEFORE THE U.S. SENATE SUHC :OMMITT_ECiN ANTITRUST AND MONOPOLY OF THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY. IT ASSERTS THAT HORIZONTAL ACQUISITIONS IN THE POWER INDUSTRYTHFEATEEN COMPETITION. THERE ISA. STRONG UPWARD PRICE PRESSURA IN ALL OF THE FUELS MARKETS. AND HORIZONTAL EXPANSION, ELIMINATES THE COUNTERVAILING POWER OF INTERFUEL COMPETITION. THIS COULD MEAN THAT THE EMERGENCE OF NEW INDUSTRIES BASED ON NEW POWER SOURCES COULD BE CONSIDERABLY DELAYED.

FUELS /ENERGY /INDUSTRIES /ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY /UTILITIES /COMPETITION /PRICES /COMPETITIVE PRICES /OIL INDUSTRY /NUCLEAR ENERGY /POWERMARKETING /MONOPOLY /REGULATION 201

167

NEUMANN, J.

1968

SOLAR LAKES AND SOLAR ENERGY.

NATURE 219(51561:851 -852.

A RECENTLY DISCOVERED SOLAR LAKE ON THE SHORES OF THE GULF OF AQABA, REU SEA, 20 KILOMETERS SOUTH OF EILAT IS DESCRIBED AS A LAKE CHARACTERIZED BY A VERY SHARP INCREASE OF SALINITY. AND CONSEQUENTLY, OF DENSITY WITH DEPTH, WITH THE RESULT THAT A LAYER OF HIGH STATIC STABILITY IS PRODUCED NEAR THE BOTTOM. THE FORMATION OF A LAYER PREVENTS A LEVEL OF TURBULENCE, THUS ELIMINATING AN EFFECTIVE AGENCY FOR HEAT CONDUCTION. IT IS THEREFORE EXPECTED THAT MUCH OF THE SOLAR RADIATION ABSORBED IN THE STABLE LAYER WILL BE TRAPPED THERE ANO MAY BECOME AN ENERGY SOURCE. MEASUREMENT OF THE AMOUNT OF SOLAR RADIATION PENETRATING BELOW THE WATER SURFACE TN THE AREA OF THE NORTHERN GULF OF AQABA DURING THE WHOLE OF AN AVERAGE FEBRUARY IS ESTIMATED ATABOUT 10,000 LY (IY= LANGLEY, 1 LY =1 CALORIE PER SQUARE CENTIMETER) ANDAS MUCH AS 1E,5J0 LY. THE AUTHOR EMPHASIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF EFFORTS AT REDUCING THE EVAPORATION RATE FROM SOLAR LAKES IF THE HEAT EXTRACTION FROM THE STABLE LAYER IS TO AMOUNT TO AN IMPORTANT FRACTION OF THE SOLAR RADIATION INCIDENT ON THE WATER SURFACE. IT IS CONCLUDED THAT THE DATA PRESENTED QUALITATIVELY APPLIES TO THE REMAINING MONTHS OF THE ANNUAL CYCLE.

SALINE LAKES /SOLAR RADIATION /ABSORPTION /WATER TEMPERATURE/ TEMPERATURE

= IDENTIFIERSS /SOLAR ENERGY /ARABIAN PENINSULA

168 NEVADA DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES, CARSON CITY

1971

WATER FOR NEVADA. II: ESTIMATED WATER USE IN NEVADA.

SAME AS AUTHOR. WATER PLANNING REPORT 2. 32 P. SWRA W71- 12743.

TOTAL WATER WITHDRAWAL IN NEVADA HAS INCREASED FROM 4.1 MILLION ACRE - FEET IN 1950 TO ABOUT 4.6 MILLION ACRE -FEET IN 1969. OEMAND IS CONTINUING TO BOOM BECAUSE OF A RAPID POPULATION GROWTH AND CONTINUING AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION. THIS STUDY IS ONE PORTION OF THE INVENTORY PHASE OF THE STATE WATER PLAN. A DEETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF PAST WATER USAGE ALONG WITH ACCURATE ESTIMATES OF CURRENT DEMAND WILL FACILITATE PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE STATE WATER ROUIREHENTS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF USES. THE 3 PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF WATER IN NEVADA ARE STREAMS, SPRINGS AND WELLS. THE MAJOR CATEGORIES OF USE ARE IRRIGATION, PUBLIC SUPPLY, INDUSTRIAL, HYDROELECTRIC POWER AND RURAL PURPOSES. A BRIEF SKETCH IS GIVEN OF NEVAOA HISTORY RELATIVE TO WATER USE. CURRENT ESTIMATES OF WATER USE ARE THEN GIVEN FOR EACH 0= THE USE CATEGORIES, INCLUEING DESCRIPTIONS AND DATA ON THE RELEVANT HYDROGRAPHIC BASINS. OF THE TOTAL 4.6 MILLION ACRE -FEET WITHDRAWN IN 1969, ABOUT 1 MILLION ACRE - FEET WAS FOR NON -CONSUMPTIVE USE, MAINLY HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION. OF THE 3.6 MILLION ACRE -FEET REMAINING, ABOUT 1.7 MILLION ACRE -FEET WAS CONSUMED. THE REST WAS RETURNED TO NATURAL SOURCES WHERE IT WAS EITHER REUSED OR LOST BY EVAPORATION. BETWEEN 1965 -1969, RURAL USE (LIVESTOCK AND DOMESTIC) DECREASED SLIGHTLY, IRRIGATION (THE LARGEST CONSUMPTIVE USEZ INCREASED BY LESS THAN 1 PERCENT AND HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION BY 4 PERCENT. BY CONTRAST, PUBLIC SUPPLY SOARED BY ABOUT 45 PERCENT AND SELF -SUPPLIED INDUSTRIAL USE BY ABOUT 25 PERCENT. DETAILED TABLES ARE INCLUDED OF WATER USE DATA BY COUNTIES ANO HYDROGRAPHIC REGIONS. (OALS1 202

NEVADA /WITHDRAWAL /WATER DEMAND /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /PRIORITIES /HISTORY /ARI) LANDS /WATER TYPES /WATER USERS /ESTIMfTING /GROUNDWATER/ HYDROELECTRIC POWER /SURFACE WATERS /RECREATION /STEAMS /WELLS /SPRINGS/ IRRIGATION /WATER CONSUMPTION(FXCLUDES CONSUMPTIVE US=) /NON -CONSUMPTIVE USE /WATER LOSS /COMPETING USES /CONJUNCTIVE USE /INDUSTRIAL WATER

159

NEW MEXICO STATE ENGINEER OFFICE /NEW MEXICO INTERSTATE COMMISSION

1967

WATER RESOURCES OF NEW MEXICO: OCCURRENCE, DEVELOPMENT, AND USE.

SAME AS AUTHOR. SANTA FE. 321 P. SWRA W7307786. THIS REPORT WAS PREPARED AS A CONTRIBUTION TO THE NEW MEXICO RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT °LAN. AN INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY OUTLINES STATEWIDE WATER CONDITIONS. OTHERWISE, THE DATA PRESENTED IN THE REPORT ARE GROUPED ACCORDING TO THE NINE MAJOR SURFACE -WATER DRAINAGE AREAS OF THE STATE. THESE DRAINAGES ARE: ARKANSAS RIVER BASIN, SOUTHERN HIGH PLAINS, PECOS RIVER BASIN, CENTRAL CLOSED BASINS, RIO GRANDE BASIN, WESTERN CLOSED BASINS, SAN JUAN RIVER BASIN, LOWER COLORADRO RIVER BASIN, AND SOUTHWESTERN CLOSED BASINS. FACH BASIN REPORT IS DIVIDED INTO TWO MAJOR SECTIONS, ONE PART DEALS WITH GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, AND HYDROLOGY, THE OTHER CONCERNS THE HISTORY OF SETTLEMENT, DEVELOPMENT. AND WATER USE. THE REPORT IS AMPLY SUPPLIED WITH EXPLANATORY FIGURES ANO TABLES. (OALS)

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER SJPPLY /PLANNING /NEW MEXICO/ HYDROLOGY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /RIO GRANDE /ARID LANDS /GEOLOGY /SEMIARID CLIMATES /RIVER BASINS /RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT /SURFACE WATERS/ GROUNDWATER /GROUNDWATER CASINS /WATER UTILIZATION /WATER RESOURCES/ NATURAL RESOURCES /CONSUMPTIVE USE

= IDENTIFIERS: /ARKANSAS RIVER BASIN /PECOS RIVER BASIN /SAN JUAN RIVER BASIN

170

NIELSEN, E.

1973

COASTAL EROSION IN THE NILE DELTA.

NATURE AND RESOURCES 9(11:14 -18. SWRA W73- 13681.

FOLLOWING THE PLANNING AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ASWAN HIGH DAM. CLOSED OFF IN 1964, EGYPTIAN SCIENTISTS HAVE HAD TO CONSIDER THE QUESTION OF THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE CHANGES TO THE NILE VALLEY AND TO THE NILE DELTA AND ITS SHORES. THAT WOULD RESULT FROM IMPOUNDING THE SEASONAL NILE FLOOD WATERS WITH THEIR SEDIMENT LOAD IN THE .DAM RESERVOIR (LAKE NASSER). THE OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT PHASE OF THE PROJECT. APPROVED BY THE UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM, IS TO ASSIST THE GOVERNMENT IN CARRYING OJT A COMPREHENSIVE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE CAUSES OF COASTAL EROSION IN THE NILE DELTA AREA. ANO IN THE PREPARATION OF A PLAN FOR COASTAL PROTECTION WORKS, INCLUDING RECOMMENDATIONS FOP DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. OPERATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT BY THE PROJECT WILL PROVIDE FOR: A)A DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE NILE DELTA SHORE IN TERMS OF GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY AS WELL AS HYDRAULIC, LITTORAL DRIFT ANO EROSION CONDITIONS: ANO B) ON THE BASIS OF EVALUATION OF THE DATA, RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE REQUIRED COASTAL PROTECTION WORKS. (USGS) 203

SOIL EROSION /COASTS /DELTAS /AFRICA /FLOOD PLAINS / EROSIOtN CONTROL /RIVER BASINS/ DAN ,S /RESEFVOIRS /ENVIRCNMENTAL EFFECTS /STREANFLO'W /DATA COLLECTIONS /BANK EROSION /NILE DELTA /LITTORAL DRIFT /BEACH EROSION

=TOENTIFIERS: /SEDIMENT TRANSPORT /ASWAN HIGH DAM /EGYPT /COASTAL TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES

171

NOVICK, S.

1969

THE CARELESS ATOM.

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY, BOSTON. 225 P. THIS AUTHOR BELIEVES THAT NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS ARE TOO DANGEROUS TO HUMANS TO JUSTIFY THEIR EXISTENCE. A MAJOR BREAKOuWN IN ONE REACTOR COULD RESULT IN THOUSANDS OF DEATHS ANO CONTAMINATE THE SURROUNDING AREA FOR CENTURIES. A SPECK OF PLUTONIUM, THE BASIC FUEL OF THE BREEDER REACTOR, CAN CAUSE LUNG CANCER. TONS OF THIS MATERIAL WILL BE IN CONSTANT SHIPMENT IF THE BREEDER PROGRAM IS CARRIED OUT. WASTE DISPOSAL PROBLEMS WITH PLUTONIUM REQUIRE THOUSANDS OF YEARS OF VIGILANCE, OR IN HUMAN TERMS, FOREVER. THUS, EXPANSION OF NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION WILL BIND FUTURE GENERATIONS TO THE SYSTEM WITH NO POSSIBILITY OF ESCAPE SINCE THE LETHAL WASTES WILL HAVE TO BE GUARDED FOR MILLENIA. THE SAFETY PROBLEM COULD BRING INTO BEING A POLICE STATE. IN VIEW OF THE KNOWN DANGERS IT IS FAR MORE SENSIBLE TO SOLVE THE POLLUTION PROBLEMS OF CONVENTIONAL POWER SYSTEMS AND INVEST IN RESEARCH IN ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES SUCH AS SOLAR POWER, ETC.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /NUCLEAR REACTORS/ RADIOACTIVE WASTES /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /SAFETY /URANIUM RADIOISOTOPES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

=IDENTIFIERS : /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION /PROJECT PLOWSHARE

172

NUCLEAR INDUSTRY

1971

WEST COAST UTILITIES LOOK FOR INLAND NUCLEAR PLANT SITES.

SAME AS AUTHOR 18(8):24-30.

WEST COAST UTILITIES. ABANDONING COASTAL SITES FOR NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS BECAUSE OF PROBLEMS WITH EARTHQUAKES AND PROBLEMS WITH ENVIRONMENTALISTS, ARE TURNING INLAND. THE LOS ANGELES WATER AND POWER DEPARTMENT HAS DECIDED UPON A 2150 ACRE LOCATION IN THE FOOTHILLS OF THE SIERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS IN TULARE COUNTY. CALIFORNIA. PORTLAND GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY IS LOOKING AT SITES IN EASTERN OREGON. A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE PROPOSED NUCLEAR FOWERPLANTS OF UTILITIES ON BOTH COASTS SHOWS THEM MIRED IN CONTROVERSY OVER SITING AND CONSTRUCTION.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /SAFETY /RADIOACTIVE WASTES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /WATER POLLUTION/ THERMAL POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /WATER REQUIREMENTS /SITES 204

173

NUCLEAR NEWS

1971 REPORT ON A PLOWSHARE GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT.

SAME AS AUTHOR 14(7):33 -34.

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES CAN RE USED TO FRACTURE LARGE OJANTITIES OF HOT ROCKS. THEN BY FIPING WATER TO THERMAL ZONE, STEAM WO'JLO BE GENERATED CAPABLE OF RUNNING A TURBINE GENERATOR AND PRODUCING ELECTRICITY. A CLOSED SYSTLm IS ENVISIONED WITH THE STFAH BEING CONDENSED AND RECYCLED BACK TO THE THERMAL REGION.SEVERAL PRIMARY PROBLEMS REMAIN TO OE SOLVED: 1) IMPROVED TECÜNJLOGY IS ,NEEDED IN FINDING HOT RUCK BEDS, 2) SUITAji.E NUCLEAR 3DMBS MUST 3E DEVELOPED, 3) SCIENTISTS MUST BECOME MORE KNOWLEDGEA3LE IN FLUID FLDW METHODS IN HOT ROCK ZONES, 4) AND NEW WAYS MUST BE FOUND TO CONTROL CORROSION OF THE TURBINE BLADES BY MINERAL DEPOSITS FROM THE STEAM. THUS. THE SCHEME IS YET ANOTHER POSSIBLE BUT UNDEMONSTRATED OUTLET FOR THE PEACEFUL USE OF NUCLEAR BOMBS.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /UNDERGROUND /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS/ /ENERGY CONVERSION /LAND RESOURCES /EXPLORATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION /PROJECT PLOWSHARE

174 OAK RIGGE NATIONAL LABORATORIES

1972

AN INVENTORY OF ENERGY RESEARCH. 2 VOLS.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1724 P. THIS REPORT PQFPAREO FOR THE TASK FORCE CN ENERGY OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT, U.S. HOUSE OF RE °RESENTATIVES, CONTAINS ALL THE DATA COLLECTED ON FEDERAL ENERGY PESEARCH AS WELL AS THE INFORMATION OF AN EARLIER INVENTORY BY BOOZ, ALLEN, AND HAMILTON, INC. EACH OF THE 44GG RESEARCH PROJECTS IS LISTED BY TITLE UNDER ONE OF 14 CATAGON.IES: FOSSIL FUELS (GENERAL); COAL; PETROLEUM; NATURAL GAS: NUCLEAR (GENERAL): NUCLEAR FISSION: NUCLEAR FUSION AND PLASMAS; HYDRAULIC; SOLAR; GEOTHERMAL; WIND; WOOD; AND OTHER BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL, UNSPECIFIED ENERGY SOURCES.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES /ENERGY CONVERSION /NUCLEAR ENERGY /FUELS /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /COALS /NATURAL GAS /FOSSIL FUELS /OIL

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /WINO POWER /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

175

OBERWAGER, D.

1973 AFTER COAL-WHAT.

SOIL CONSERVATIONIST 38(9):198-200. 205

LAND STRIP -MINED IN WYOMING HAS SEEN RECLAIMED, WITH LARGE STRETCHES OF GRASSLANDS ONCE SURFACE -MINED RETURNED TO ADEQUATE GRAZING AREAS FOP WILDLIFE. SCIENTISTS ANO SOIL EXPERTS RECOVERED THE SCARRED LAND WITH FRESH LAYERS OF TOPSOIL WHICH WERE THEN SEEDED AND NURTURED. SOON VEGETATION RETURNED. PERHAPS ON THE BASIS OF THIS EXAMPLE THERE IS REASON TO HOPE THAT OTHER SCARRED APEAS OF THE WEST CAN BE RECLAIMED.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /COALS /LAND RECLAMATION /EROSION /FERTILIZATION/ /PLANTING MANAGEMENT / WYOMING /GRASSLANDS /PEVEGETATION

176

0 BRIEN, J.J.

1972 GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES AS A SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY.

AMERICAN WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION, JOURNAL 64(111 :694 -700. SWRA W73- 12333.

THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF WATER FLOWING IN THE COLORADO RIVER IS NOT ADEQUATE FOR THE DEMANDS SEING MADE; THEREFORE, THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN ACT OF 1968 DIRECTED THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR TO EXPLORE ALTERNATIVES FOR INCREASING THE ANNUAL RIVER FLOW BY 2.5 MILLION ACRE -FEET. THE BUREAU OF RECLAMATION (USBR) AND OFFICE OF SALIN= WATER (OSW) ARE INVOLVED TN DETERMINING THE ENGINEERING AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF OBTAINING FRESHWATER BY DESALTING GEOTHERMAL BRINES UNDERLYING THE IMPERIAL VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA. IN THE INITIAL INVESTIGATION, 9 SHALLOW TEST HOLES WERE DRILLED AND INDICATED A MAJOR GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE UNDERLIES AN AREA CALLED THE MESA ANOMALY. A DEEPER TEST -PRODUCTION WELL WITH A PROJECTED DEPTH OF 6,500 FEET IS BEING DRILLED. IF FURTHER INVESTIGATIVE STAGES ARE APPROVED, A MULTIPURPOSE DEVELOPMENT IS ENVISIONED WHEREBY USBR ANO OSW WOULD DEVELOP THE WATER RESOURCE AND NONFEDERAL INTERESTS WOULD DEVELOP THE POWER- GENERATION AND MINERAL -RECOVERY EFFORTS. PROBLEMS CONSIDERED INCLUDE: 1) DESALTING OF THE GEOTHERMAL BRINES HAVING HIGH TEMPERATURES (OVER 350 DEGREES F.) AND CHEICAL CONCENTRATION, 2) REINJECTING FLUIDS TO REPLACE REMOVED GEOTHERMAL BRINES (TO AVOID SURFACE SUBSIDENCE). ANO 3) COSTS OF DEVELOPING A FULL SIZE PROJECT. (USBR)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /WATER SUPPLY /DESALINATION /SUBSIDENCE /ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY /COSTS /COLORADO RIVER /CHEMICAL ENGINEERING /SALINITY/ POWERPLANTS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER COSTS /DESALINATION PROCESSES /WATER TEMPERATURE /HOT SPRINGS /BRINES /PLANNING /WATER UTILIZATION /SALINE WATER

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES /IMPERIAL VALLEY

177

0 KEEFE, W.

1973

GEOTHERMAL POWER: SLEEPING GIANT STIRS, BUT WILL REQUIRE YEARS TO WAKEN FULLY.

POWER 117(41:32 -35. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY HAS THE POTENTIAL TO TAKE CARE OF AMERICAN ENERGY DEMANDS FOR A LONG TIME. BUT MOST OF THIS POTENTIAL CANNOT BE EXPLOITED WITH OUR CURRENT TECHNOLOGY. TODAY, GEOTHERMAL POWER IS RESTRICTED TO HIGH HEAT FLUX REGIONS WHICH ARE GENERALLY REMOTE FROM OUR POPULATION CENTERS. IN HIGHLIGHTING FINDINGS FUR THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES RESEARCH CONFERENCE OF SEPTEMBER 1972, GEOLOGICAL, THERMODYNAMIC. ENGINEERING. ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL ASPECTS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ARE REEVIEWED. 206

GEOTH!"RMAL STUDIES /COST EFFICIENCY /ELLCTPIC POWER PRODUCTION/ ECONOMIC`; /EXPLOITATION /ENVIRONMENTAL EEF[CTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

17R

OLSEN, J.H.

1971 NAVAJO MINE BECOMES LARGEST COAL PRODUCER INTHE U.S.

MINING CONGRESS JOURNAL 57(111:27 -.32.

WHEN ALL FIVE UNITS OF THE FOUR CORNERS POWERPLANTARE ON LINE, THE NAVAJO MINE S OUTPUT WILL JUMP FROM 7500 TONS PERDAY TO 25,000 TONS. EVEN AT THIS LEVEL ONLY ONE -THIRD OF THE MINESSTRIPPABLE RESOURCES WILL BE COMMITTED. CONSUMPTION OF 8.5 MILLION TONS PER YEAR AT THE PLANT WILL PRODUCE 2,C80,000 KW /HR.

STRIP MINES /LAND RESOURCES /GOALS /POWERPLANTS /ELECTRICPOWER PRODUCTION /NEW MEXICO /INDIAN RESERVATIONS

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWERPROJECT /NAVAJO INDIANS

179

0 MARA, R.L.

1971 WATER TECHNOLOGY FOR NUCLEAR POWER: THE GOAL IS ZERO- RELEASE.

INDUSTRIAL WATER ENGINEERING 8(31:30-34. PUBLIC AWARENESS OF THE HAZARDS OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES ISFORCING NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS TO LOWER THEIR LEVELS OF DISCHf.:2G=. A NEW GENERAL ELECTRIC RECYCLING SYSTEM MAY SIGNIFICANTLY ALTER THEAMOUNT AND FREQUENCY OF RELEASE OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES. THE NETrMOD INCREASES SOLID WASTES AND DIMINISHES LIQUID WASTES. HOWEVER SHIFTING THE PROBLEM OF WASTE DISPOSAL FROM LIQUID TO SOLID FORMRUNS UP AGAINST THE UNWILLINGNESS OR INABILITY OF MANUFACTURERS TO DESIGNAND BUILD LEAKPROOF EQUIr'dENT. ANOTHER NEW FACTOR TO CONSIDER IS TIGHTENED REGULATION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF TPANSORTATION ON SHIPPING RADIOACTIVE WASTES, THUS, MAKING DILUTION 3Y A STREAMATTRACTIVE AND LESS COSTLY. ALSO, MOVING SOLID WASTES BY TRUCK ACROSS THE COUNTRY MAY BE MORE DANGEROUS THAN SIMPLY DJMPING THE SAME MATERIALSLJWLY INTO RIVERS, STREAMS AND ESTUARIES. THE NEW GENERAL ELECTRIC PROCESS FOR CUTTING DOWN WATER CONSUMPTION AND WATER POLLUTION WILLHAVE TO OVERCOME THESE OBSTACLES. NUCLEAR PUWERPLANTS /RADIOACTIVE WASTES /WATER POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /WATER REQUIREMENTS /SAFFTY /ADMINISTEATIVEAGENCIES/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 207

180

ONNf_N, J.H.

1972 WET SCRUBBERS TACKLE POLLUTION. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY6(12):994-999.

MANY INDUSTRIES WILL FIND GASCLEANING BY WET SCRUBBING IMPORTANT, ESPECIALLY AS IMPROVED EQUIPMENTIS DESIGNED TO REPLACE EXISTING COAL- GASIFICATION PLANTS HAVE DEVICES. COAL Ok. OIL-FIRED BOILERS OR FOUND GAS SCRUBBING PRACTICAL ANOR_LIA3LE FOR REMOVING SULFUR SUCH SYSTEMS MAY BE THE MAJORABATEMENT DEVICES FOR THE NEXT DIOXIDE. AND SYSTEMS AKE DISCUSSED. SEVERAL YEARS. VAFIOUS TYPES OF SCRUBBERS

POWER AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION/SULFUR /WATER QUALITY /ELECTPIC PRODUCTION /CLEAN AIR ACT /POWERPLANTS/COALS /ENERGY CONVERSION /SULFUR = IDENTIFIERS: /EMISSIONSCONTROLS /SCRUBBERS /SULFURIC ACID DIOXIDE /COAL GASIFICATION

181

ORNI. E.

1969

WATER USE AND ITS PROBLEMS IN ISRAEL (TRANSLATED TITLE).

GEOGRAPHISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT 57(31:198 +204. SWRA W71- 1)535.

THE CLIMATE OF ISRAEL VARIES FROM AMEDITERRANEAN TYPE IN THE NORTH, WITH WET WINTERS ANO DRY SUMMERS TO TOTALLY ARID IN THE CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN PARTS. THE NEEDS OF THE COUNTRY DEMAND HIGH EFFICIENCY IN UTILIZATION OF ITS SPARSE NATURAL RESOURCES AND ACCORDINGLY IT HAS THE WORLD S HIGHEST KNOWN USE PATE OF AVAILABLE WATER. THE ACCESSION OF THE TOTALLY ARIO GAZA STRIP HAS FURTHER ST2AINED THE SITUATION. THE CENTRAL PROBLEM IS THE DIVERSION OF SURPLUS WATER FROM THE NORTH WITH IT S RELATIVELY POOP SOILS TO THE SOUTH WHERE SOILS ARE POTENTIALLY FERTILE. BUT WHERE LOCAL RESERVES ARE INSUFFICIENT EVEN FOR URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. THERE ARE 3 MAJOR NATIONAL WATER SOURCES, 11 GROUNDWATER: 21 EPHEMERAL WINTER STREAMS: 31 THE JORDAN RIVER ANO ITS TRIBUTARIES, WHICH ARE YEAR -ROUND STREAMS, LARGELY BELOW SEA LEVEL. A NATIONAL SYSTEM OR WELLS, DAMS, DIVERSION CANALS AND PUMPING SYSTEMS HAS EVOLVED, BUT THERE ARE MAJOR PROBLEMS. THE WATERS OF THE SHIKNA DAM RESERVOIR FILTER THROUGH SANDY LAYERS EFFECTING GROUNDWATER RECHARGE, BUT SILTING HAS BECOME A PROBLEM. SALINITY IS ALSO WIDESPREAD, PARTICULARLY IN THE ARID REGIONS. A NUMBER OF CONVENTIONAL AND UNCONVENTIONAL WATER CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES ARE IN USE INVOLVING EVAPORATION SUPPRESSION, WATER RECYCLING, FLOWER ANO EARLY VEGETABLE CULTIVATION UNDER PLASTIC COVER, OEEP DRILLING IN UNDERLYING SAHARAN SANDSTONE, DESALINATION AND CLOUD- SEEDING. (OALS)

CLIMATIC DATA /ARID LANDS /WATER CONSERVATION /GROUNDWATER /WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT /SALINITY /WATER USERS /STREAMFLOW /RAINFALL /RUNOFF /DAMS/ DIVERSION /CLOUD SEEDING /EVAPORATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /ISRAEL 208

182 OVERSEAS TECHNICAL COOPERATION AGENCY, JAPAN

1965

REPORT OF THE SECOND SURVEY FOR THEDEVELOPMENT OF DESERT AREAS IN THE U.A.P.

SAME. AS AUTHOR. 146 P.

SURVEY WAS PROMOTED TO INVESTIGATE THEPPESENT STATE OF EGYPT S TELECOMMUNICATIJ S AND ELECTRONICS RESOURCES,AND TO PLAN FOR FUTURE POSSIBILITY OF UTILIZING DEVELOPMENT. INCLUDED IN THE STUDY IS THE SOLAR ENERGY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF DESERTAREAS WITH RECOMMENDATIONS ON UNATTENDED LIGHTHOUSES POWERED BY SOLARBATTERIES; AND A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SOLAR BATTERY POWER SUPPLYEQUIPMENT. AS A RESULT OF THE SURVEY, FUNÚAMENTAL DATA FOR THE DESIGNOF A SOLAR BATTERY FOR USE IN THE EGYPTIAN DESERTS WAS OBTAINED. (OALSI DESERTS/DESIGN CRITERIA /SURVEYS /DATA COLLECTIONS=IDENTIFIERS: /EGYPT/ SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR CELLS /SOLAR ENERGYCOLLECTORS /SOLAR POWER GENERATION

183

PEABODY COAL COMPANY

1970

MINING COAL ON BLACK MESA.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 12 P.

THIS ILLUSTRATED (NOVEMBER 1970) REPORT DESCRIBES PEABODY S ROLE IN THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF BLACK MESA. MINING OPERATIONS OVER THE NEXT 35 YEARS WILL DISTURB LESS THAN IPERCENT OF THE MESA. NAVAJO AND HOPI INDIANS WILL RECEIVE ROYALTIES FOR THE COAL AND JOBS AT THE MINE: MAJOR EFFORTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO PROTECT LOCAL WATER SUPPLIES: THE LAND WILL t3E RECLAIMED AFTER MINING. THE BASIS JF PEABODY S OPERATION ON THi MESA ISA LEASE, SIGNED AFTER LENGTHY NEGOTIATIONS WITH THE INDIANS. THE REPORT ALSO EXPLAINS ENVIRONMENTAL SAFEGUARDS BEING TAKEN BY THE COMPANY.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /WATER POLLUTION /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /LNDIAN RESERVATIONS /REVEGETATION /LAND RECLAMATION /ARIZONA/ /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AQUIFERS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS / ECONOMIC IMPACT

=IDENTIFIERS: / PEABODY COAL COMPANY /BLACK MESA /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS

184

PEARL, R.H.

1972

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES OF COLORADO. A SUMMARY. IN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES, 1972, EL CENTRO CONFERENCE, FEB. 16 -18, 1972, PROCEEDINGS. PAPER D,7 P.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, DAVIS. CALIFORNIA. PUDLICATION. SWRA W73- 03423. 209

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES OF COLORADO HAVENOT YET BEEN DEVELOPED. HOWEVER, FROM EVALUATION OFGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS IT APPEARS THAT POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL RECuRCs EXIST INSEVERAL AREAS CF THE STATE. T-lE_ SUPFAGE MANIFESTATIOH OF THEGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS IN THESE AREAS CENOZOIC INCtUDFS HOT SPRING`', ANOMALOUSHEAT PLO'': VALUES ANC) APEAS OF IN DECEMBER 1(171.THE STATE ROA'tD OF LANDCOt;MISSIONERS VOLCANISM. THIS LEASE, ISSUE,!) THE FIRST STATE LEASE FORGE)THER :iAL EXPLORATION. WHICH TOTALS NEARLY 7,GGC ACFS,SURROUNDS THE MOUNT PRIt+CETON HOT NUMEROUS INVESTIGATORS HAVE STUDIED SPZINGS IN CHA« EE COUNTY. HEAT VARIOUS FACETS OF THE GEOTHERMALRESOURCES OF COLORADO, FRIMARILY FLOW, AND HAVE REPORTED THEIRFINDINGS IN JOURNALS. THE REFERENCES ARF LISTEL. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SUBSURFACEWATERS /THERi1AL POWER /COLORADO /THERMAL - wATER/wATER TEMPERATURE /THERMAL PROPERTIES/HYDROGEOLDGY /EVALUATIO'J /HOT SPRINGS /!'EAT FLOW /LEASES

IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

185

PELUSO, R.G.

1973 A FEDERAL VIEW OF THE COAL WASTEDISPOSAL PROBLEM. PAPER PRESENTED AT AMERICAN MINING CONGRESS, 1973 COALCONVENTION. MIMEOGRAPHED. 13 P.

THIS SHORT HISTORY OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE PRESENT COAL WASTE PROBLEM IS PRESENTED BY AN EMPLOYEE OF THE U.S. BUREAU OF HINES. DISCUSSED ARE REGULATIONS THAT THE USBM IS CONTEMPLATING IN VIEW OF THE 1969 COAL MINE HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT. ALSO, THE BUREAU S ACTIVITIES IN TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ARE REVIE4E0. THE POSSIBLITY OF A COORDINATED APPRCACH BY INDUSTRY, GOVERNMENT AND UNIVERSITIES IS CONSIDERED. STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /WATER POLLUTION /LAND RECLAMATION/ ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /WASTE DISPOSAL

186

PERANIO, A.

1972 ELECTRIC POWER ANO WATER FOR ISRAEL IN THE 1980 S.

ISRAEL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY 1.5(4):295 -30b. BOTH ISRAEL S WATER AND ELECTRICAL NEEDS AND POSSIBLE TYPES OF PLANTS TO MEET THOSE NEEDS ARE PROJECTED TO THE YEAR 200G. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH EFFECTSARE REVIEWED. BY USING SEA WATER FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN A NOVEL SCHEME. ENVISIONS PRODUCING POWER AND TRANSPORTING THE WATER TO THE DEAD SEA.

ARID LANDS/ ENERGY /ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /MIDDLE EAST /SEA WATER / WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER TRANSFER

=IDENTIFIERS:/ISFAE.L 210

187

PIPER, A.M.

197E

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES IN WATER-RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.

U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, 197) CONFRFNCE PAPER 2:11.64 -1168. AVAILABLE NTIS AS CONE 7BUlE1, V. 2 SWRA W72- ÚE969. NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES AFFORD DIVERSE TOOLS FOR HANAGING OUR WATER RESOURCES. THESE INCLUDE PRINCIRALLY: THE RUBBLE COLUMN OF A FULLY CONTAINED UNDERGROUND DETONATION, THE SIMILAR FUDDLE: COLUMN OF A RETARC, THE CRATER BY SIJBSIDENC:, THE THPOWOUT CRATER OF MAXIMUM VOLUME (THE LATTER EITHER SINGLY OR IN- LINE), AND THE EJECTA OF A VALLEY -SLOPE CRATER. BY THESE TOOLS, ONE CAN CREATE SPACE IN WHICH TO STORE WATER, EITHER UNDERGROUND OP ON THE LAND SURFACE --IN THE LATTER INSTANCE. TO A CONSIDERABLE DEGREE INDERFNOENTLY OF THE TOPOGRAPHY. UNDERGROUND, ONE CAN ACCELERATE MOVEMENT OF WATER BY BREACHING A CONFINING BED, A PARTITION OF A COMPARTMENTED AOUIFER, OR SOME OTHER OBSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL FLUMBING SYSTEM. FINALLY, ON THE LAND SURFACE, ONE CAN MODIFY THE NATURAL PATTERN OF WATER FLOW, BY CANALS EXCAVATED WITH IN -LINE DETONATION. IN ALL THESE APPLICATIONS, THE POTENTIAL ADVANTAGE OF A NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVE RESTS CHIEFLY IN UNDERTAKINGS OF LARGE SCALE, UNDER 4 CONSEQUENT SMALL COST PER UNIT OF MECHANICAL WORK ACCOMPLISHED. INCR EASED WATER STORAGE AND MOVEMENT UNDERGROUND ALSO HAVE SOME PRACTICAL LIMITATIONS WHICH ARE DISCLOSED.

WATER MANAGEMENT(APPLIED) /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /CRATERS /EXCAVATION/ STREAMFLOW /CANAL CONSTRUCTION /COST -BENEFIT ANALYSIS /ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION /WATER STORAGE /WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT /GROUNDWATER RECHARGE /HYDROLOGIC ASPECTS /AIR POLLUTION /CONTAMINATION(AIR) / CONTAMINATION(WATER) /TRITIUM /LEGAL ASPECTS

188

PITMAN, J.K. /DONNELL, J.R.

1973

POTENTIAL SHALE -OIL RESOURCES OF A STRATIGRAPHICSEQUENCE ABOVE THE MAHOGANY ZONE. GREEN RIVER FORMATIONN, PICEANCECREEK BASIN, COLORADO.

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY:JOURNAL OF RESEARCH 1(41:467-474.

SURFACE MINING FOR OIL SHALE MAY BE ECONOMICALLYFEASIBLE IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF COLORADO S PICEANCE CREEK BASIN. THE GREEN RIVER FORMATION ABOVE THE MAHOGANY ZONE IN THIS AREACONTAINS RICH SHALE OIL BEDS. FOUR UNITS WITHIN THIS SEQUENCE WERE STUDIEDFOR THICKNESS. DISTRIBUTION, OIL YIELD, AND POTENTIALOIL SHALE RESOURCES. AN ESTIMATED 128.5 BILLION BARRELS OF OIL LIEIN THESE DEPOSITS.

MINERAL INDUSTRY /COLORADO /COLORADO RIVERBASIN /LANG RESOURCES/ ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY /STRIP MINES /OIL SHALES/OIL INDUSTRY

= IDENTIFIERS: /GREEN RIVER FORMATION /PICEANCE CREEKBASIN 211

189

POLL, C.

1969 WATER IMPORT SYSTEMS FOR ARID LAND DEVELOPMENT. IN INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON INCREASING FOOD PRODUCTION IN ARID LANDS, MONTERREY, NUEVO LEON, MEXICO, APRIL 22 -25, 19ó8, P. 43 -54.

TEXAS TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGE, LUBBOCK, ICASALS PUBLICATION 3. 352 P. SWRA W70- 06821.

THE NORTH AMERICAN WATER ANO POWER ALLIANCE IS THOROUGHLY DISCUSSED IN THIS ARTICLE BY A REPRESENTATIVE OF THE RALPH M. PARSONS COMPANY OF LOS ANGELES. THE NAWAPA CONCEPT UTILIZES GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT TO COLLECT ANO STORE EXCESS WATER OF NORTHWESTERN AREAS OF THE CONTINENT AND DISTRIBUTE IT TO ARID AREAS OF CANADA, THE UNITED STATES AND NORTHERN MEXICO. THE CONCEPT ENVISIONS WATER DELIVERIES FROM THESE SURPLUS AREAS IN TIMES OF DROUGHT INTO THE AMERICAN DESERT ABOUT 9 YEARS AFTER INITIATION. THE NAWAPA IS ECONOMICALLY FEASIBLE AND FINANCIALLY WITHIN THE EXISTING MONEY MARKETS. COALS)

ARID LANDS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS/ CLIMATOLOGY /MEXICO /RESERVOIR STORAGE /WATER TRANSFER /ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY /RIVERS /CANALS /TUNNELS /WATER SHORTAGE /HYDROELECTRIC POWER/ NATURAL RESOURCES /CANADA

= IDENTIFIERS: /NORTH AMERICAN WATER AND POWER ALLIANCE

190

POLLARD, B.C. ET AL

1972 STRIPPABLE LIGNITE RESERVES OF NORTH DAKOTA.

U.S. BUREAU OF MINES, REPORT IC 8537. 37 P. THE STATE S LIGNITE RESERVES LIE IN THE FORT UNION FORMATION OF WESTERN NORTH DAKOTA, A TOTAL OF 4.1 BILLION STRIPPABLE TONS IN

! SIXTEEN MAJOR SITES.

STRIP MINES /LAND RESOURCES /FUELS /ENERGY /COALS /NORTH DAKOTA

191

POLZER, C.W. 1971

USE ANO ABUSE OF SOUTHWESTERN RIVERS. HISTORIC MAN --THE SPANIARD. IN HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES IN ARIZONA AND THE SOUTHWEST, 1 :387 -396.

AMERICAN WATER RESOURCES ASSOCIATION, ARIZONA SECTION /ARIZONA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, HYDROLOGY SECTION, PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1971 MEETINGS, TEMPE, ARIZONA. SWRA W72- 02237.

THE EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS DID NOT LEAN TOWARD RIVERS AND BOATS. BRED IN THE CULTURE OF AN ARID LAND, THEY NATURALLY EXPLORED WITH HORSES OP BY FOOT, LEAVING BOATS.AND RAFTS TO THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. NO HISTORICAL RECORDS REVEAL ANY SPANISH DESIRES OR ATTEMPTS TO CONTROL RIVER FLOW OR HARNESS DESERT WATER RESOURCES ON ANY APPRECIABLE SCALE. YFT THEY TRANSFORMED THE SONORAN DESERT INTO A PRODUCTIVE GARDEN LAND NEVER BEFORE ACHIEVED BY INDIGENOUS PEOPLES. 212

PUEDLUS WERE BUILT ON RIVER BANK; WHERE ALLUVIAL FANS COULDBE EASILY IRRIGATED. SMALL ARROYO CHECK D.A,MS, CIVERTED dATER INTO WELLSAND TOWN TANKS, WHILE. LAC-O'ER DIVERSION LJAMS WLP1= BUILT TO DRAW WATER INTO CANALS FUR CROP IRRIGATION. THE DAMS WERE DESIGNEDLY WEAK AND EFFICIENT ONLY TO THE. POINT OF DTVCRTING SUFFICIENT WATERFOR THE PJEBLO. THERE IS NO CONCEPT OF STORTNG WATER IN RESERVOIRS OR LAKES FOR PERIODS OF SCARCITY, BUT ONLY OF TAPPING ENOUGHWATER DURING PERIODS OF EXCESS FLOW. ALL S'J 'LUS WATER WAS ALLOWED TO FLOW DOWNSTREAM FOR THE USE OF OTHERS IN THEIR STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL. IN THIS WAY THE SPANISH ACHIEVED A 3ALANCE BETWEEN HUMAN NEEDSAND THE LIMITED RESOURCES OF THE DESERT. THE RECORDS OF THE MEXICANS AND THE ANGLOS HAVE SEEN MUCH MOP_ EXPLOITIVE AND DESTPUCTIVE. COALS)

HISTORY /ARID LANDS /IRRIGATION PRACTICES /ARIZONA /WATERRESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER USERS /WATER CONSFRVATION /ARROYOS /RIVERS /CULTURAL CONTROL /EXPLOITATION /EXPLORATION

192

PORTER, L.R.

1973

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE INVESTIGATIONS. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, HYDRAULIC DIVISION, JOURNAL 99(11):2097 -2111. SWRA W74- 01273.

A CRUCIAL PROBLEM FACING THE LOWER COLORADO RIVER BASIN ISTO FINO A WAY TO AUGMENT THE WATER SUPPLY. TN SEEKING A SOLUTION, THE BUREAU OF RECLAMATION IS EXPLORING THE GEOTHERMAL FIELD UNDERLYING THEIMPERIAL VALLEY. THE HOPE IS THAT THE HOT GEOTHERMAL BRINES WHICH COULD PRODUCE UP TO 10 MILLION KW OF ELECTRIC GENERATING CAPACITY MIGHTALSO PROVIDE HIGH QUALITY WATER FOR THE ARID SOUTHWEST. REVIEWED ARE A GEOTHERMAL TEST WELL CONSTRUCTED IN 1972 IN MESA, CALIFORNIA, AND THE OPERATION OF A PORTABLE RESEARCH DESALTING UNIT FINISHED IN 1973. THE PLAN OFFERS A POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO THE DISPOSAL OF THESALINE WATER BROUGHT TO THE SURFACE TO RUN THE GEOTHERMAL POWERPLANT.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL POWER /WATER POLLUTION /DE SALINATION/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /COLORADO RIVER/COLORADO RIVER BASIN/ ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /SOUTHWEST U.S./ CALIFORNIA /ARID LANDS /WATER SUPPLY

= TDENTIFIERS2 /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES /IMPERIALVALLEY

193

POST, R.G.

1970

PROJECT AQUARIUS -- CONTROL OF RADIOISOTOPES AND SAFETY.

U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, 1970 CONFERENCE PAPER2 :1169 -1173. AVAILABLE NTIS AS CONE 700101, V. 2. SWRA W72- 00970.

THE POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVESTO THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES PROVIDES REAL HOPE FOR SUBSTANTIALINCREASES IN THE AVAILABILITY OF WATER FROM OUR NATURAL WATER SUPPLIES. A WIDE RANGE, EXPLORATORY PROJECT SPONSORED BY THE AEC, BUREAUOF RECLAMATION, ARIZONA ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION. AND THE UNIVERISTYOF ARIZONA WAS CONDUCTED BY THE HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCESOFFICE, THE DEPARTMENT OP NUCLEAR ENGINEERING', AND VARIOUS STATE AND FEDERALGOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES IN EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL APPLICATIONSOF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES 213

FOR DEVELOPING WATER RESOURCES IN ARIZONA. THE PRIMARY OBJECTIVE OF , THE PROJECT WAS OF A SCOUTING NATtrr,A RECONNAISSANCE EFFORT TO ASSESS THE POTENTIAL FOR ARIZONA. THIS WORK, PROJECT AQUARIUS, ISAT AN EARLY STATE ANO ANY SIGNIFICANT CONCLUSIONS ARE CERTAINLY PREMATURE. SINCE THIS IS A SURVEY, DETAILED ANALYSES ARE NOT JUSTIFIED. OUR PURPOSE IS TO DEFINE LIMITING PROBLEMS ANO ESTIMATE OUR ABILITY TO SOLVE THEM. WE DO NOT SLFK TO FORMULATE A DETAILED SOLUTION UNTIL THE PROJECT HAS BEEN DEFINED BETTER. IN ADDITION TO THE TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE PROJECT, IT IS SUGGESTED THAT A STRONG PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAN, IS ADVISABLE.

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING /STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY/ STRUCTURES /WATER YIELD /WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT /WATER POLLUTION/WATER POLLUTION SOUR CES /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /WATER RESOURCES /HYDROLOGIC ASPECTS /ENGINEERING GEOLOGY /PADIJISOTOPES /PUBLIC HEALTH /TOXICITY/ BENEFITS /ARIZONA

= IDENTIFIERS: /ARIZONA ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION/PROJECT AQUARIUS

194 POWDER RIVER BASIN RESOURCE COUNCIL

1974 COAL MINERAL RIGHT LEASING, POWDER RIVER BASIN OF WYOMING,AS OF 15 MAY 1974. SAME AS AUTHOR, 3 NORTH MAIN STREET. SHERIDAN, WYOMING. 25 P.

THIS BOOKLET IDENTIFIES THE CORPORATIONS ANO INDIVIDUALSPURSUING COAL MINERAL RIGHTS IN THE POWDER RIVER BASIN, AND ATTEMPTS TO DETERMINE HOW MUCH OF THE AREA S COAL RESOURCES HAS BEEN LEASED.

WYOMING /COAL MINES /LEASES /MINING

= IDENTIFIERS: /POWDER RIVER BASIN /MINERAL RIGHTS

195

PUBLIC SERVICE

1973 FOUR CORNERS POWER PLANTS.

SAME AS AUTHOR (61:12 -14. COAL -FIRED ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS ARE EXAMINED FOR BOTH ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS. FOUR CORNERS AREA PLANTS. AND ESPECIALLY THE NAVAJO PLANT NOW UNDER CONSTRUCTION, ILLUSTRATE BOTH PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES OF SUCH INSTALLATIONS.

ENERGY /ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /FLY ASH /SULFUR/ NITROGEN /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /SCENERY /SOUTHWEST U.S. / POWERPLANTS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /COALS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ ECONOMIC IMPACT /STRIP 4INES /COST -BENEFIT ANALYSIS

= IDENTIFIERS: /NAVAJO POWERPLANT /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /HOPI INDIANS /NAVAJO INDIANS /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE /NITROGEN OXIDES /BLACK MESA 214

NEW RIVPPS AND OLD REALITIES, WHY WESTERNERS DISAGRFEE ABOUT SHARING THEIR WATER WEALTH.

ARIZONA FEVIEW [0(41:1 -9. SWRA W71- 08145.

THIS IS G DISCUSSION OF MANIPULATTDI OF WATER. RESOURCES FOR INTERRASIN TRANSFER. THE SùUTHV ST CONTENDS WITH AN Ic13ALANCE 3ETWEEN GROWING POPULATION AND DWINDLING WATER RESOURCES. OBVIOUS SOLUTIONS SUCH AS REALLOCATION OF EXISTING (RATER RIGHTS TO GUARANTRE BENEFICIAL USE AND RECYCLING REQUIRE COMA'! TCATEO POLITICAL MANEUVERING WHICH IS OFTEN UNSUCCESSFUL. I:J FACT, NO 'MAN-MADE WATER OIVERSIUi+S NOW CROSS MAJOR POLITICAL EOUNDARIES. IN THE_ PAST, SURPLUS PARTS OF A BASIN HAVE SUPPLEMENTED DEFICIT PARTS OF TH=: SAME BASIN. WATER IS DIFFERENT FROM OTHER RESOURCES, OFTEN COMING FR-_L WITH PROPERTY, ANJ IS ALLOCATED BY DIFFERING STATE GOVERNMENTS. ONE USER MAY AFFECT MANY OTHER USERS. SOME CURRENT THOUGHTS ON INTERBASIN TRANSFER FOLLOW, WATER TRANSFERS ON A LARGE SCALE OF NECESSITY WOULD CREATE LARGE- SCALE ENVIRONMENTAL DISTUR3ANLES. EFFICIENCY BASED ARGUMENTS STATE THAT WATER SHOULD .G0 TO THE HIGHEST BIDDER, OP WHERE IT IS MOST VALUABLE. EQUITABLE - SHARING PROPONENTS USE THE AMOUNT OF SO- CALLED PROGRESS OR SOCIAL BENEFITS GAINED, TO EVALUATE SYSTEMS OF WATER USE. ENVIrë.ONMENTAL THINKERS ADVOCATE COMPREHENSIVE 'LANNING ANO THOROUGH PRELIMINARY STUDIES BEFORE INTERBASIN TRANSFER IS TO BE ATTEMPTED. THE PROBLEM MUST BE VIEWED AS A NATIONAL, RATHER THAN A REGIONAL STRUGGLE. (OATS)

INTER -BASIN TRANSFERS /ARID LANDS /PLANNING /BENEFICIAL USE/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /EVALUATION /POLITICAL ASPECTS /LEGAL ASPECTS/ SOCIAL ASPECTS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /SURFACE WATERS /RIVERS/ C4NADA /SOUTHWEST U.S.

197

RAMEY. J.T. / HAMMOND, R.P.

1971 NUCLEAR POWER FOR DESALINATION AND AGRO- INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES.

NUCLEAR NEWS 14(10X1:92 -P6. COUNTRIES SUCH AS SPAIN, ISRAEL, AND EGYPT ARE WATER SHORT, ANO THUS LIKELY LOCATIONS FOR DESALINA110I PLANTS. SINCE WATER NEEUS ARE USUALLY COUPLED WITH POWER REQUIREMENTS, DUAL PURPOSE REALTOR SITES HAVE BEEN EXTENSIVELY INVESTIGATED. THE BASIC TECHNOLOGY FOR SUCH A PLANT ALREADY EXISTS --FIVE SMALL SCALE PLANTS ARE OPERATING SUCCESSFULLY IN THE UNITED STATES. TWO MAJOR HURDLES REMAIN FOR SUCH PROJECTS: MONEY AND SITES. NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /WATER REQUIREMENTS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT/ DESALINATION /AFRICA /ASIA /EUROPE /SITES /COSTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SPAIN /ISRAEL /EGYPT 215

19ß

REDFIELD, A. ED.

1973

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOLAR HEATING ANO COOLING FOR BUILDINGS WORKSHOP, HELO IN WASHINGTON, D.C. ON MARCH 21 -23, 1973. I: TECHNICAL SESSIONS.

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 207 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS P8- 223 536.

CONTAINS THIRTY-SIX TECHNICAL PAPERS ON SOLAR ENERGY FOR U.S. BUILDING APPLICATIONS AREA, NAMELY, SOLAR COLLECTORS. ENERGY STORAGE, DOMESTIC HOT WATER HEATING, ENERGY CONSERVATIOI+ AND INSULATION. SOLAR AIR -CONDITIONING, AND SYSTEMS FOR SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING. SOME FOREIGN ACTIVITIES ARE ALSO REVIEWED. EACH TECHNICAL PAPER IS A REPORT ON: PROPOSED RESEARCH, ON -GOING RESEARCH, PROPOSED SYSTEMS, OR OPERATING SYSTEMS. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FROM THE DISCUSSION PERIODS ARE INCLUDED, AS IS AN AGENDA ANO LIST OF ATTENDEES.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING /COOLING /ENERGY CONVERSION /ENERGY STORAGE

= IDENTIFIERS: /SPACE HEATING /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS/ SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS /SOLAR WATER HEATERS

199

RENSCH, J.R.

1974

THE URGENT NEED FOR COAL GASIFICATION. PAPER PRESENTED AT PUBLIC HEARINGS ON WESTERN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, INCLUDING COAL, OIL SHALE AND SYNTHETIC FUELS. U.S. FEDERAL ENERGY ADMINISTRATION, PROJECT INDEPENDENCE HEARINGS, AUGUST 6 -9, 1974, DENVER, COLORADO. 10 P. RENSCH OF PACIFIC LIGHTING COMPANY STRESSES THE ENVIRONMENTAL ATTRACTION OF GAS AS A FUEL. THEREFORE, PROJECT INDEPENDENCE SHOULD AID COMPANIES STRUGGLING TO PERFECT COAL GASIFICATION PLANTS. A SINGLE PLANT PROPOSED BY PACIFIC LIGHTING FOR THE SOUTHWEST WILL HAVE TO WIN 100 SEPARATE APPROVALS FROM 4C DIFFERENT GOVERNMENT AGENCIES AND OFFICES. COST FOR THE FACILITY WAS ESTIMATED AT 390 MILLION DOLLARS IN 1972, BUT DELAYS AND INFLATION HAVE PUSHED THIS FIGURE PAST 600 MILLION DOLLARS. CURRENT DELAYS ARE COSTING THE COMPANY ABOUT 3.9 MILLION DOLLARS PER MONTH IN CAPITAL COSTS FOR THE PLANT. THUS ENVIRONMENTAL HURDLES ARE COSTING THE COMPANY MONEY. DELAYING CONSTRUCTION OF A PLANT ESSENTIAL TO ACHIEVING INDEPENDENCE, AND KEEPING AN ENVIRONMENTALLY CLEAN FUEL OUT OF PRODUCTION. THE GASIFICATION PLANT WILL BE FED WITH STRIP -MINED COAL.

STRIP MINES /COALS /GASES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /COSTS/ FUELS =IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT INDEPENDENCE /COAL GASIFICATION /PACIFIC LIGHTING COMPANY 216

2;;0

Rt'TIEF, V./KRUGLR, P.

1371 USE OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES FOR WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN ARID REGIONS. STANFORD UNIVERSITY, STANFORD, CALIEORNTA, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, REPORT. 108 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS SU- 326- P -31 -2. SWRA W72- 03323. FEASIBILITY IS STUDIED IN RELATION TO THE HYDROLOGY OF ARID REGIONS (VARIABLE PRECIPITATION, ERRATIC RUNOFF, HIGH EVAPORATION, SALINITY AND LARGE' SEDIA NT LOAD). GROUND SHUCK AND AIR BLAST MAY REQUIRE THAT THE CONSTRUCTION SITE BE LOCATED IN A REMOTE AREA. CRATERS WITH A STORAGE CAPACITY LARGER THAN 10,000 ACRE FEET CAN DELIVER WATER AT A PRICE LESS THAN 37 DOLLARS PER ACRE FEET, WHICH IS THE UPPER LIMIT OF PRICE OF IRRIGATION WATER. A 100,000 ACRE FOOT RESERVOIR CAN DELIVER WATER AT A COST OF 14 DOLLARS PER ACRE FT. TRITIUM CONTAMINATION OF SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PROBLEM IN THE UTILIZATION OF CRATER RESERVOIRS. DUE TO ITS MOBILITY, HOWEVER, TRITIUM CAN BE WASHED OUT OF THE RUBBLE BY A FEW CYCLES OF FLOODING AND DRAINING, ESPECIALLY IN THE CASE OF A CRATER IN HARD ROCK, WHERE THE RUBBLE WILL HAVE LOW RETENTION. WATER WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF CONTAMINATION CAN BE DISPOSED OF BY DIRECT EVAPORATION. (ORNL)

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS/ TRITIUM /RADIOACTIVITY /RADIOACTIVITY TECHNIQUES/ WATER POLLUTION TREATMENT /CRATERS /RESERVOIR LEAKAGË /RESERVOIR EVAPORATION /RESERVOIR DESIGN /IRRIGATION /ARID LANDS /SEDIMENT LOAD/ RUNOFF FORECASTING /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

201

REX, R.W.

1972 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY - THE NEGLECTED ENERGY OPTION. IN R.G. LEWIS AND B.I. SPINRAD, EDS., THE ENERGY CRISIS, P. 121 -125.

EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION FOR NUCLEAR SCIENCE, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. 148 P. NSF -RANN ENERGY ABSTRACTS 1(9)2189. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS CLEAN AND CHEAP AND SHOULD BE SERIOUSLY CONSIDERED FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION. EXPLORATION EFFORTS MIGHT YIELD UP TO ONE MILLION MEGAWATTS WITHIN 33 YEARS WITH SAVINGS OF OVER 100 DOLLARS PER KILOWATT COMPARED TO ALTERNATIVE POWER GENERATION SYSTEMS. GEOTHERMAL RESERVES, THE POSSIBILITIES OF DEVELOPING THIS RESOURCE FOR POWER GENERATION, THE USE OF DRY STEAM FIELDS AND HOT WATER FIELDS, AND RESEARCH EFFORTS IN GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ARE REVIEWED.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES / EXPLORATION /EVALUATION /COSTS /ENERGY CONVERSION/ ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION

202

REX, R.W. / HOWELL, D.J.

1973 ASSESSMENT OF U.S. GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. IN P. KRUGER AND C. OTTE, EDS., GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -- RESOURCES. FRODUCTION, STIMULATION. SPECIAL SYMPOSIUM OF AMERICAN NUCLEAR SOCIETY, 1972, PROCEEDINGS, P. 59 -67.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, STANFORD, CALIFORNIA. SWRA W73- 13217. 217

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS NOT ONLY TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE BUT ALSOPRACTICAL ANO ECONOMICAL. PRESENT PLANTS UTILI /E NATURAL UNDERGROUND STEAM. HOT -WATER GEOTHERMAL FIËLOS ARE NOW UNDER TEST IN T,.tE IMPERIAL VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA AND WILL RE ON LINE INA SIMILAR GEOLOGICAL SETTIAG IN NORTHWESTERN MEXICO IN 1973, THUS, IN THE UNITED STATES GEOTHERMAL ENERGY CAN BE CONSIDERED A COt1PETITIV.ELY PROVED ENERGY SOURCE. THE WESTERN THIRD OF THE UNITED STATES, INCLUDING ALASKA ANOHAWAII, IS THE MOST RICHLY ENDOWED) IN ACCESSI;LE GEOTHERMAL ENERGYRESOURCES. VOLCANIC ENERGY ALONE CONSTITUTES A RESERVE OF ENERGY WHICH IS PROBABLY ADEQUATE TO MEET U.S. ELECTRICAL L ENERGY NEEDS FOR SEVERAL CENTURIES. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SHOULD DE CAPABLE OF SUPPLYING A MAJOR PORTION OF FUTURE U.S. ELECTRIC-ENERGY REQUIREMENTS. ITS DEVELOPMENT WOULD INVOLVE COSTS LOWER THAN THOSE FOR COMPETING ENERGYSYSTEMS. SEVERAL COMPUTER MODELS WEPE UTILIZEC TO DETERMINE HOW SENSITIVETHE PROFITABILITY AND, THEREFORE, THE ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF DEVELOPING THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE WOULD BE TO VARIATIONS IN EACH COST ELEMENT. APPROXIMATELY 1,200 TEST CASES WERE RUN FOR THIS ANALYSIS. THE ANALYSIS COVERED THE THREE TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS: VAPOR DOMINATED, HOT WATER, AND HOT, DRY ROCK SYSTEMS. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ELECTRIC POWER /ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND /THERMAL POWERPLANTS /ELECTRIC POWER PROOUCTION /HYDROGEOLOGY /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /ENERGY /STEAM TURBINES /WELLS

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL POWER /IMPERIAL VALLEY

203

RITTER, W.W.

1973

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS.

JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 35(5):432-436. IN AODITION TO EXAMINING THE GEOLOGICAL. ECONOMIC. ENVIRONMENTAL,AND ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY, THE AUTHOR POINTS OUT THAT 75 PERCENT OF THE KNOWN RESOURCES ARE ON GOVERNMENT LAND, MAINLY NATIONAL PARKS AND OTHER RECREATIONAL AREAS. ALSO, GEOTHERMAL POWERPLANTS REQUIRE A LARGE LEAD TIME. FURTHER PROBLEMS ARE CORROSION. SCALING, EFFLUENT DISPOSAL, AND POWER TRANSMISSION. ON THE PLUS SIDE, GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS CHEAP AND RELATIVELY NON -POLLUTING.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /WATER POLLUTION /COST EFFICIENCY /THERMAL POWER/ ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /CORROSION /SCALING/ EXPLORATION /RECREATION /WASTE DISPOSAL

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOJRCES

204

ROGERS, P.

1972

DRY -TYPE HYPERBOLIC COOLING TOWER.

CIVIL ENGINEERING 42(101:56-58. DRY -TYPE COOLING TOWERS HAVE BEEN TRIED AT MAJOR INSTALLATIONS IN EUROPE AND THE USSR. SUCH TOWERS ALLOW FUR FREEDOM IN SITING A PLANT AND MINIMIZE THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF POWER PRODUCTION. COST COMPARISONS ARE INCLUDED FOR A5,30 NW UNIT IN WEST GERMANY FOR WET COOLING TOWER AND AIR.COOLED CONDENSATION. SUCH DRY -TYPE TOWERS WOULD PERMIT SITING IN MORE ARID REGIONS. 218

COOLING TOWERS /THEGMAL POWE"RPLANT /ARID LANDS /EVAPORATION /THERMAL POLLUTIONítÜWERPLANT /ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND /COOLING /HEATED WATER/ EUROPE /COST COMPARISONS /SITES

= IDENTIFIERS: /USSR /ORY COOLING TOWERS /WEST GERMANY

205

ROSENBEPG, H.S. ET AL

1973

STATE -OF --THE -ART REPORT ON STATUS 0: DEVELOPMENT Or PROCESS FOR ABATEMENT OF SO2 EMISSIONS BY STACK GAS TREATMENT TO AMEPICAN ÉLECTRIC POWER SERVICE CORPORATION.

BATTELLE. COLUMBUS LABORATORIES, COLUMBUS, OHIO. 38 P.

COAL -FIRED POWERPLANTS MUST MEET FEDERAL REGULATIONS FOR SULFUR EMISSIONS BY JULY 1, 1975. THIS REPORT REVIEWS THE HUNDRED ODD PROCESSES NOW KNOWN FOR REMOVING SULFUR FROM POWERPLANT STACKS. IT FINDS NONE OF THEM TECHNOLOGICALLY FEASIBLE FOR A COAL-FIRED POWERPLANT. IN 1972, THE BEST KNOWN t1ETHUD COULD ONLY FUNCTION FOR THREE WEEKS AT A STRETCH ON -LINE. A METHOD WITH 90 PERCENT RECOVERY OF SO2 WILL PROBABLY NOT EXIST BEFORE 1975, AND AN ADDITIONAL TWO TO FIVE YEARS WILL BE REQUIRED TO INSTALL THE EQUIPMENT. THEREFORE, AMERICAN UTILITIES CANNOT MEET THE 1975 DEADLINE WITHOUT SHIFTING TO GAS, OIL, OR WESTERN COAL.

POWERPLANTS/ SULFUR /REGULATION /ABATEMENT /FOSSIL FUELS /FEDERAL GOVERNMENT /GASES /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /EMISSIONS /AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER SERVICE CORPORATION/ SULFUR DIOXIDE

206

RUULLI, J.F.

1971 RECLAMATION AT BIG HORN MINE.

MINING CONGRESS JOURNAL 57(61:41 -44. SINCE 1961 BIG HORN COAL COMPANY HAS BEEN VOLUNTARILY RECLAIMING STRIP -MT(ED LAND. ALTHOUGH EARLY ATTEMPTS IN 1964 TO REVEGETATE RUINED AREAS AT SHERIDAN, WYOMING FAILED, LATER EFFORTS IN NEARBY AREAS SUCLEEDED BECAUSE OF IMPROVED IRRIGATION ANO FERTILIZATION. SOME ABANDONED PITS HAVE BEEN CONVERTED TO LAKES AND STOCKED WITH FISH. ALSO, WYOMING S OPEN CUT LAN] RECLAMATION ACT OF 1969 ASSURES FUTURE PROJECTS OF THIS SORT.

STRIP MINES /MIN_ WASTES /COAL MINES /LAND RECLAMATION /RFVEGETATION/ STRIP MINE LAKES /WYOMING /ENVIRCNMENTAL EFFECTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /BIG HORN COAL COMPANY /WYOMING OPEN CUT LAND RECLAMATION ACT

207

SARAN, L.A.

1972

HUMAN COSTS OF NUCLEAR POWER.

SCIENCE 177(40481 :487 -494. 219

A COMPARISON IS MADE BETWEEN THE HT IAN COSTS OF NUCLLA POWER AND POTENTIAL REWARDS IN TERMS OF INCZAELD ENERGY AVA1LA1LL. IT IS DOUBTFUL THAT NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS WILL RETURN ENOUH t:LECTFICAL ENERGY TO COMPENSATE FOR THEIR CONS. VARIOUS FACTORS MUST BE CONSIDERED: RADIATION HAZARDS, LOST PRODUCTIVITY, ECONOMIC FORCES, ETC. NUCLEAR POWER APPEARS A BARGAIN BECAUSE ITS COSTS AS CURRENTLY ESTIMATED 0O NOT INCLUDE LIVES LOST, INDUSTRIAL INJURIES, OR THE DAMAGE EXACTED ON THE ENVIRONMENT.

NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /RADIOACTIVITY /SAFETY /NUCLEAR REACTORS /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /ELECTPIC POWER PRODUCTTUN /COST -BENEFIT RATIO /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /PUBLIC HEALTH

= IDENTIFIERS: /U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

208

SAYVETZ, A.

1974

ENERGY- RELATED LEGISLATION IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES.

WESTERN INTERSTATE COMMISSION FOR HIGHER EDUCATION, BOULDER, COLORADO. 96 P.

THIS PAPER EXAMINES LEGISLATION IN EIGHT ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES THAT PERTAINS TO ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND USE: ARIZONA, COLORADO, IDAHO, MONTANA, NEVADA. NEW MEXICO, UTAH, AND WYOMING. TO PROVIDE PERSPECTIVE ON THE PROBLEMS OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN THE REGION, FOUR ENERGY RESOURCES IMPORTANT IN THE EIGHT STATES ARE DESCRIBED ALONG WITH. ASSOCIATED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS: COAL, OIL SHALE, NATURAL GAS, AND NUCLEAR MATERIALS. BY WAY OF CHARTS AND DISCUSSION, LEGISLATION IN THESE STATES IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS IS COMPARED: STUDY GROUPS /COMMISSIONS. SURFACE MINING AND SECLAMATION, LAND USE. ENERGY CONVERSION FACILITIES, ATOMIC ENERGY, CONSERVATION OF ENERGY, AND LEGAL STANDING FOR CITIZEN ACTION. IN ADDITION, THE POSSIBILITY OF A REGIONAL APPROACH TO SOME OF THESE TOPICS IS EXPLORED. THIS IS FOLLOWED BY A CONSIDERATION OF ISSUES OF LEGAL JURISDICTION AND DECISION- MAKING POWER WITH THEIR EFFECT ON THE RESOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONS. THE FIFTH SECTION IS A DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS ASPECTS OF POLICY FORMULATION IN THE REALM OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT, USE, ANO NEEBED RESEARCH. A CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ARE PRESENTED IN THE FINAL SECTIONS.

REGIONAL ANALYSIS /DECISION MAKING /ENERGY /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION/ LEGISLATION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /COALS /OIL SHALES /NATURAL GAS /NUCLEAR ENERGY /STRIP MINES /LAND RECLAMATION /LAND USE /ENERGY CONVERSION /LEGAL ASPECTS

209

SCIENCE

1973

DRY GEOTHERMAL WELLS: PROMISING EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.

SAME AS AUTHOR 182(41C7):43 -45.

TWO QUESTIONS ABOUT TAPPING DRY GEOTHERMAL DEPOSITS IN IGNEOUS ROCKS HAVE BEEN ANSWERED BY EXPERIMENTS IN NEW MEXICO. IT HAS BEEN DEMONSTRATED THAT GRANITE CAN DE HYDROFP ACTURED, AND THAT IT IS SUFFICIENTLY IMPERMEABLE TO HOLD WATER. PROJECTS IN MONTANA ARE UNDERWAY TO ASSESS DRY GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES ANO TO CONFIRM SUSPECTED DEPOSITS.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /NEW MEXICC /MONTANA /HYDROFRACTURING /LAND RESOURCES/ /SOUTHWEST U.S.

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES 220

210

SCIENCE NEWS

1971

SHARP CONFLICT ON STRIP -MINE RECLAMATION.

SAME AS AUTHOR 99(181:297 -298. THE EFFECTIVENESS CF RECLAMATION OF STIP -MINED LAND ISBEING QUESTIONED BY SCIENTISTS. OR. ROBERT CURRY, UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA, CONTENDS THAT SOIL REQUIRES THOUSANDS OF YEARS TO RETURNTO FULL. ECOLOGICAL VIGOR. MAN -INTRODUCED FERTIILIZERS WILL SIMPLY RUN OFFWITH WATER IF NATURE- CONDITIONED SUBSTRATE IS NOTPRESENT. DR. RONALD D. HILL OF THE WATER QUALITY OFFICE OF THE ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION AGENCY DISAGREES AND ARGUES THAT STRIP -MINED LANDCAN RE RECLAIMED AT A REASONABLE COST. HOWEVER, PLANNING ANO CERTAIN METHODS OF STRIP MINING MUST BE ADHERED TO.

STRIP MIRES /COAL MINES /MINE WASTES /LAND RECLAMATION/SOIL EROSION/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER POLLUTION /REVEGETATION /ECONOMICEFFICIENCY /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /PLANNING

211

SCOFIELD. F.C., III.

1971 POWER PLANT HEAT REJECTION IN AN ARID CLIMATE

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION,REPORT 33. 86P. SWRA W73- 07140.

IN AN ARIO CLIMATE THE CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER BY A STEAMPOWER PLANT MAY PLACE A CONSTRAINT ON THE PLANT SIZE ANOLOCATION. AND MAY AFFECT THE CHOICE OF NUCLEAR OR FOSSIL FUEL. LACK OF A FIRM WATER SUPPLY FOR COOLING TOWER MAKEUP MAY NECESSITATE A RESERVOIR,WHICH THEN COULD BE USED ASA COOLING POND. A REVIEW IS MADE OF THE FACTORS AFFECTING POWER PLANT SITING IN ARIZONA, AND THE ABILITY OF A COOLING POND TO DISSIPATE AN IMPOSED HEAT LOAD. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF COOLING TOWERS, PONDS, ANO SPRAY SYSTEMS ARE DEVELOPEDBASED ON METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. EVAPORATION FROM COOLING TOWERS AND SPRAY SYSTEMS IS CALCULATED, USING THE HEAT AND MASS BALANCE METHOD. MONTHLY EVAPORATION BASED ON ARIZONA CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA ISCOMPUTED FOR VARIOUS DESIGN CRITERIA AND OPERATING CONDITIONS. USE OF A SPRAY SYSTEM TO PROVIDE SUPPLEM;?NTAL COOLING DURING SUMMER MONTHS TOREDUCE THE REQUIRED POND AREA IS INVESTIGATED. RESULTS INDICATE THAT TOTAL EVAPORATION WILL BE HIGHEST FOR A COOLING POND, BUT USE OF A SUPPLEMENTAL SPRAY SYSTEM WILL REDUCE ANNUAL EVAPORATION BY APPROXIMATELY 26 PERCENT FROM THAT OF A COOLING POND DESIGNEDFOR SUMMER CONDITIONS.

COOLING TOWERS /SITES /POWFRPLANTS /HEAT TRANSFER /HEAT BUDGET/ CONSUMPTIVE USE /EVAPOAT ION /ARID LANDS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /DECISIONMAKING /' /EVAPORATION /MATHEMATICAL MODELS /RESERVOIRS

212

SHIRAZI. M.A.

1972 DRY COOLING TOWERS FOR STEAM ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS IN ARID REGIONS.

WATER RESEARCH 6 :1309- 1319. SWRA W73- 07490. 221

IN ARIO REGIONS CF THE WORLD, INCLUDING THE WESTERN UNITED STATES, THE. DISPOSAL OF WASTE HEAT'BY EVAPORATIVE COOLING TOWERS ANO COOLING PONDS INFRINGES FURTHER ON THE ENVIRONMENT ßY DEPLETING VALUAHLE WATER RESOURCES. FOR EXAMPLE, THE WATER LOSS FROM AN EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM FOR A 1CCO -MW PLANT RANGES FROM 1C,G00 TO 3O,CLG ACRE -FT /YEAR. DRY -TYPE COOLING SYSTEMS OVERCOME BOTH OF THESE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS BUT AT AN INCREASED COST AS COMPARED WITH CONVENTIONAL EVAPORATIVE COOLING METHODS. WITH RESPECT TO THE APPLICATION OF DRY COOLING TOWERS TO POWERPLANTS, OPERATING AND DESIGN EXPERIENCES HAVE BEEN GAINED IN EUROPE WITH HELLER -TYP7 NATURAL DRAFT SYSTEMS ANO DIRECT CONDENSING MECHANICAL DRAFT SYSTEMS. DRY COOLING TONER SYSTEMS ARE OPTIMIZED AND COSTEO FOR SIX STEAM ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS LOCATED IN THE MIDDLE EASTERN COUNTRIES. NO ATTEMPT IS MADE TO ESTABLISH THE PRESENT OR FUTURE ENERGY NEEDS.

COOLING TOWERS/THERMAL POWERPLANTS /ARID LANDS /EVAPORATION /THERMAL POLLUTION /POWERPLANTS /ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND /COOLING /HEATED WATER /STEAM TURBINES /FUELS /WATER LOSS /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /COST COMPARISONS/ OPERATING COSTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /MIDDLE EAST

213

SHOEMAKER, J.W. /BEAUMONT, E.C. /KOTTLOWSKI, F.E. EDS.

1971

STRIPPABLE LOW- SULFUR COAL RESOURCES OF THE SAN JUAN BASIN IN NEW MEXICO AND COLORADO.

NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES, MEMOIR 25. 189 P.

IN ADDITION TO DETAILED SURVEYS OF SOME 25 SPECIFIC AREAS IN THIS REGION, THERE ARF ADDITIONAL PAPERS ON THE STRATIGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF COAL IN THE BASIN, DRILLING AND WASHABILITY TESTING, ECONOMIC FACTORS, SULFUR IN THE BASIN S COALS, THE IMPACT OF COAL ON NORTHWESTERN NEW MEXICO, RECENT COAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE BASIN, AND THE STRATIDYNAMICS OF COAL DEPOSITION IN THE SOUTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. (OALS)

EXPLORATION /NEW MEXICO /COLORADO /STRATIGRAPHY /SURVEYS /SULFUR /COAL MINES /ECONOMIC IMPACT /BASINS /DRILLING /STRIP MINES

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS AREA /COLORADO PLATEAU /SAN JUAN RIVER BASIN

214

SHRINER, R.O. /COHEN, M.

1973

A SOLAR ENERGY BIBLIOGRAPHY.

PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER 43(101:17 -18.

EZUIPi1ENT COST FOR SOLAR- PRODt10E0 ELECTRIC POWER IS BETWEEN TWO TO THREE ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE MORE COSTLY THAN THAT NOW BEING PRODUCED BY FOSSIL FUEL STEAM GENERATING PLANTS. THIS FACTOR WILL SOON DIMINISH AS FOSSIL FUEL SUPPLIES DECREASE AND THE COST RISES. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITERATURE ON SOLAR ENERGY RESEARCH 1S INCLUDED. 222

ELECTRIC POWER /COSTS /FOSSIL FUELS /BIBLIOGRAPHIES /COST COMPARISONS

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY

215

SIEHL,G.H

1971

LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS CONCERNING SURFACE MINING OF COAL: A HISTORY OF LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS AND AN ANALYSIS OF PENDING MEASURES.

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION. U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 22 P.

THIS CONCISE REVIEW OF FEDERAL ATTEMPTS TO REGULATE STRIP MINING ANO ENCOURAGE LANG RECLAMATION IS PERTINENT TO THE WATER -SHORT AMERICAN WEST. WHATEVER FUTURE SURFACE MINING FOR COAL POSSESSES LIES BURIED UNDER THE GREAT PLAINS AND THE SOUTHWESTERN PLATEAUS.

STRIP MINES /COAL MINES /MINE WASTES /WATER POLLUTION /LAND RECLAMATION/ ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /REVEGETATION

216

SIMONS, M.

1967

DESERTS, THE PROBLEM OF WATER IN ARID LANDS.

OXFORD UNIVERISTY PRESS, LONDON. 96 P. MGA 21.1 -17. SWRA W70- 02561.

AN EXTENSIVE AND WELL-ILLUSTRATED OVERVIEW OF DESERT CLIMATE, PLANTS, AND ANIMALS, WITH THE MAIN EMPHASIS ON SOURCES OF WATER: GROUNDWATER, WATER TRANSFER, DESALINATION, WEATHER MODIFICATION TO INCREASE RAINFALL. THE QUESTION IS RAISED CONCERNING THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY IN COMMITTING WATER DEVELOPMENTS IN ARIO LANDS TO IRRIGATION RATHER THAN TO ALTERNATIVE USES. INCLUDED IS AN APPENDIX DESCRIBING THE KOEPPEN CLASSIFICATION OF DESERT CLIMATES, WITH EXAMPLES OF ITS APPLICATION. (DAIS)

ARID LANDS /ACCLIMATIZATION /WATER TRANSFER /CLIMATOLOGY / GRCUNDWATER/ SURFACE WATERS /DESERTS /DESALINATION PROCESSES /WATER SHORTAGE /ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY /ARABLE LAND /DESALINATION /IRRIGATED LANDS /SATURATED SOILS/ SALINE SOILS /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY /PLANT PHYSIOLOGY/ CALIFORNIA /WEATHER MODIFICATION /AGRICULTURE

217

SKOGERBOE, G.V.

1973 223

AGRICULTURAL IMPACT ON WATER. QUALITY IN WESTERN RIVERS. IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON FIVERS (RIVFP MECHANICS II), EDITED AND PUBLISHED BY HSIEH WEN SHEN. voR1 COLLINS, COLORACU, CRAFTER 12, P. 1-25.

COLORADO 'GTATE UNIVERSITY, FORT COLLINS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. SWRA W74- C3796.

THE PRACTICE OF IRRIGATION HAS D=TRIMENTAL EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL WATER QUALITY. USUALLY, THE DUALITY OF WATER DRAINING FROM IRRIGATED AREAS IS MATERIALLY DEGRADED IN SEVERAL WAYS AS COMPARED WITH THE WATER AP °LIED. HOWEVER, IRRIGATION CAN ALSO PRODUCE BENEFICIAL WATER QUALITY EFFECTS THROUGH DENITRTFICATION, PHOSPHATE REDUCTION IN SUBSURFACE RETURN FLOWS, AND BIOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS. IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS ARE OF SPECIAL CONCEPN BECAUSE IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IS THE. LARGEST CONSUMER OF WATER RESOURCES. THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, A THIRD OF THE IRRIGATED LAND IS PLAGUED BY SALT PROBLEMS. THE MAJOR WATER QUALITY PROBLEM RESULTING FROM IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IS THE SALT TRANSPORTED TO GROUNDWATER RESERVOIR AND RIVERS BY IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW. OTHER PROBLEMS INCLUDE THE MOVEMENT OF SEDIMENTS. VARIABLE AMOUNTS OF FERTILIZERS AND PESTICIDES, PHOSPHATES (WHICH MAY COME FROM FERTILIZERS), AND INCREASED BACTERIAL CONTENT IN SURFACE RETURN FLOWS. SUBSURFACE RETURN FLOWS FREQUENTLY SHOW CONSIDERABLE INCREASE IN SALTS, INCLUDING NITRATES, BUT SHOW A REDUCTION IN BACTERIA. (USGS)

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /IRRIGATION PRACTICES/ RETURN FLOW /WATER QUALITY/ SALINITY /NUTRIENTS /PESTICIDES /NITRATES

218

SMITH, J.B. ET AL

1972 STRIPPABLE COAL RESERVES OF WYOMING.

U.S. BUREAU OF MINES. INFORMATION CIRCULAR 8538. 51 P.

USING DATA FROM ALL AVAILABLE SOURCES THE REPORT EESTIMATES WYOMING S STRIPPABLE RESERVES AS 23 BILLION TONS IN SEVEN MAJOR AREAS. STRIPPABLE RESERVES WERE DEFINED AS FOLLOWS: MINIMUM COALBED THICKNESS OF FIVE FEET: OVERBURDEN TO COAL RATIOS OF LESS THAN 10 CUBIC YARDS OF OVERBURDEN PER TON OF COAL; TOTAL OVERBURDEN THICKNESS OF NO MORE THAN 120 FEET, EXCEPT FOR A SINGLE THICK BED OR MULTIPLE BEDS.

STRIP MINES /LAND RESOURCES /WYOMING /FUELS /ENERGY /COALS /OVERBURDEN

219

STEINER. W.E.

1969

THE WATER SITUATION.

ARIZONA WATERSHED SYMPOSIUM, 13TH, PHOENIX, ARIZONA, SEPTEMBER 24, 1969, PROCEEDINGS, P.11 -14. SWRA W70- 04914. 224

APT7ONA, AN ARID STATE- IS FX?FPTERGING At; ENORMOUS RATE OF GROWTH. WITHOUT AN ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY THIS GRGvITH WILL Jt. SEVERLY LIMITED. EVEN THOUGH URBAN LANG USES A2F FXPCTFD 10 TAKE O'JEP MUCH OF THE PRESENTLY IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL AC

ARIZONA /PLANNING /WATER SUPPLY /WATER RESOURCES/WATER ALLOCATION(PaLICY) /POPULATION /GROWTH RATES /LAND USE /IRRIGATION /'WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /'WATER DEMAND /MATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT /ARID LANDS/ / GROUNDWATER /OVE.RDRAFT /URBANIZATION /SUBSIDENCE /DECISION MAKING /OPTIMUM DEVELOPMENT PLANS

= IDENTIFIERS: /CENTRAL ARIZONA PROJECT/ARIZONA INTERSTATE STREAM COMMISSION

220

STEINER, W.E.

1972

STATE WATER RESOURCE PLANNING IN ARID ARIZONA.

THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE PLANNING OF WATERRESOURCES, MEXICO CITY, DECEMBER 4 -8, 1972, PAPER. 16 P. SWRA W74-06181.

ARIZONA S DEMAND FOR WATER EXCEEDS THE SUPPLY ANO, ASTHE POPULATION CONTINUES TO INCREASE, IT APPEARS THAI THE FUTUREFORBOOES AN EVEN GREATER IMBALANCE. THREE PROBLEMS FACED IN ARIZONA AND THE PLANNING APPROACHES UNDERTAKEN BY STATE GOVERNMENT ARE DISCUSSED. FIRST, SOUTHWESTERN STATES MUST DECIDE WHETHER TO SUBMIT TO COSTLY AUGMENTATION OF THEIR AVAILABLE SLPPLIES OR TO LIVE WITHIN THE RESOURCES CURRENTLY AVAILABLE AND TO MODIFY USE PATTERNSANO HABITS ACCORDINGLY. ARIZONA PROPOSES TO DEVELOP PLANS FOR MEETING EACH OF THESE TWO ALTERNATIVE FUTURES AND TO EVALUATE THE COSTSAND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT FOR EACH PLAN. SECOND, THE ARID SOUTHWEST FACES PROBLEMS IN ALLOCATING AMONGST COMPETING USES ANO USERS. ARIZONA HAS UTILIZED A COMPUTERIZED ENGINEERING SYSTEMS APPROACHWHICH INTEGRATES AN ECONOMIC INPUT -OUTPUT MODEL OF THE STATE S ECONOMYAND ENGINEERING MODELS OF ALL WATEP SUPPLY SYSTEMS AND THE GROUNDWATERBASINS, TO DETERMINE THE ALLOCATION AMONG USERS THAT SHOULD MAXIMIZE THESTATE S ECONOMY. MINIMIZE TOTAL WATER SUPPLY COSTS FOR ALLSOURCES OF WATER, AND EQUALIZE GROUNDWATER DECLINES TO THE EXTENTPRACTICAELE. AND THIRD, PROFLIGATE DEVELOPMENT OF MEN RESIDENTIAL SUBDIVISIONOCCURS IN AREAS OF SEVERELY LIMITED WATER SUPPLIES. BEFORE LOT SALES CAN COMMENCE IN ARIZONA, THE STATE MUST APPROVE THE ADEQUACY OF WATER SUPPLY FOR NEW SUBDIVISIONS, REGARDING QUALITY AND QUANTITY.

WATER RESOURCES /WATER SUPPLY/ARIZONA/SOUTHWEST U.S. /ARID LANDS/ GROUNDWATER BASINS / ECONOMICS /EVALUATION /COSTS /CATER QUALITY/ MATHEMATICAL MODELS /POLITICAL A :',RECTS /WATER SHORTAGE /CITY PLANNING

= IDENTIFIERS: /RESOURCE INVENTORY 225

221

STERLING, C.

1971 ASWAN DAM LOOSES A FLOOD OF PROBLEMS.

LIFE 70(5):46 -46A. SWRA W71- C7821. FOR MILLENIA, THE NILE RIVER HAS SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE INTHE NILE VALLEY RY ITS ANNUAL FLOODING CYCLE. THE SILTS DEPOSITED BY THE FLOODWATERS HAVE MAINTAINED A HIGH LEVEL OF SOILFERTILITY AND CREATED THE NILE DELTA. ADDITIONALLY. FLOOD WATERS WASHED AWAY SALT ACCUMULATIONS RESULTING FROM AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES. SINCE_ 1964, THE ASWAN HIGH DAM HAS ELIMINATED ANNUAL FLOODING BY BACKINGUP WATER INTO LAKE NASSER, AND SINCE 1967. IT HAS BEEN PRODUCINGHYDROELECTRIC POWER. THE AIM OF THE DAM HAS BEEN TO PERMIT DOUBLE -CROPAGRICULTURE BY CANAL IRRIGATION, FLOOD ELIMINATION ANO POWERPRODUCTION. SINCE THE DAM BEGAN OPERATION, SOIL SALINITY LEVELS HAVE RISENOMINOUSLY, INCREASING AMOUNTS OF ACREAGE NEED ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZERAND EROSION IS EATING AT THE DELTA COASTLINE, NOW EXPOSED TOTHE FULL FORCE OF MARINE CURRENTS. BILHARZIASIS, A DEBILITATING DISEASE CAUSED BY A PARASITE CARRIED BY WATER SNAILS, HAS SHOT FROM 0 PERCENTTO 80 PERCENT IN AREAS OF NEWLY -BUILT CANALS. CONTROL OF THE SNAILS WAS FORMERLY EFFECTED BY THE DRY PERIODS AFTER THE FLOODS,AND THE CANALS ENCOURAGE THE SPREAD OF SNAILS. BECAUSE. THE FRESHER NILE WATERSNO LONGER DILUTE RED SEA WATER FLOWING INTO THE EASTERNMEDITERRANEAN, MARINE ECOLOGIC UPHEAVAL HAS RESULTED. ENDANGERING THEFISHING INDUSTRY OF THE ENTIRE AREA. ALTHOUGH THE GOVERNMENTHOPED TO RECLAIM 1.300,000 ACRES. SO FAR LESS THAN 300,000 ACRES HAVE BEENRECLAIMED. LAKE NASSER LOSSES OF WATER THROUGH UNDERGROUND SEEPAGE AND EVAPORATION ARE ENORMOUS. BECAUSE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE IT HAS CREATED, THE DAM HAS GREATLY IMPOVERISHED AN ALREADY DESTITUTENATION. (GALS)

DAMS /RIVER BASINS /SILTS /ARID LANDS /POLITICAL ASPECTS /SOCIALASPECTS/ ECOLOGY /HYDROELECTRIC POWER /SALINE SOILS /SOIL EROSION /FERTILITY/ DELTAS

= IDENTIFIERS: /EGYPT /ASWAN HIGH DAM /VILE RIVER/DEVELOPING COUNTRIES/ SALINIZATION

222

STORK, K.E. ED.

1973 THE ROLE OF WATER IN THE ENERGY CRISIS; PROCEEDINGS OF A CONFERENCE AT LINCOLN NEBRASKA. OCTOBER 23 -24, 1973.

NEBRASKA WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, PUBLICATION. 219 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -232 404. SWRA W74- 07961. WAYS THAT THE WATER RESOURCES COMMUNITY COULD HELP SOLVE NATIONAL AND REGIONAL ENERGY PROBLEMS ARE PRESENTED. TOPICS DISCUSSED INCLUDE ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIP (ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL, POLITICAL -SOCIAL, AND TECHNOLOGICAL), THE ROLE OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE ENERGY CRISIS. REGIONAL ENERGY PROBLEMS, ANO AN ASSESSMENT OF RESEARCH NEEDS. WHILE TRADITIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES HAVE BEEN LARGELY EXPLOITED, AND TECHNOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH THEIR DEVELOPMENT ARE ESTABLISHED, GREAT POTENTIAL EXISTS FOR SOLAR ANO GEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT. IN /SUPPLEMENTING THE ENERGY POOL, HOWEVER, OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCING ENERGY REQUIREMENTS SHOULD NOT BE OVERLOOKED. THE WATER RESOURCES FIELD HAS SUCH POTENTIAL THROUGH IMPROVED MANAGEMENT, REGULATION. AND APPLICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY. ENERGY AND WATER CONSERVATION CAN ALSO 3E ACHIEVED THROUGH ECONOMIC MEANS, THROUGH REALISTIC PRICING POLICIES. IN ADDITION, QUESTIONS OF HOW ANO WHERE ENERGY SUPPLIES CAN BE CONSERVED WITH MINIMAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DISRUPTION NEED TO BE ANSWERED. USES OF ENERGY ANO WATER ARE HIGHLY INTERRELATED. WAYS MUST BE FOUND TO CURTAIL AMOUNTS ANO RATES OF WATER AND ENERGY CONSUMED THROUGH NEW MANJFACTURING METHODS, IMPROVED IRRIGATION, BETTER MANAGEMENT, AND OTHER PROCEDURES. (USGS) 226

ENEPGY /WATER MANAGEMENT /WATER CONSU`4PTION(EXCLUDES CONSUMPTIVE USE)/ WATER RESOURC'-.S /WATER DEMAND /ALTERNATIVE WATER USE /WATER POLLUTION/ WATER RATES /WATER UTILIZATION /IRRIGATION EFFICTENCY /NUCLEAR ENERGY/ RESEARCH ANO DEVELOPMENT /TECHNOLOGY /WATER ALLOCATION(POLICY) /WATER SHORTAGE /WATER SUPPLY /WATER CONSERVATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENERGY CRISIS /ENERGY -WATER 2FLATIONSHIPS /ENERGY POOL/ WATER RESOURCES PLANNING /SOLAR ENERGY /GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

223

STRONBERG, R.P.

1973

A SOLAR COMMUNITY. PRESENTED AT A CONFERENCE THE ENERGY CRISIS --THE IMPACT ON NEW MEXICO, MAY 4, 1973.

NEW MEXICO GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, INC. 8 P.

A SOLAR COMMUNITY IS DESCRIBED IN WHICH ALMOST ALL THE ENERGY NEEDS OF THE COMMUNITY ARE PROVIDED BY SOLAR ENERGY. FLUIDS HEATED IN SOLAR COLLECTORS WOULD SUPPLY THE ENERGY FOR GENERATING ELECTRICITY. THE ENERGY PE(IAINING IN THE FLUIDS AFTER GENERATING ELECTRICITY WOULD BE USED TO HEAT WATER ANO AIR CONDITION OR HEAT HOMES. COST ESTIMATES FOR 1985 INDICATE A SAVINGS OF 62 PERCENT ON ENERGY, WITH COSTS APPROXIMATELY 120 PERCENT THOSE OF A CONVENTIONAL COMMUNITY.

COST COMPARISONS /COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT /ELECTRIC POWER /HEATED WATER/ COSTS /FORECASTING

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING /SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS

224

SUMMERS. W.K. COMP.

1971

ANNOTATED ANO INDEXED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GEOTHERMAL PHENOMENA.

NEW MEXICO, STATE BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES, SOCORRO. 665 P.

THIS MASSIVE WORK, COMPLETED IN A3 -YEAR PERIOD FROM JULY 1969 TO JULY 1971 ON NSF GRANT NO. GN -7b4, INCLUDES OVER 14,00ù ENTRIES COVERING ALL NATURAL, PHYSICAL, AND CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE EARTH S HEAT. IT PURPORTS TO LIST 95 PERCENT OF REFERENCES ON GEOTHERMAL PHENOMENA APPEARING THROUGH DECEMBER 31, 1969, WITH A FEW KEY REFERENCES FOR 1970. AUTHOR, GEOGRAPHICAL, AND SUBJECT INDEXES ARE INCLUDED. A HIGH PERCENTAGE OF THE ITEMS ARE ANNOTATED.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES/ BIBLIOGRAPHIES /HEAT BUDGET /THERMAL POWER /STEAM /HOT SPRINGS 227

225

SUMMERS. N.K.

1972 GEOTHERMAL PROSPECTS IN NEW MEXICO. IN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES, 1972, EL CENTRO CONFERENCE, FEB. 16 -18, 1972, PROCEEDINGS. PAPER I, 23 P.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL. DAVIS, CALIFORNIA. PUBLICATION. SWRA W73- 03428. SIXTY ARE4S IN NEW MEXICO DISCHARGE GROUNDWATER AT TEMPERATURES OF 90 DEGREES F.OP HICHEP. THE DATA FOR 47 APEAS HAVE BEEN FIELD CHECKED AND SHOW THAT 1) THERMAL WATERS OCCUR. IN THE WESTERN HALF OF THE STATE, PRIMARILY IN THE RIO GRANDE AND GILA -SAN FRANCISCO DRAINAGE BASINS; 2) 16 AREAS HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED BY WELLS, WHEREAS 31 AREAS ARE MARKED BY SPRINGS: 3) THE WATERS ISSUE FROM ROCKS RANGING FROM PRECA1bRIAN TO CENOZOIC IN AGE, WITH THE CENOZOIC ROCKS PREDOMINANT; 4) THE. WATERS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH IGNEOUS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN ABOUT EQUAL PROPORTIONS: 5) THE WATERS OCCUR PRIMARILY IN AREAS OF EXTENSIVE VOLCANISM AND SECONDARILY IN FAULT ZONES; 6) THE WATERS DISCHARGE FROM SPRINGS NEAR STREAMS BUT MOSTLY AT POINTS WELL ABOVE THE RIVER LEVELS: 7) THE DISCHARGE MAY BE DIRECTLY FROM FRACTURES, FROM BENEATH A TALUS COVER, OR FROM ALLUVIUM, OR FROM SOME COMBINATIONS OF THESE (ONE SPRING DISCHARGES FROM A TUFA MOUND); AND 8) THE MEDIAN PH IS 7.7. THE MEDIAN MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE IS ABOUT 105 DEGREES F., THE MEDIAN DISCHARGE OF SPRINGS IS 30.5 GPM, AND THE MEDIAN CONCENTRATION OF SODIUM IS 167 PPM, OF MAGNESIUM 6.9 PPM, OF CALCIUM 37.6 PPM, OF LITHIUM 0.30 PPM, ANO OF POTASSIUM 10.G PPM. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SUBSURFACE WATERS /THERMAL POWER /NEW MEXICO/THERMAL MATER /WATER TEMPERATURE /THERMAL PROPERTIES /HYOROGEOLOGY /EXPLORATION/ DRILLING /WATER QUALITY

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES /RIO GRANDE TROUGH

226

SUMMERS, W.K. /ROSS, S.H.

1971

GEOTHERMICS IN NORTH AMERICA: PRESENT AND FUTURE.

EARTH SCIENCE BULLETIN 4(1):7 -22. SWRA W72- 01756.

TODAY THE PRIMARY INTEREST IN GEOTHERMICS IS FOR THE GENERATIONOF ELECTRICAL POWER, ALTHOUGH A NUMBER OF OTHER VERY IiPORTANT USES ARE PROBABLE. GEOTHERMAL POWER DEVELOPMENT IS ATTRACTING INVESTMENT CAPITAL FOR A NUMBER OP IMPORTANT REASONS: ELECTRICITY GENERATED IS COMPETITIVE PRICEWISE WITH ELECTRICITY FROM MORE CONVENTIONALSOURCES, CAPITAL EXPENDITURES CAN BE MADE ON AN AS NEEDED BASIS, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IS MINIMAL, OTHER PROFITABLE ECONOMIC ACTIVITIESSUCH AS MINERAL EXTRACTION CAN BE CARRIED ON SIDE BY SIDE WITHELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION, AND THE RESOURCE SEEMS TO BE VIRTUALLYINEXHAUSTIBLE. DEVELOPED FIELDS IN NORTH AMERICA ARE DESCRIBED, 'AS WELL AS REGIONS WITH GREAT EXPLORATION POTENTIAL. MAPS ARE INCLUDED OF THERMALLY IMPORTANT AREAS IN THE SALTON- MEXICALI GEOTHERMAL PROVINCE,THE SALTON SEA GEOTHERMAL AREA, THE MEXICALI THERMAL AREA,CALIFORNIA, NEVADA, IDAHO, OREGON, MEXICO, ANO CENTRAL AMERICA.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ELECTRIC POWER /THERMAL POWER /EXPLORATION/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /MULTIPLE -PURPOSE PROJECTS /CALIFORNIA/NEVADA/ IDAHO /RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /COSTS /PRICES /OREGON /MEXICO

= IDENTIFIERS: /SALTON SEA /BAJA CALIFORNIA /GEOTHERMAL STEAM ACT,1970 228

227

SUMNER, n.

1973 OIL SHALE BIG CASINO ONTHE ENERGY SCENE.

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MAGAZINE4(3):47 -54. AND ENVIRONMENTAL OIL SHALE IS BOTH APOTENTIAL ENEPGY BONANZA INTF';IOR IS STIMULATINGAN OIL SHALE DISASTER. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF PROGRAM WITH LITTLE PRE-PLANNING ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENTAL A WILDERNESS AREA, ANDTHE IMPACT OF WASTE DISPOSAL, MINING IN RESOURCE IS POWERED DEVELOPMENT ON WILDLIFE. THE DRIVE TO EXPLOIT THE CARRELS OF RECOVERABLE SHALEOIL IN UTAH, BY ESTIMATES OF 550 BILLION DRIVEN BY THE COLORADO, ANO WYOMING. OPPOSITION TO THE PROGRAM IS POSSIBILITY OF 11 MILLION ACRESBEING DEVASTATED. EFFECTS /LAND OIL SHALES /WATER POLLUTION/AIR POLLUTION /ENVIRONMENTAL RECLAMATION /REVE.GETATION /LANORESOURCES /MINERAL INDUSTRY/ RIVER BASIN /UTAH /WYOMING/COLORADO/ ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /COLORADO DISPOSAL WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT/WILDLIFE CONSERVATION /WASTE

= IDENTIFIERS: /REFININGOPERATIONS

228

SWARTMAN, R.K.

1972

THE SOLAR ERA. 5: THE POLLUTION OF OUR SOLAR ENERGY.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 94(12):23 -26.

EXTREME CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION COULD BE ANOTHER ICE AGE, MELTING POLAR ICE CAPS, MASSIVE CARCINOGENIC ULTRA VIOLET RADIATION. GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, ANO THE PUBLIC MUST MAKE THE EFFORT ANO PAY THE PRICE TO REVERSE THE RISING POLLUTION DOWN TO A RATIONAL MINIMUM. SOME ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS COULD AFFECT THE AMOUNT OF SOLAR RADIATION REACHING THE EARTH WHILE OTHER POLLUTANTS WOULD ALTER THE QUALITY RATHER THAN THE QUANTITY OF SOLAR RADIATION,

AIR POLLUTION /SOLAR RADIATION / ENVIRONMENT /GOVERNMENTS/INSTITUTIONS/ CLIMATOLOGY

=IDENTIFIERS:/SOLAR ENERGY

229

SIEGO, G.C.

1971

THE U.S. ENERGY PROBLEM. VOL. ITs APPENDICES PART A.

INTERTECHNOLOGY CORPORATION, VIRGINIA. 744 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB- 207 51R. 229

APPENDIX TO A REPORT PREPARED FOR THE RESEARCH APPLIEDTO NATIONAL NEEDS (RANN) PROGRAM OF 1HE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION NSF-RANN 71 -1 -1. INCLUDES ENERGY STATUS ANO OUTLOOK FOR U.S. ANO WORLD. APPENOIX G DISCUSSES THE POTENTIAL JSE OF SOLARENERGY. THE AUTHOR BELIEVES THAT SOME USE OF SOLAR ENERGY IN LIMITED FORMS ISFEASIBLE. THE USES FOR HOME HEATING ANO COOLING, AND HOT WATER HEATINGARE TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE AND SOME CASES ECONOMICALLYFEASIBLE. A PROGRAM FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN USE OF SOLAR HEATING ANO COOLINGANO STORAGE OF SOLAR ENERGY FOR TERRESTRIAL SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS IS OUTLINED.

EVALUATION /ECONOMICS /DESIGN CRITERIA

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /SPACE HEATING /SOLARAIR CONDITIONING /SOLAR WATER HEATERS

230

TALBOT, B.

1973 BURLINGTON NORTHERN. INC. ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS RECORD: PROPOSED RAILROAD, DOUGLAS TO GILLETTE, WYOMING.

U.S. BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT. 10 P. AVAILABLE FROM DISTRICT OFFICE, 30X 2834, CASPER, WYOMING. 82601.

A PROPOSED RAILROAD FROM GILLETTE TO DOUGLAS, WYOMING MAY GREATLY DISTURB THE ARID, SPARSELY -POPULATED AREA UNLESS AN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY IS DONE PRIOR TO ITS CONSTRUCTION. DESIGNED TO HAUL STRIP -MINED COAL, THE 126- MILE -LONG SPUR COULD THREATEN WILDLIFE POPULATIONS. EXISTING LIVESTOCK USE, AND MAR THE AESTHETICS OF THE THUNDER BASIN NATIONAL GRASSLAND. THE IMPACT OF INCREASED POPULATION IN THIS ALL BUT UNINHABITED AREA IS BRIEFLY CONSIDERED. GILLETTE IS GIVEN AS AN EXAMPLE: DURING A FOUR -YEAR GAS- AND -OIL BOOM, THIS TOWN OF 8,000 AVERAGED ONE SUICIDE A WEEK, TEN TIMES THE NATIONAL AVERAGE. DIVORCE, DELINQUENCY, ALCOHOLISM, AND DEPRESSION, ALSO INCREASED ACCORDLINGLY. THIS BRIEF PAPER POINTS OUT THE PIT =ALLS OF SHORT -TERM BOOMS IN ARID, UNPOPULATED AREAS.

WYOMING /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /RAILROADS /STRIP MINES /SOCIAL ASPECTS/ SOCIAL IMPACT /ARID LANDS

= IDENTIFIERS: /THUNDER BASIN NATIONAL GRASSLAND /BURLINGTON NORTHERN, INC.

231

TALBOT, J.B. COMP.

1971

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON GEOTHERMAL RESEARCH.

U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTER. BIBLIOGRAPHY 249. 14 P.

CONTAINED ARE 15G CITATIONS FROM BIBLIOGRAPHIC SOURCES ANO TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS COVERING THE YEARS 19,34 THROUGH EARLY 1971. THE REFERENCES ARE LISTED ALPHABETICALLY BY PERSONAL AUTHOR, AND NOTATIONS ARE INCLUDED IF THEY ARE NOT IN THE BUREAU LIBRARY IN DENVER. IT IS NOTED THAT THE COVERAGE IS GENERAL ANO DOES NOT INCLUDE ANY ONE SPECIFIC AREA.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES /BRINES /FUELS /GEOCHEMISTRY /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /HEAT TRANSFER /STEAM /THERMAL POWER /HOT SPRINGS /HEAT FLOW /GEYSERS

= IDENTIFIERS: /IMPERIAL VALLEY /NEW ZEALAND 230

232

TASIEFF, H.

1972

ETHIOPIA S GEOTHERMIC POS. >IsILITIES.

COMPRESSED AIR MAGAZINE 77(1):14 -17.

THE DANAKIL DEPRESSION HOLDS AN ENORMOUS UNDERGROUND STEAM RESERVE. SINCE GEOTHERMAL POWER IS RJLATIVELY CHi:A-' PO'WE2 THIS RESOURCE COULD BE OF SIGNIFICANCE IN OEVELOPING THIS IMPOVERISHED NATION. A COST COMPARISON IS MADE BETWEEN GEOTHERMAL POWER ANO OTHER SOURCES SUCH AS COAL, HYDROELECTRIC, AND !NUCLEAR.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /AFRICA /ËNERGY CONVERSION/THERMAL POWER /LAND RESOURCES /COST COMPARISONS

= IDENTIFIERS : /ETHIOPIA /ALTE0NATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

233

THAMES, J.L. /CROMPTON, E.J.

1974 RECLAMATION STUDIES ON BLACK MESA.

PROGRESSIVE AGRICULTURE IN ARIZONA 26(1):14 -16. THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA DEPARTMENT OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IS CONDUCTING A RESEARCH PROJECT WITH PEABODY COAL CÜAPANY ON THE RECLAMATION POSSIBILITIES OF BLACK MESA MINE SPOILS. THE STUDY WILL MONITOR THE QUALITY OF THE SOIL USED IN RECLAMATION AND ITS MOISTURE HOLDING ABILITY. TO DATE, THE STUDY SUGGESTS THAT RECLAMATION AT THE MINE SITE IS PROCEEDING PROPERLY, AND THAT THE RECLAIMED SOIL WILL BE CAPABLE OF GROWING VEGETATION.

MINE WASTES /SOIL MOISTURE /LAND RECLAMATION /VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT

= IDENTIFIERS: /PEABODY COAL COMPANY /BLACK MESA

234

THOMAS, G.W. /BOX, T.W.

1969 SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF WATER IMPORTATION INTO ARID LANDS. IN W.G. MCGINNIES AND B.J. GOLDMAN, EDS., *ARID LANDS IN PERSPECTIVE, P. 363 -374.

UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA PRESS, TUCSON. 421 P. SWRA W69-09218.

LARGE -SCALE WATER MOVEMENT TO THE ARID ZONES APPEARS TO (;F INEVITABLE. PRESSURES FOR THESE F'OJECTS INCREASE BECAUSE THEY ARE TECHNOLOGICALLY POSSIBLE, ECONOMICALLY POSSIBLí. AND MAY BE NECESSARY FOR SOCIETY TO SURVIVE AND GROW. SEVERAL EXAMPLES OF" LARGE SCALE WATER PROJECTS ARE PRESENTED:CALI'(?NI4 STATE WA1ER PROJECT, TEXAS WATER PLAN, NORTH AMERICAN WATER AN) POWER ALLIANCE, AUSTRALIAN SNOWY MOUNTAINS, GREAT LAKES PLAN FOR THE AMAZON, ASWAN HIGH DAM. THE SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOME OF THESE PROJECTS ARE CONSIDERED. 231

CHANGES IN FISH SPECIES AND POPULATIONS, BIRD MIGRATORYROUTES AND DENSITIES AND TERRESTRIAL HABITAT DESTRUCTION AREDOCUMENTED. WIDER MASS USE OF INSECTICIDES, INCREASES IN MOSQUITOPOULATIONS, AND ALTERATION OF MICROHABITATS ARE TO BE EXPECTED. THE AUTHORS URGE THAT SOUND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES BE INCORPORATED IN THE INITIALPLANNING FOR LARGE SCALE WATER MOVEMENT. IT IS HIGHLY POSSIBLE THAT ECOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING COULD BE THE MAJOR FACTOR IN DECISION-MAKING -- EVEN OVERRIDING POLITICAL, SOCIAL OR ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIJNS. NO EXAMPLE OF GOOD ADVANCED PLANNING INVOLVING THE ENTIRE SCIENTIFICCOMMUNITY COULD BE FOUND. (OALS)

WATER TPANSFER /SOCIAL IMPACT /ECOLOGY /ARID LANDS /MOSQUITOES/ DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS /DIVERSION LOSSES /FISH MANAGEMENT/INTER -BASIN TRANSFERS /LAND CLEARING /WATER DEMAND /WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT/LONG-TERM PLANNING /DECISION MAKING /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /SOCIALASPECTS/ ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT /MICROENVIRONMENT /TERRESTRIAL HABITATS/WILDLIFE HABITATS /IRRIGATION EFFECTS /AQUATIC HABITATS /BALANCE OFNATURE

= IDENTIFIERS: /CALIFORNIA STATE WATER PROJECT/TEXAS WATER PLAN /AMAZON GREAT LAKES PLAN /ASWAN HIGH DAM /NORTH AMERICAN WATER ANDPOWER ALLIANCE /SNOWY MOUNTAINS PROJECT

235

THORN, J.

1973

ON THE STRIP MINING FRONT: ACHIEVEMENT IN THE TRENCHES.

SOIL CONSERVATION 38(6):126 -127. EFFORTS BY THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE, CITIZENS, AND INDUSTRY TO CONTROL EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION FROM STRIP -MINED LAND ARE DISCUSSED. VARIOUS TACTICS AS TRIED IN WEST VIRGINIA ARE DESCRIBED. CONSERVATION DAMS KEPT SOIL FROM LEAVING THE IMMEDIATE MINING AREA. BACKFILLING, FERTILIZATION, AND SEEDING WITH LEGUMES ANO GRASSES ALL HELPED CHECK SOIL EROSION.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /COALS /LAND RECLAMATION /EROSION /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES / SEDIMENTATION /FERTILIZATION /PLANTING MANAGEMENT

236

TODD, D.K.

1970

REVIEW - WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT. U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, 1970 CONFERENCE PAPER 2:1160 -1163. AVAILABLE NTIS AS CONE 7&0101, V. 2. SWRA W72- 00968.

POSSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYING NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES TO DEVELOP AND MANAGE WATER RESOURCES FOR THE BENEFIT OF MAN HAVE BEEN STUDIED. EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL STUDIES HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN. APPLICATIONS HAVE BEEN CONSIDERED INCLUDING SITE STUDIES FOR PARTICULAR PROJECTS. ATTENTION HAS BEEN GIVEN TO THE ECONOMICS OF SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS, TO HAZARDS AND SAFETY PROBLEMS, TO LEGAL LIMITATIONS, TO GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS, ANO TO EFFECTS ON WATER QUALITY. THE NFT RESULT OF THIS EFFORT HAS BEEN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A LARGE BODY OF KNOWLEDGE READY TO BE DRAWN UPON WHEREVER ANO WHENEVER NEEDED. NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES ARE IMPORTANT TOOLS FOR WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT; THEY MUST BE CAREFULLY SELECTED SO AS TO SERVE THEIR INTENDED PURPOSE AT MINIMUM COST WITH FEW SIDE EFFECTS. RESULTS OF THE STUDIES INDICATE THE FOLLOWING CONCLUSIONS: 1) ALTHOUGH THERE ARE IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITATIONS, NO MAJOR TECHNICAL OBSTACLES EXIST TO THE CREATION OF PROPERLY LOCATED NUCLEAR CRATERS OR CHIMNEYS FOR WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT, 21 NUCLEAR CRATERS ANO CHIMNEYS HAVE POTENTIALLY IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS FOR A VARIETY OF WATER RESOURCES PURPOSES. 3) THE ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF 232

CONSTRUCTING NUCLEAR CRATERS AND CHINNE:YS FOR WATER RESOURCES PROJECTS CAN BF DEMONSTRATED In i,ANY SITUATTOf,`: , 4)tIURE Dr*TNITIVE INFORMATION SHOULD DE IVE_ WITH TIME F<

WATER RESOURCES UEVFLOPiENT /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /CONSTRUCTION/ EXCAVATION /CRATEPS/ NVT- <<)t'ENTOL fiiEOTS /HIOLOGY /Lr:ULUGY /RADIOACTIVITY EFFECTS /RADIOECOLOGY /c')FULATION /W4T F POLLUTION EFFECTS /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES/HAZARDS/LEGAL ASPECTS /ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION/ GEOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS /HYDPOLOGIC ASPECTS /AIR POLLUTION

237

UMAROV, G.Y. /VARDIYASHVILI, A.E.

1971

UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENEPGY OF DEMINERALIZING THE SUBSURFACE WATERS OF THE DESERT PASTURES OF U7BEKISTAN (TRANSLATED TITLE).

APPLIED SOLAR ENERGY 7(3/41:91 -92. (GELIOTEKHNIKA 7(41:60 -63.)

ALTHOUGH THE UZFtEK SSR HAS ONLY A VERY LIMITED NUM3ER OF SOURCES OF FRESH WATER, IT HAS ALMOST UNLIMITED RJ_SERVES OF SALINE SUBSURFACE WATER, WHICH, IF DESALINATED, COULD BE USED TO MAINTAIN AN ADDITIONAL 10 -20 MILLION HEAD OF SHEEP ON GREEN FODDER ALL YEAR ROUND. THE ARIDITY AND CONTINENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLIMATE OF THE KARSHI STEPPE, THE UST -YUPT PLATEAU, THE KYZYL-KUMS. THE HUNGARY STEPPE AND ALONG THE SOUTHWEST SHORES OF THE ARAL SEA BECOME MORE PRONOUNCED FROM NORTH TO SOUTH WHICH IS DIRECTLY REFLECTED IN THE CONDITIONS OF SUBSURFACE WATER FORMATION. FIELD TESTS WERE CONDUCTED FROM 1966 TO 1970 AT THE SOLAF STATION OF THE KARSHI STATE PEDAGOGICAL INSTITUTE ON CONVECTIVE SOLAR STILLS OPERATING UNDER NATURAL AND FORCED CONVECTION. IT WAS FOUND THAT IF THE AMOUNT OF INCIDENT SOLAR RADIATION, AH3TENT AIR TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME FLOW RATE OF VAPOR -AIR MIXTURE ARE KNOWN, IT IS POSSIBLE TO DETERMINE THE OUTPUT AND EFFICIENCY OF THE SOLAR STILL. INDICATION OF THE ECONOMIC DESIRABILITY CF INTRODUCING CONVECTIVE SOLAR STILLS IS DETERMINED BY THE COST OF 1 CUBIC METER OF FRESH WATER OBTAINED BY MEANS OF SUCH A STILL WHICH IS ABOUT 2.5 -3.0 RUBLES.

WATER SUPPLY /SOLAR DISTILLATION /SALINE WATER /SUBSURFACE WATERS /WATER RESOURCES /SOLAR STILLS /COSTS /GRID LANDS /LIVESTOCK /FORAGES /SHEEP/ PASTURES

= IDENTIFIERS: /UZBEKISTAN /USSR /SOLAR ENERGY

238

U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, DIVISION OF PEACEFUL NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1471

A SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CIVIL, INOUSTRIAL, AND SCIENTIFIC USES FOR NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 366 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS TID -3522 (9TH REV.). SWRA W73- 07763.

THE PLOWSHARE PROGRAM WAS FORMALLY ESTA3LISHED BY THE AEC IN 1957 TO STUDY THE FEASIBILITY OF USING NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES. IT HAS MANY POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS IN SUCH AREAS AS EXCAVATION OF HARBORS, CANALS. AND MOUNTAIN PASSES, PRODUCTION OF TRANSPLUTUNIUM ISOTOPES, NEUTRON PHYSICS RESEAF'CH, GAS ANO OIL RECOVERY AND STORAGE, WASTE DISPOSAL, MINING, AND WATER MANAGEMENT. 233

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXPERIMENTS ARE CURRENTLY UNDERWAYTO DEVELOP BASIC TECHNOLOGY AND TO EVALUATE PROPOSED APPLICATIONS. THIS BIBLIOGRAPHY CONTAINS 1594 ANNOTATED REFERENCES TOREPORTS AND PUBLISHED LITERATURE ON THE USAEC S PLOWSHARE PROGRAM. THE REFERENCES ARE ARRANGED BY SUBJECT CATEGORY.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /CRATERS /EXCAVATION /FALLOUT/NUCLEAR ENERGY /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING /NUCLEAR PHYSICS /NUCLEARWASTES / UNDERGROUNO/ /SEISMOLOGY /WATER POLLUTION /HARBORS /CANALS /BENEFICIALUSE /COST- BENEFIT ANALYSIS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT PLOWSHARE

239 U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, TECHNICAL INFORMATIONCENTER, OAK RIDGE, TENNESSEE

1972 A SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CIVIL, INDUSTRIAL,AND SCIENTIFIC USES FOR NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 52 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS TID -3522 (REV. 9 SUPPL. 1). SWRA W73- 07764.

THIS SUPPLEMENT TO BIBLIOGRAPHY, 1I0 -3522 (9TH REF.).CONTAINS 250 ANNOTATED REFERENCES TO REPORTS ANO PUBLISHED LITERATUREON THE USAEC S PLOWSHARE PROGRAM THAT WERE PUBLISHED IN VOLUMEZ5 (1971) OF NUCLEAR SCIENCE ABSTRACTS. THE REFERENCES ARE ARRANGED BY SUBJECT CATEGORY.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS / CONSTRUCTION /CRATERS/EXCAVATION/ FALLOUT /NUCLEAR ENERGY /NUCLEAR ENGINEERING /NUCLEARPHYSICS /NUCLEAR WASTES /UNDERGROUND /SEISMOLOGY /HARBORS /CANALS /WATERPOLLUTION/ BENEFICIAL USE /COST -BENEFIT ANALYSIS

= IDENTIFIERS: /PROJECT PLOWSHARE

240 U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1974 STATUS OF DRAFT ENERGY DEMONSTRATION STUDIES.

SAME AS AUTHOR. N.P. THIS DRAFT REPORT EXAMINES THE FEASIBILITY AND DESIRABILITYOF EIGHT ENERGY DEMONSTRATION CONCEPTS THAT APPEAR TO HAVE POTENTIALFOR NEAR - TERM ENERGY PRODUCTION: PRODUCTION OF LIQUID FUEL FROM OIL SHALE, PRODUCTION OF METHANOL FOR TRANSPORTATION, SYNTHETIC FUELS FROM COAL, DIRECT COMBUSTION OF DOMESTIC COAL WITH LEAST !- OSSIBLEENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, CONSTRUCTION OF A NUCLEAR POWER CENTER, SOLAR ENERGY DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM TO HEAT AND COOL BUILDINGS, ADVANCED RECLAMATION FOR WESTERN COAL EXTRACTION, ANO RAPID DEEP DRILLING METHODS. OVERALL, THE REPORT SEES LITTLE HOPE OF DRASTICALLY RAISING ENERGY PRODUCTION TO ACHIEVE PROJECT INDEPENDENCE S GOAL OF SELF SUFFICIENCY BY 1980. FOR EXAMPLE IN EXPLOITING OIL SHALE, THE REPORT SEES THE NEED TO BRING 115,000 PEOPLE INTO THE SPARSELY POPULATED PICEANCE BASIN ANO TO SEVERELY STRAIN THE EXISTING SUPPLY OF TRAINED MANPOWER IN THE MINING INDUSTRY IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE A PRODUCTION OF AMILLION BARRELS PER DAY.

OIL SHALES /COALS /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /SOCIAL IMPACT /FUELS/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ENERGY

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY /PICEANCE CREEK BASIN 234

241

U.S. BUREAU OF MIfJES

1971 DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT. PROPOSED OIL SHALE RESEARCH PROJECT ANVIL POINTS, CuLORADO.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 22 P.

THE REPORT, DATED OCTOBER 15, 1971, PROPOSES REACTIVATING THE ANVIL POINTS OIL SHALL RESEARCH FACILITY IN COLDRADO TO ENCOURAGE RESEARCH ON SURFACE RETORTING OF OIL SHALE AND ALSO TO PROVIDE EXPERIENCE ANO INFORMATION ON (PEALING WITH OIL SHALT- WASTES. CY GIVING A PRIVATE COMPANY A FIVE -YEAR LLASL, THE REAU HORCS TO G í JERATE EXPERI`íE NTS IN VERTICAL KILN RETORT COASTRUCÍION MiNINS, RETORING, AND DISPOSAL OF NO MORE THAN 6C0,000 TON OF OIL_ SHAL[:. RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION STUDIES WILL CONDUCTED PITH WASTE ?IL -ES. AIR POLLUTION WILL BE CONTROLLED WIT'-f THERMAL OXIDIZEKS. IN ALL, ABOUT 2.5 ACRES WOULD BE REQUIRED FOR WASTE DISPOSAL. EARLIER OPERATIONS AT THE SITE HAD NO SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON THE AIR, WATER, LAND OP OTHER RESOURCES. TWO OTHER POSSIBILITIES OFFERED DY THE BUREAU ARE TO HAVE THE RESEARCH DONE BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNKE T,OR NOT TO LEASE THE FACILITY AT ALL.

OIL SHALES /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /LAND RECLAMATION/ REVEGETATION /ENERGY CONVERSION / ENVIRONMNTAL EFFECTS /WASTE DISPOSAL/ COLORADO

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT /REFINING OPERATIONS/ ANVIL POINTS OIL SHALE RESEARCH FACILITY

' 242

U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, BILLINGS, MONTANA

1972

APPRAISAL REPORT ON MONTANA- WYOMING AQUEDUCTS.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 31 P.

SOUTHEASTERN MONTANA AND - NORTHEASTERN WYOMING (ROU,HLY THE ARFA AROUND GILLETTE, WYOMING) CONTAINS OVER 34 BILLION TONS OF STRIPPABLE COAL. THIS STUDY EXPLORES WAYS TO PROVIDE THE HATER NECESSARY TO EXPLOIT THIS COAL DEPOSIT. THE BUREAU RFCOMAENDS LARGE AQUEDUCTS FROM THE BIGHORN OR YELLOWSTONE RIVERS TO SUPPLY INDICATED DENANOS FOR FUTURE INDUSTRY OF 2.6 MILLION ACRE FEET PER ANNUM. IN A DRY YEAR, THIS WOULD LEAVE 1.7 MILLION ACRE FEET IN THE YELLOWSTONE RIVER, AND IN AN AVERAGE YEAR 5.6 MILLION ACRE FEET. THE BUREAU CONTENDS THAT THERE WILL BE ENOUGH WATER FOR ALL USERS (MUNICIPAL. AGRICULTURAL, AND INDUSTRIAL) DURING AVERAGE YEARS. SUCH HUGE AQUEDUCTS WILL REQUIRE GOVERNMENT FINANCING.

MONTANA /WYOMING /COALS /WATER REQUIREMENTS /AQUEDUCTS /WATER CONVEYANCE/ STRIP MINES /WATER UTILIZATION

= IDENTIFIERS: /YELLOWSTONE RIVER /BIGHORN RIVER 235

243 U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, BOULDERCITY, NEVADA, REGION 3 OFFICE

1972 DEEP GEOTHERMAL TEST WELL, GEOTHERMALRESOURCE INVESTIGATIONS, IMPERIAL VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 19 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -206 161/0. SWRA W72- 11559. A DEEP GEOTHERMAL TEST WELL WOULD BE DRILLEDTO A DEPTH BETWEEN 4,000 AND 8,000 FEET IN THE EAST MESA AREA OFIMPERIAL VALLEY, CALIFORNIA. THE WELL WOULD HAVE A SLIGHT TMPACT ON THEUNDERGROUND STRATA DUE TO THE COMPARATIVELY SMALL AMOUNTS 0= =LUIDWITHDRAWN FOR TESTING. IT WOULD PROVIDE INFORMATION OF VALUE TOA DETERMINATION OF THEPOTENTIAL FOR GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES TO PROVIDE LARGEQUANTITIES OF DESALTED WATER IN CONJUNCTION WITH RELATIVELY POLLUTION-FREE PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY FOR THE WATER AND POWER SHORT SOUTHWEST. DRILLING WOULD REQUIRE THAT APPROXIMATELY 10 ACRES OF NOWBARREN DESERT BE CLEARED AIR, PLANT FOR DRILLING OPERATIONS. IMPACT ON FISH AND WILDLIFE. THE LIFE, AND AREA AESTHETICS WOULD BE MINIMAL. ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED INCLUDE OTHER METHODS OF INVESTIGATIONAND NO TESTING.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /CALIFORNIA /GEOTHERMALSTUDIES /WELLS /ALTERNATIVE PLANNING /MULTI °LE -PURPOSE PROJECTS/DESALINATION /DESERTS /INVESTIGATIONS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /INFORMATION RETRIEVAL/RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT /EXPLORATION /TESTING /WATER RESOURCESDEVELOPMENT /ELECTRIC POWER

= IDENTIFIERS: /ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT STATEMENTS /IMPERIAL VALLEY

244

U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION. WASHINGTON; D.C.

1972

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE INVESTIGATIONS, IMPERIAL VALLEY, CALIFORNIA: DEVELOPMENTAL CONCEPTS.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 58 P. SWRA W73- 09439.

THIS REPORT DESCRIBES THE NEED FOR AUGMENTING THE COLORADO RIVER WITH HIGH QUALITY WATER, ANO SHOWS HOW THE HOT GEOTHERMAL BRINES OF THE IMPERIAL VALLEY, CALIFORNIA, COULD BE USED TO SUPPLY THIS NEED THROUGH MULTIPURPOSE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESOURCE. THE HOT BRINE WILL FLASH INTO A MIXTURE OF STEAM AND BRINE WHEN PRESSURES ARE RELIEVED BY A WELL. THIS MIXTURE WILL FLOW TO THE SURFACE ANO CAN BE USED TO PRODUCE NOT ONLY ELECTRIC POWER, BUT ALSO DESALTED WATEP ANO POSSIBLY MINERAL BY- PRODUCTS. THE PROGRAM WOULD BE DEVELOPED IN THREE STAGES. THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STAGE WOULD DETERMINE THE POTENTIAL AND EXTENT OF THE GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE. THE DEMONSTRATION STAGE WOULD SHOW THE FEASIBILITY OF LARGE -SCALE DEVELOPMENT, USING A LOCAL SALT OR BRACKISH WATER SUPPLY FOR REPLACEMENT FLUIDS SUCH AS SALTON SEA, WELTON -MOHAWK DRAIN, OR GROUNDWATER. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE DEVELOPMENT WOULD DE ABOUT 100,000 ACRE -FEET OF FRESH WATER PER YEAR ANO ABOUT 400 -500 MEGAWATTS OF ELECTRIC POWER. THE LARGE -SCALE DEVELOPMENT STAGE WOULD AUGMENT THE COLORADO RIVER BY DELIVERING AS MUCH AS 2.5 MILLION ACRE -FEET OF DESALTED RATER ANNUALLY WITH ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION OF ABOUT 10.000 MEGAWATTS. THIS WOULD REQUIRE IMPORTATION OF PACIFIC OCEAN OR GULF OF CALIFORNIA WATER FOR REPLACEMENT FLUIDS. COSTS FOR EACH STAGE ARE PROJECTED. (USES) 236

DESALINATION /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /CALIFORNIA /GROUNDWATER /WATER SUPPLY/ WATER OUA[ITY /COSTS /WGTE:R UTILIZATION /COLORADO RIVER /WATP oESOUkCES DEVELOPMENT /BRINES /THERMAL POWER ^L ANTS /RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT /WATER IMPORTING /ELECTRIC POWER.PRODUCTION /LRACKISH WATER /STEAM

= IDENTIFIERS: /IMPERIAL VALLEY

245 U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1973

COLORADO RIVER WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 88 P. SWRA W73- 11264.

WATERS OF THE COLORADO RIVER ARE BECOMING MORE SALINE: AT THE HEADWATERS THE AVERAGE SALINITY (CONCENTRATION OF TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS) IN THE COLORADO RIVER IS LESS THAN 50 MILLIGRAMS PER LITERAND PROGRESSIVELY INCREASES DOWNSTREAM UNTIL, AT IMPERIAL DAi- THE PRESENT MODIFIED CONDITION IS 365 MILLIGRAMS PER LITER. PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE SALINITY LEVELS WITHOUT A CONTROL PROGRAM SUGGEST THAT VALUES OF 1,250 MILLIGRAMS PER LITER OR MORE WILL OCCUR AT IMPERIAL DAM EY THE YEAR 2000. ONE PROJECTION USED IN THE LOWER COLORADO REGION COMPREHENSIVE FRAMEWORK STUDY FORESEES SUCH A LEVEL BEING REACHED BY 180. SHOULD THESE INCREASES IN SALINITY LEVELS OCCUR, THE AGRICULTURE- IN THE IMPERIAL, COACHELLA, GILA, AND YUMA VALLEYS WOULD BE FURTHER THREATENED. ALSO, A POORER WATER QUALITY WOULD BE DIVERTED TO THE METROPOLITAN WATER DISTRICT OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AND THE LAS VEGAS VALLEY WATER DISTRICT, CAUSING FURTHER ECONOMIC LOSSES TO THE VERY LARGE BLOCK OF DOMESTIC WATER USERS IN CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA. UPON COMPLETION OF THE CENTRAL ARIZONA PROJECT. WATER USERS IN THE PHOENIX ANO TUCSON AREAS WOULD BE SIMILARLY AFFECTED. A COMPREHENSIVE 13 -YEAR WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT RROGRAM HAS BEEN STRUCTURED AND INTEGRATED WITH PROGRAMS INVOLVING WEATHER MODIFICATION, GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. DESALTING, AND THE WESTERN U.S. WATER PLAN. THESE PROGRAMS, WHEN IMPLEMENTED, COULD MAINTAIN SALINITY IN THE LOWER MAIN STEM AT OR BELOW PRESENT LEVELS. (OWRR)

COLORADO RIVER BASIN /WATER QUALITY/ SALINITY /IRRIGATION WATER /MINERAL WATER /DESALINATION /WEATHER MODIFICATION /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SOUTHWEST U.S. /CALIFORNIA /ARIZONA

= IDENTIFIERS: /CENTRAL ARIZONA PROJECT

246

U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION, WASHINGTON, O.C.

1974

GRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT: EL PASO GASIFICATION PROJECT, SAN JUAN COUNTY, NEW MEXICO.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 666 P.

EL PASO NATURAL GAS COMPANY PROPOSES TO BUILD TWO COAL GASIFICATION PLANTS ON THE NAVAJO INDIAN RESERVATION ABOUT 35 MILES S0UTHWEST OF FARMINGTON, NEW MEXICO. THE PLANTS WILL BE FUi_LEO BY COAL STRIP -MINED AT THE SITE. THE FIRST UNIT WILL BE ON -LINE BY 1478 WITH AN INITIAL OUTPUT OF 288 MILLION CUBIC FEET OF GAS PER DAY: THE SECOND UNIT WILL PRODUCE ABOUT 5i0 MILLION CUBIC FEET BEGINNING IN 1931. SUCH A PRODUCTION WILL RESULT IN EMISSIONS OF 20 TONS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE ANO 237

20 TONS OF NITROGEN DIOXIDE PER DAY. NO WATER WILL BE DISCHARGED. THE PLANTS WILL OCCUPY 3,875 ACRES OF LAND AND OVER THE NEXT TWENTYFIVE YEARS 30,100 ACRES OF LAND WILL 3E: STRIP MINED. THE MINING WILL TEMPORARILY DESTROY WILDLIFE HABITAT, AND GRAZING: IF RECLAMATION FAILS, THIS DESTRUCTION WILL BE PERMANENT. TWENTY FOUR FAMILIES WILL BE DISPLACCD BY THE PROJECT. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLANT WILL EMPLOY 4, 635 MEN, AND OPERATION WILL EMPLOY 3.010. SINCE THEAREA IS NOW ARID AND SPARSELY SETTLED, SUCH NUMBERS WILL HAVE GREAT IMPACT. TWO HUGE COAL -FIRED ELECTRIC PLANTS ARE WITHIN FORTY MILES OF THE PROPOSED SITE. THIS STUDY TREATS IN VARYING DETAIL ALL ASPECTS OF SUCHA PLANT ON THE ENVIRONMENT. INDIAN RESERVATIONS /STRIP MINES /GASES /RESOURCESDEVELOPMENT /NITROGEN COMPOUNDS /ENVIRONMENTAL "EFFECTS /RECLAMATION /SOCIAL IMPACT/POWERPLANTS/ /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S.

= IDENTIFIERS: /EL PASO NATURAL GAS COMPANY/COAL GASIFICATION /FOUR CORNERS AREA /EMISSIONS /SULFUR DIOXIDE /ENVIRONMENTALIMPACT STATEMENT/ SAN JUAN RIVER BASIN

247

U.S. CODE CONGRESSIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE NEWS

1970 GEOTHERMAL STEAM ACT OF 1970 (EXPLOITATION ANO DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTHERMAL STEAM RESOURCES).

SAME AS AUTHOR. P. 6778 -6788. SWRA W71- 06650.

AUTHORIZING THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR TO MAKE DISPOSITION OF GEOTHERMAL STEAM AND ASSOCIATED GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES, THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES ENACTED THE GEOTHERMAL STEAM ACT OF 1970 (P.L. 91- 581,84 STAT. 1566.15). THE ACT DEFINES GEOTHERMAL STEAM AND ASSOCIATED RESOURCES, TNCLUOING: (1) ALL PRODUCTS OF GEOTHERMAL PROCESSES, EMBRACING INDIGENOUS STEAM, HOT WATER, AND BRINES, (2) SIMILAR PRODUCTS RESULTING FROM WATER. GAS OR OTHER FLUIDS ARTIFICIALLY INTRODUCED INTO GEOTHERMAL FORMATIONS,(3) HEAT OR OTHER ASSOCIATED ENERGY FOUND IN GEOTHERMAL FORMATIONS, AND (4) ANY BYPRODUCT DERIVED THEREFROM. THE TERM BYPRODUCT IS DEFINED AS ANY MINERAL (EXLUSIVE OF OIL, HYDROCARBON GAS. OR HELIUM) FOUND IN GEOTHERMAL FORMATIONS WHICH HAS INSUFFICIENT VALUE TO WARRANT EXTRACTION BY ITSELF. THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR IS AUTHORIZED TO ISSUE LEASES FOR DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL STEAM RESOURCES AND TO FORMULATE REGULATIONS GOVERNING LEASES. LEASES SHALL BE SECURED BY COMPETITIVE BIDDING. THE ACT PROVIDES FOR: (1) MAXIMUM ACREAGE OF LEASES PER PERSON.(2) ROYALTY PAYMENTS TO THE GOVERNMENT, (31 DURATION OF LEASES,(4) TERMINATION AND ADJUSTMENT OF LEASES. (5) DUTIES OF LESSEES IN THE EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF GEOTHERMAL STEAM RESOURCES, AND (6) COEXISTENCE WITH LEASES UNDER OTHER FEDERAL MINING ACTS. THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR HAS BROAD DISCRETION IN FORMULATING REGULATIONS TO IMPLEMENT THE PROVISIONS OF THE ACT.

THERMAL WATER/ STEAM /MINERALOGY /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /LEGISLATION/ THERMAL PROPERTIES /LEASES /PERMITS /FEDERAL GOVERNMENT /WATER TYPES/ WELLS/ DRILLING /EXPLORATION /EXPLOITATION /MINING /CONSERVATION /ENERGY/ HEAT /GASES /OIL /HELIUM /RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /BRINES /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL STEAM ACT, 1970 238

248

U.S. COMPTROLLER GENERAL

1972 ADMINISTRATION OF REGULATIONS FOR SURFACE EXPLORATION, MINING, AND RECLAMATION OF PUBLIC AND INDIAN COAL LANDS: A REPORT TO THE CONSERVATION ANC NATURAL RESOURCES SUBCOMMITTEE ON GOVERNMENT OPERATIONS, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.

SAME AS AUTHOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. 35 P. THE GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE (GAO) FOUND THAT DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR REGULATIONS 'WOULD HELP IN PROTECTING ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES IF PROPERLY IMPLE :iNTLR. BUT ON MORE THAN HALF OF 65 COAL LEASES EXAMINED IN THE WESTERN STATES, THE Gi,O DISCOVEREC INCOMPLETE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE REGULATIONS (THEN THREE YEARS OLD). THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY AND THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS HAD YET TO ISSUE FORMAL INSTRUCTIONS TO FIELD OFFICES TO IIPLEMENT THE DEPARTMENT S REGULATIONS. ALSO. THE BIA HAD FAILED TO DEVELOP GtUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL I PACT STATEMENTS, NECESSARY IN IMPLEMENTING THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT OF 1969. BASICALLY, THE GAO FOUND THAT THE DEPARTMENT S REGULATIONS WOULD BE ADEQUATE IF THE DEPARTMENT ENFORCED THEM.

REGULATION /EXPLORATION/ MINING /RECLAMATION /COALS /INDIAN RESERVATIONS/ LEASES /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

= IDENTIFIERS : /ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

249

U.S. COMPTROLLER GENERAL

1974 .

PROGRESS AND PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING NUCLEAR AND OTHER EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES FOR RECOVERING NATURAL GAS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN AREA.

U.S. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON. D.C. 83 P.

ABOUT 30G TRILLION FEET OF NATURAL SAS TN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN AREA IS IN TIGHT GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS THAT MAKE IT RECOVERABLE, IF AT ALL, BY USE OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES OP MASSIVE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING. IN GROSS NUMBERS. NUCLEAR EXPLOSIVES WOULD REQUIRE (OVER A PERIOD OF 35 TO 65 YEARS) THE DRILLING OF 5,68, WELLS AND THE EXPLODING OF 29,680 NUCLEAR DEVICES. MASSIVE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WOULD NECESSITATE 22,720 'BELLS DUG OVER A PERIOD OF 60 TO 115 YEARS. SEVERAL PROBLEMS CROP UP WITH THESE METHODS. NUCLEAR BOMBS COULD CONTAMINATE OIL SHALE STRATA IN THE REGION. MASSIVE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WOULD REQUIRE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER WHERE WATER IS ATA PREMIUM IN THE ARID WEST. OTHER POSSIBLE PROBLEMS ARE CONTAMINATION OF AQUIFERS BY NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS. RADIOACTIVE LEAKS TO THE ATMOSPHERE, AND THE POSSIBLE ACCIDENTAL DETONATION OF A NUCLEAR BOMB. THE SAO RECOMMENDS THAT THESE PROBLEMS BE FURTHER STUDIED.

NATURAL GAS /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS /HYDROFRACTURING/ /WATER REQUIREMENTS /ARID LANDS /RADIOACTIVITY /WATER POLLUTION /OIL SHALES 239

250 U.S. CONGRESS, 89TH, 1ST SESSION

1965 SECRETARY OF GEOTHERMAL STEAM ACT OF 1965(A BILL TO AUTHORIZE THE ASSOCIATED THE INTERIOR TO MAKE DISPOSITIONOF GEOTHERMAL STEAM AND GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES). SWRA W72- 06087. SAME AS AUTHOR. SENATE BILL 1674. it P.

THIS BILL TO THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIORWOULD BE AUTHORIZED UNDER LEASE GEOTHERMAL STEAM IN LANDSADMINISTERED BY HIM, AND IN ANY GEOTHERMAL STEAM INCLUDÉS ALLFLUID PRODUCTS OF NATIONAL FOREST. PETROLEUM PRODUCTS AND HELIUM. IF THE GEOTHERMAL PROCESSES, EXCLUDING MADE WITH LANDS WERE ACQUIRED BY ANOTHERAGENCY, LEASES MAY ONLY BE TO CITIZENS OR CORPORATIONSOF ITS CONSENT. ALL LEASES MUST BE. ISSUED THE ACT PERMITS COEXISTENCEWITH OTHER LEASES. THE UNITED STATES. STEAM, WHERE OTHER PRODUCTS OCCURINCIDENTALLY WITH GEOTHERMAL REQUIRED. LEASES ARE FOR A PRIMARY SUBSTANTIAL BENEFICICAL USE IS GEOTHERMAL LEASES MAY BE 15 YEARS, SUBJECT TO EXTENSION. TERM OF BETWEEN ONE CONVERTED TO MINERAL LEASES. LEASE AREAS MAY ENCOMPASS THE SECRETARY IS AUTHORIZEDTO PROMULGATE AND FOUR SECTIONS. LEASES WILL BE COMPREHENSIVE REGULATIONS TOEFFECTUATE THE ACT. BIDDER: COMPETITIVE BIDDINGWILL NOT BE GRANTED TO THE FIRST QUALIFIED 5 USED. LESSEES MUST PAY ROYALTIES OF 10 PERCENT OFESTEAMWIALUEOAAND PERCENT OF MINERAL VALUE. IN ADDITION TO ALTER THE WATER LAWS OF ANY STATE. /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /PUBLIC STEAM /LEASES /FEDERAL RESERVATIONS LANDS /STATE JURISDICTION /EXPLOITATION/RENT /ROYALTIES /PAYMENT/ LEGISLATION /LEGAL ASPECTS /FEDERALGOVERNMENT /THERMAL POWER

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMALSTEAM ACT, 1965

251

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1971 PROGRAM STATEMENT FOR THE PROPOSED PROTOTYPE OIL SHALE LEASING PROGRAM (DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT).

SAME AS AUTHOR. 44 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -2C0 436/0. SWRA W72 -13969.

THE GROWING PACE OF DOMESTIC FUEL CONSUMPTION HAS MADE THE DEVELOPMENT AND LOCATION OF NEW SOURCES OF ENERGY SUPPLY OF PARAMOUNT CONCERN. OIL SHALE IS A MAJOR UNDEVELOPED ENERGY RESOURCE ANO RICH DEPOSITS ARE LOCATED IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR S PROGRAM FOR PROTOTYPE OIL SHALE LEASING IN PUBLIC LANDS IS OUTLINED. A TOTAL OF 30,720 ACRES OF LAND IS POSSIBLY INVOLVED. THE PROPOSED PROGRAM WILL. INCLUDE CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUNCES OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT. A PRE - IMPLEMENTATION BASE WILL FIRST BE ESTABLISHED FROM WHICH TG MEASURE PERIODIC ASSESSMENT. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ON A REGIONAL LEVEL WERE INITIATED IN 1970 BY THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR IN CONJUNCTION WITH STATE GOVERNORS. GUIDELINES OF THESE STUDIES ARE LISTED ANO DISCUSSED. DETAILED ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES WILL BE MADE OF EACH SITE SELECTED FOR LEASING. THESE STUDIES WILL INCLUDE SAMPLE CORE DRILLING: ASSESSMENT OF AQUATIC, PLANT, AND ANIMAL RESOURCES: ASSESSMENT OF SCENIC RESOURCES: AND ANALYSIS OF MINE WASTES TO BE PRODUCED. UNACCEPTABLE SITES WILL BE ELIMINATED. FOLLOWING LEASING THE ACTUAL IMPACT WILL BE COMPARED WITH THE PROJECTED IMPACT. FAILURE TO MEET PROJECTED ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS MAY RESULT IN LEASE CANCELLATION. 240

ROCKY MOUi;(AIN REGION/ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/OII. SHULES/L( .SES/NATURAL RCSOURCE"/O]:L INDUSTr?Y/WATi_R E'OLLUTIUN SUU4CE/E/'-`LUIT+:TIUN/ENE4GY CONVEpSTON/FEDERAL GOVERNMENT/FEDFR.AL JURI3DIC'rIOE'/LEGAL ASPECTS/ ENERGY

= IDENTIFIERS : /ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

252 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1972 SOUTHWEST ENERGY STUDY: AN EVAL'!ATION OF COAL -FIRED ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION IN THE SOUTHWEST. 14 VOLS.

SAME AS AUTHOR. THIS STUDY COVERS ALL ASPECTS OF PRODUCING ELECTRIC POWER FROM COAL IN THE SOUTHWEST, PRIMARILY THE FOUR CORNERS AREA. VARIOUS TOPICS SUCH AS WILDLIFE, RECREATION, MINING, WATER, INDIANS, ARE TREATED IN SEPARATE VOLUMES. THE REPORT WAS STARTED AFTER SEVERAL OF THE POWERPLANTS WERE ALREADY BUILT OR UNDER CONSTRUCTION,AND'AFTER EXTENSIVE STRIP MINING HAD TAKEN PLACE. SINCE IT WAS COMPLETED IN LESS THAN A YEAR, AND INVOLVES LITTLE OR NO NEW RESEARCH, IT ISAN AFTER-THE-FACT REPORT. AMONG ITS 'MANY FINDINGS. IT CONCLUDES THAT THE AIR WILL BE INCREASINGLY AND SIGNIFICANTLY DEGRADED. ALSO, THE FALLOUT OR RAINOUT OF INITIALLY ATR3ORNE POLLUTANTS CAN DE EXPECTEDTO HAVE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON TERRESTRIAL BIOTA. AND ON WATER QUALITY. THE AREA WHERE THIS FALLOUT MAY OCCUR CONTAINS NUMEROUS NATIONALPARKS AND MONUMENTS, LAKE POWELL, AND THE NAVAJO NATION. THE EOWERPLANTS THEMSELVES WILL USE WATER FROM THE ALREADY HEAVILY -EXPLOITED COLORADO RIVER. SINCE THE VOLUMES CONTAIN STATEMENTS FROM MANY DIFFERENT FEDERAL AGENCIES THEY ARE OFTEN CONTRADICTORY. SOIE AGENCIES SAY THAT ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IS CERTAIN, WHILE OTHERS CONTEND IT IS TOO SOON TO TELL.

SOUTHWEST U.S. /POWERPLANTS /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /STRIP MINES /COALS/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /AIR POLLUTION /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /COLORADO RIVER /WATER REQUIREMENTS /WILDLIFE /RECREATION /MINING /FALLOUT /WATER QUALITY/ /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS AREA /NAVAJO INDIANS /LAKE POWELL

253

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1973 FINAL ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT FOR THE PROTOTYPE OIL SHALE LEASING PROGRAM. 6 VOLS.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. SIX TRACTS OF LAND IN WYOMING, COLORADO, AND UTAH ARE PROPOSED FOR LEASE BY PRIVATE COMPANIES. THE PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLI'IATE, GEOLOGY, WATER RESOU °CES, FAUNA, RECRE ATIONAL RESOURCES, SOCIOECONOMIC RESOURCES. AESTHETIC RESOURCES, SOILS, AND OWNERSHIP Of THE LANDS ARE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL, AND THE CUPRFNT STATE OF THE ART IN OIL SHALE TECHNOLOGY IS REVIEWED. A MILLION -BARREL -A -DAY CAPACITY 3Y 1085 IS PROJECTED IN ASSESSING THE TiWPACT ON THE REGION. ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS FOR OIL SHALE EXTRACTION ARE EXAMINED. THE BASIC TENSION IN SUCH DEVELOPMENT IS BETWEEN LONG RANGE ENVIRONMENTAL PRODUCTIVITY ANO SHORT RANGE EXPLOITATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT TO MEET ENERGY NEEDS. 241

MINERAL INDUSTRY /AESTHETICS /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER POLLUTION /AIR POLLUTION /LAND RECLAMATION /REVGETATION /LAFO TENURE /OIL SHALES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /ENERGY CONVERSION /WYOMING /COLORADO /UTAH /POCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

=IDENTIFIERS: /ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

294 U.S. OEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D.C., PANEL ON GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES

1972

ASSESSMENT OF GOETHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES. REPORT PREPARED FOR THE COMMITTEE ON ENERGY RESEARCH ANO DEVELOPMENT GOALS, FEDERAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE ANO TECHNOLOGY, SEPTEMBER 1972.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 84 P. SWRA W73- 10696. MEMBERS OF NUMEROUS FEDERAL AGENCIES COOPERATED IN MEETING THE REQUEST OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE U.S. IN HIS MESSAGE ON ENERGY OF JUNE 1971. THIS REPORT SUMMARIZES AN ASSESSMENT OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES. THESE RESOURCES ARE NATURAL SOURCES OF CLEAN ENERGY, WATER AND MINERALS THAT COULD HAVE SIGNIFICANT IMPACT IF FULLY DEVELOPED. STEAM AND HOT WATER COULD PROVIDE A SUBSTANTIAL PART OF THE NATION S ELECTRICAL ENERGY NEEDS IN THE NEXT FEW DECADES, ESPECIALLY IN WESTERN STATES, HAWAII AND ALASKA. AT LEAST 19,000 MW OF GENERATING CAPACITY COULD BE INSTALLED BY 1985 UNDER PRESENT TECHNOLOGY, OR MORE THAN 75, 000 MW BY 2000 UNDER SUCCESSFUL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. RESEARCH, EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT SKILLS, RECHARGE, GEOTHERMAL STIMULATION OF DRY ROCKS, IMPROVED POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGY, DESALINATION OF GEOTHERMAL BRINES, GEOTHERMAL MINING OF CHEMICALS. MONITORING ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS, REMOVAL OF H2S ANO NOISE FROM DRILLING, DEVELOPMENT OF A MODEL CODE, BETTER GOVERNMENT AND RELATED LIAISON, ANO ESTABLISHMENT OF SEVERAL NATIONAL GEOTHERMAL FIELD RESEARCH LABORATORIES ARE RECOMMENDED. (GALS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /ENERGY /NATURAL RESOURCES /ASSESSMENTS /WATER SUPPLY/ /MINERAL WATER /ECONOMIC IMPACT /STEAM /HOT SPRINGS /ELECTRICAL STUDIES/ DEMAND /EXPLORATION /GROUNDWATER RECHARGE /POWERPLANTS /DESALINATION/ BRINES /MINING/ CHEMICALS /MONITORING /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /HYDROGEN SULFIDE /DRILLING /MODEL STUDIES /OVER3URDEN /DISSOLVED SOLIDS

255 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, OFFICE OF RADIATION PROGRAMS, WASHINGTON, D.C.

1974 ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION DOSE COMMITMENTS AN APPLICATION TO THE NUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY.

SAME AS AUTHOR. VARIOUS PAGINGS. THIS EPA STUDY STATES THAT THE NUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY MAY ROUTINELY PRODUCE POLLUTANTS WHICH WILL REMAIN LETHAL FOR ANYWHERE FROM 25,000 TO 1,033,000 YEARS. THOUSANDS OF DEATHS FROM CANCER AND BIRTH DEFECTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO MAN -MADE RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL EMITTED BY THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY COULD OCCUR OVER THE NEXT FIFTY YEARS. THE EPA SUGGESTS AN EXPENDITURE OF MILLIONS TO TRAP THESE POLLUTANTS AND KEEP THE DEATHS CAUSED BY THIS SOURCE TO A MINIMUM.

FALLOUT /RADIOACTIVITY /AIR POLLUTIIIN EFFECTS /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS/ MORTALITY /PUBLIC HEALTH 242

256 U.S. ENVIRON'1ENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. WATER QUALITY OFFICE

1971

WATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL OF SPENT DIL SHALE RESIDUES.

SAME AS AUTHOP. WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES, EPA -WOO GRANT 140"0 EOA 12/71. 116 P. SWRA'W72- 04556. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, INCLUDING POROSITY, PERMEABILITY, PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION, AND DENSITY OF SPENT SHALE FROM THREE DIFFERENT RETORTING OPEñATIONS (TOSCO, [JSBM, AND UDC) HAVE BEEN DETERMINE]. SLURRY EXPF^TMENTS HERE CONDUCTED ON EACH OF THE SPENT SHALES ANO THE SLURRY ANALYZED FOR LEACHABLE UISSOLV=O SOLIDS. PERCOLATION EXPERIMENTS WERE CONDUCTED ON THE TD`;CO SPENT SHALE AND THE QUANTITIES OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS LEACHABLE DETERMINED. THE CONCENTRATIONS OF THE VARIOUS IONIC SPECIES IN THE INITIAL LEACHATE FRON THE COLUMN WERE HIGH. THE MAJIR CONSTITUENTS, SO EQUAL TO 4 AND NA PLUS, WERE PRESENT IN CONCENTRATIONS OF 90,000 AND 35,000 MG /L IN THE INITIAL LEACHATE; HOWEVER THE SUCCEEDING CONCENTRATION DROPPED MARKEDLY DURING THE COURSE OF THE EXPERIMENT. A COMPUTER PROGRAM WAS UTILIZED TO PREDICT EQUILIBRIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN THE LEACHATE FROM THE COLUMN. THE EXTENT OF LEACHING ANO EPOSION OF SPENT SHALE, AND THE COMPOSITION AND CONCENTRATION OF NATURAL DRAINAGE FROM SPENT SHALE HAS BEEN DETERMINED USING OIL SHALE RESIDUE AND SIMULATED RAINFALL. CONCENTRATIONS IN THE RUNOFF FROM THE SPENT SHALE HAVE SEEN CORRELATED WITH RUNOFF RATE, PRECIPITATION INTENSITY, FLOW DEPTH, APPLICATION TIME, SLOPE, AND WATER TEMPERATURE. (EPA)

SALINITY /OIL SHALES /COLORADO RIVER /COLORADO /SODIUM SULFATE /RAINFALL SIMULATORS /CAPILLARY ACTION /SNOWFALL /EROSION CONTROL /SOIL TEMPERATURE/ /WATER ANALYSIS /SOIL CHEMISTRY /SOIL WATER MOVEMENT /OVERLAND FLOW / RAINFALL INTENSITY /POROUS MEDIA /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /SLURRIES/ LEACHING = IDENTIFIERS: /TOSCO II PROCESS /PICEANCE CREEK BASIN /PARACHUTE-ROAN CREEK

257

U.S. FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION,DENVER, COLORADO

1966

DISPOSITION AND CONTROL OF URANIUM MILL TAILINGSPILES IN THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 36 P. SWRA !,'69- 01122.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS REPORT, REFLECTINJG CONCERN WITHALL ASPECTS OF THE VARIOUS RADIOCHEMICAL WASTE SOURCES HAVING APOTENTIAL FOR POLLUTION OF .COLORADO RIVER BASIN WATERS, IS TOEVALUATE THE RADIOACTIVITY CONTENT OF URANIUM MILL TAILINGSPILES, TO EVALUATE THEIR RADIOACTIVITY WATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL INSOFARAS POSSIOL.E, AND ON A CASE BY CASE BASIS, TO INDIJATE FEASIBLE AND DESIRABLEREMEDIAL MEASURES FOR CONTROLLING AND LIMITING THE SPREADOF RADIOACTIVITY FROM THE PILES.

ULTIMATE DISPOSAL /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /WASTE DUMPS/WASTES /MINE WASTES /BIBLIOGRAPHIES /RADIOACTIVE WASTES /WATER POLLUTION

= IDENTIFIERS: /URANIUM MILL TAILINGS 243

258

U.S. OFFICE OF WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH, WASHINGTON, D.C., WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER

1973

WEATHER MODIFICATION: PRECIPITATION INDUCEMENT. A BIBLIOGRAPHY.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 246 P.

A COMPILATION OF ABSTRACTS PRODUCED FROM THE COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION BASE COMPRISING SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS (SWRA). ACCESS IS BY WAY OF A KWIC -TYPE WRAP -AROUND INDEX, WITH SIGNIFICANT KEYWORDS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER. REFERENCE IS TO THE COMPLETE ABSTRACT BY DOCUMENT NUMBER. THERE IS AN AUTHOR INDEX ALSO. COVERAGE INCLUDES ARTIFICIAL PRECIPITATION, CLOUD SEEDING, RAINFALL, WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT, ANO LEGAL ASPECTS, AS WELL AS SPECIFIC GEOGRAPHIC AREAS. COALS)

WEATHER MODIFICATION /BIBLIOGRAPHIES /ARTIFICIAL PRECIPITATION /' ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING /CLOUD SEEDING /WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT /LEGAL ASPECTS

259

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1971 A

PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL POWER PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST, PART i.

SAME AS AUTHOR. HEARINGS, MAY 24, 1971. 682 P.

TESTIMONY OF REPRESENTATIVES OF FEDERAL AND STATE AGENCIES, ELECTRIC POWER COMPANIES, POLLUTION CONTROL COMPANIES, ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS, AND INDIANS CONCERNING THE IMPACT OF ELECTRIC POWERPLANT DEVELOPMENT IN THE ARID SOUTHWEST. THE HEARINGS DEAL WITH THE MOHAVE, NAVAJO, KAIPAROWITZ, HUNTINGTON CANYON PLANTS -- SPECIAL EMPHASIS BEING GIVEN TO THE FOUR CORNERS ANO SAN JUAN PLANTS IN NEW MEXICO. TOGETHER THE PLANTS GENERATE 2865 MW. ANO WILL EVENTUALLY HAVE A CAPACITY OF 12.000 MW. MUCH OF THE TESTIMONY CENTERED ON PROBLEMS OF SITING, PROTECTING TIE ENVIRONMENT, THE CONSEQUENCES OF STRIP MINING, AND THE CALIBER OF THE RESEARCH AND PLANNING FOR THE ENTIRE SYSTEM. NUMEROUS GRAPHS, MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS, TABLES. AND DIAGRAMS.

ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION/ SITES /WATER RESOURCES /POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES /COLORADO RIVER /POWERPLANTS /COAL MINES /MINE WASTES /REVEGETATION /ECONOMIC IMPACT/ /SALINITY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /WATER POLLUTION/ FLY ASH /SULFUR /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /SCENERY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /SOIL EROSION /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /THERMAL POLLUTION /COOLING /NEW MEXICO

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /SAN JUAN POWERPLANT /MOHAVE POWFRPLANT /NAVAJO POWERPLANT/KAIPAROWITZ POWERPLANT/HUNTINGTON CANYON POWERPLANT /BLACK MESA /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE /HOPI INDIANS/ NAVAJO INDIANS 244

26C

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE. ON TNTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 9+20 CONGRESS, 1ST SF:S SION

1971 B

PROBLEMS OF ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST. FART 2.

SAME AS AUTHOR. HEARINGS, MAY 25, 1971. P. 684 -886A.

HEARING HELD IN !.AS VEGAS. NEVADA DEALING i1AINLY WITH THE MOHAVE POWERPLANT. TESTIHoNY FROH POWER GJMPANIEs, FEDERAL, STATE AND COUNTY AGENCIES, ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AND CITY OFFICIALS ON THE ECONOMIC IMPACT ANO ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEOUENCES OF THE MOHAVE PLANT. HEARINGS CONTAIN A RUNNING DEBATE BETWEEN THE NEED TO PRODUCE ELECTRIC POWER FOR THE PRESENT GENERATION AND THE NEED TO PROTECT THE EARTH, AIR AND WATER FOP FUTURE GENERATIONS. CHARTS, GRAPHS, DIAGRAMS, !MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS.

ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION /WATER RESOURCES /POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES /COLORA00 RIVER /COAL MINES /MINÉ 'WASTFS /REVEGETATION /ECONOMIC IMPACT /SALINITY/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS / POLLUTION ARATEMENT /FLY ASH /SULFUR /WATER POLLUTION /SCENERY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /SOIL EROSION /COOLING/ ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /NEVADA

= IDENTIFIERS: /SAW JUAN POWERPLANT /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /MOHAVE PDWERPLANT / HUNTINGTON CANYON POWERPLANT/KAIPARO'WITZ POWERPLANT /NAVAJO POWERPLANT /BLACK MESA /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE

261

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND.INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1971 C

PROBLEMS OF ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST, FART 3.

SAME AS AUTHOR. HEARINGS, MAY 26, 1971. P. 887 -1095. THE SALT LAKE CITY HEARINGS DEAL MAINLY WITH POWERPLANTS PROPOSED FOR HUNTINGTON CANYON ANO KAIPAROWITZ SITES. VARIOUS EEJERAL AND STATE AGENCIES, ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS, PC4_R CO "1PANY EMPLOYEES, SCIENTISTS ANO CITIZEN GROUPS T- STIFIED. MAJOR CONTROVERSY FOCUSED ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE KAIPARO'WIT7 SITE WHICH WAS ONLY FIFTEEN TO TWENTY MILES FROM THE NAVAJO PLANT. MUCH INFOPMATION ON INVERSIGN RATES IN AREAS AROUND LAKE POWELL, AND WIND PATTERNS WHICH WOULD AFFECT DISPERSAL OF THE TONS OF FLY ASH FROM THE TWO PLANTS. DRAWINGS, MAPS, GRAPHS, PHOTOGRAPHS, AND TAULES.

ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION /WATER RESOUFCES /POTENII.AL WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES/ /SITES /COLORADO RIVER /COAL MINES /MINE WASTES /REVEGETATIGN /ECONO`IC IMPACT /SALINITY / ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /WATER POLLUTION /FLY ASH /SULFUR /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /SCENERY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /SOIL EROSION / ADMINISTRATIV AGENCIES /THERMAL POLLUTION /COOLING/ UTAH

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /SAN JUAN POWFRtLANT /MOHAVE POWER PLANT /NAVAJO POWERPLANT /KAIPAROWIT7 ü(IWERPLANT /HtJNT]NGTON CANYON POWERPLANT/BLACK MESA/ NINE- HOIJTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE /NAVAJO INDIANS/ LAKE POWELL 245

252 U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULARAFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1971 0

PROBLEMS CF ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST,PART G.

SAME AS AUTHOR. HEARINGS, MAY 27, 1971. P. 1096 -1509.

HELD IN DURANGO, COLORADO, THE HEARINGS CONCERNEDTHE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF POWER PRODUCTION IN NEW MEXICO,UTAH AND ARIZONA ON THE NEIGHBORING STATE OF COLORADO. PARTICULAR EMPHASIS WAS PLACED ON EMISSIONS FROM THE FOUR CORNERS POW_RPLANT WHICHCITIZEN GROUPS, INDIANS, AND ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS CLAIMED WASRUINING THE CLARITY OF THE AIR IN THE REGION. REPRESENTATIVES OF THE POWER COMPANIES RESPONDED TO THESE CHARGES. AND EXPLAINED THE STATE OFTHE ART IN EMISSIONS CONTROL EQUIPMENT.

ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION/POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION /WATER RESOURCES /POTENTIALWATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /REVEGETATIOU /ECONOMICIMPACT /COLORADO RIVER/ SALINITY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /POLLJTION ABATEMENT/WATER POLLUTION/ FLY ASH /SULFUR /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /SCENERY /COLORADORIVER BASIN /SOIL EROSION /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /THERMAL POLLUTION/COOLING /COLORADO

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWERPROJECT /SAN JUAN POWERPLANT /MOHAVE POWERPLANT /NAVAJO POWERPLANT /KAIPAROWITZ POWERPLANT/HUNTINGTONCANYON POWERPLANT /BLACK MESA /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE /NAVAJOINDIANS/ UTE INDIANS /EMISSIONS

263

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1971 E

PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL POWER PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST, PART 5.

SAME AS AUTHOR. HEARINGS, MAY 28, 1971. P. 1511 -1935. THIS TESTIMONY TAKEN AT PAGE, ARIZONA DEALS MAINLY WITH GLEN CANYON DAM AND LAKE POWELL, THE NAVAJO POWERPLANT, AND THE KAIPAROWITZ POWERPLANT. REPRESENTATIVES OF POWER COMPANIES, FEDERAL AND STATE AGENCIES, ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS, CITIZEN GROUPS AND INDIAN TRIBES DISCUSS THE POSSIBLE DESTRUCTION OF AIR QUALITY IN THIS RECREATIONAL AREA, OESTRUCTION OF LAND BY MINING FOR COAL FOR THE PLANTS. AND DETFRIORATION OF THE WATER IN THE COLORADO RIVER ANO LAKE POWELL BY WITHDRAWALS FOR THE PLANTS. SAFEGUARD MEASURES TAKEN BY THE POWER AND MINING COMPANIES ARE EXPLORED AT LENGTH.

ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION /WATER RESOURCES /POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES/ /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /REVEGETATION /ECONOMIC IMFACT /COLORADO RIVER/ SALINITY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /POLLUTION ABATEMENT /WATER POLLUTION/ FLY ASH /SULFUR /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /SCENERY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /SOIL EROSION /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /THERMAL POLLUTION /COOLING /UTAH /ARIZONA

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /SAN JUAN POWERPLANT /MOHAVE POWERPLANT /NAVAJO POWERPLANT/KAPPAROWITZ POWERPLANT /HUNIINGTON CANYON POWERPLANT /BLACK MESA /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE /NAVAJO INDIANS 246

264 AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, U.S. SENATE, COÌ^,HITTEEON INTERIOR. AND INSULAR 1St SESSION

1971

PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST,PART 6. PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL POWER

1971. P. 1937 -2220. SAME AS AUTHOR. HEARINGS. NOVEMBER 10,

HEARINGS CONTAIN THERESPONSES OF THE HELD TN WASHINGTON, O.C.,THE AGENCY. FEDERAL POWERCOMMISSION, DEPARTMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ET OF PECULATION, EUREAUOF INDIAN AFFAIRS, OF THE INiERIOR, BUREAU TESTIMONY. AL., TO THE INFORMATIONIN THE PREVIOUS POWER PRODUCTION /PO'WERPLANTS/SOUTHWEST ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES/ U.S. /AIR POLLUTION /WATERRESOURCES /POTENTIAL MINE3/REVEGETATIO`. /ECONOMICIMPACT /COLORADO RIVER/ /MINE WASTES /COAL ABATEMENT /WATER POLLUTION/ SALINITY /ENVIRONMENTALEFFECTS /POLLUTION /INDIAN RESERVATIONS/SCENERY / COLORADO RIVER COOLING /FLY ASH /SULFUR /THERMAL POLLUTION /UTAH/ BASIN /SOIL EROSION/ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES ARIZONA /NEW MEXICO /COLORADO/NEVADA /MOHAVE CORNERS POWER PROJECT/SAN JUAN POWERPLANT = IDENTIFTERS: /FOUR /HUNTINGTON CANYONPOWEPPLANT /BLACK POWERPLANT/KAIPAROWITZ POWERPLANT DIOXIDE /NAVAJO INDIANS/ MESA /NAVAJO POWERPLANT/MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR /HOPI INDIANS

265

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1971 G

PROBLEMS OF ELECTRICAL POWER PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST, PART 7.

SAME AS AUTHOR. HEARINGS, MAY 24 -28, AND NOVEMBER 10. 1971. 248 P.

APPENDIX TO THE HEARINGS CONTAINING SELECTIONS FROM OVER 10,003 LETTERS, TELEGRAMS, ANO OTHER EXPRESSIONS OF CONCERN RECEIVED BY THE COMMITTEE. ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION /WATER RESOURCES /POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES/ /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /REVEGETATION /ECONOMIC IMPACT /COLORADO RIVER/ SALINITY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/POLLUTION ABATEMENT/WATER POLLUTION/ COOLING /FLY ASH /SULFUR /INDIAN RESERVATIONS /SCLNERY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /SOIL EROSION /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /THERMAL POLLUTION /UTAH / ARIZONA /NEVADA /COLORADO /NEW MEXICO

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /SAN JUAN POWERPLANT/ KAIPAROWITZ POWERPLANT /NAVAJO POWERPLANT/HUWTINGTON CANYON POWERPLANT/ /MOHAVE POWERPLANT /LAKE POWELL /BLACK MESA /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS 247

266

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1971 H

THE ISSUES RELATED TO SURFACE MINING: A SUMMARY REVIEW WITH SELECTED READINGS.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, SERIAL 92 -10. 255 P.

THIS PRIMER ON STRIP MINING FOR SENATE MEMBERS COVERS VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SURFACE MINING INCLUDING ITS COST ADVANTAGES IN TERMS OF CHEAP ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HANDICAPS IN TERMS DESTRUCTION OF LAND, WATER, AND CURRENT CONCEPTS OF LAND USE FOR AGRICULTURE.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /LAND RECLAMATION /WATER POLLUTION/ EROSION /REVEGETATION /ECONOMIC IMPACT /ENERGY /ENERGY CONVERSION/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

267 U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR ANO INSULAR AFFAIRS, 92D CONGRESS, 20 SESSION

1972 A

A SUPPLEMENTAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS ON ENERGY.

SAME AS AUTHOR, SERIAL 92 -29. JULY 10. 35 P.

A LIST OF MAJOR REPORTS ON ENERGY PUBLISHED IN THE U.S. DURING THE LAST DECADE THAT SUPPLEMENTS THREE PREVIOUS BIBLIOGRAPHIES ISSUED AS COMMITTEE PRINTS (92 -6, 92 -7, AND 92 -8). ENTRIES ARE NEWLY ACQUIRED REPORTS ISSUED BY CONGRESS AND THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH SINCE JULY 1972, AND MAJOR REPORTS ISSUED BY INDUSTRIAL GROUPS, UNIVERSITIES, PRIVATE RESEARCH FOUNDATIONS, TRADE ASSOCIATIONS, CONSULTING FIRMS, BANKS, AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNED WITH ENERGY POLICY. SUBJECTS COVERED ARE NATIONAL ENERGY GOALS: COAL, OIL, URANIUM, GEOTHERMAL, SOLAR, AND OTHER RESOURCE BASES; PRODUCTION OF FUELS: ENERGY CONVERSION: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENERGY PRODUCTION: RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENERGY SOURCES; REGULATOR PRACTICES: AND FINANCING AND MANPOWER. ENTRIES ARE ALPHABETICAL BY AUTHOR AND ALSO dY SUBJECT.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES /ENERGY /FOSSIL FUELS /NATURAL RESOURCES /ENERGY CONVERSION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL ENERGY /SOLAR ENERGY

268 U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 2D SESSION

1972 B

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES AND RESEARCH: HEARINGS.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 465 P.

THESE HEARINGS HELD BETWEEN JUNE15 AND JUNE 22, 1972 CONTAIN A MASS OF CONFLICTING TESTIMONY ON THE POTENTIAL OF UNITED STATES GEOTHERMAL RESERVES. OPINIONS VARY ON HOW MUCH GEOTHERMAL ENERGY CAN BE TAPPED, HOW FAST IT CAN BE TAPPED, ANO HOW CLEAN THE ENERGY SOURCE WILL BE. 248

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES / THEMAL POWER /ENERGY GDNVFRS10N/WATER POLLUTION/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /tALD RESOURCES /COSTCOMPARISONS /ECONOMIC IMPACT/ /SOUTHWEST U.S. /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVEtNERGY SOURCES

269 U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR ANDINSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 20 SESSION

1972 C PROBLEMS Or ELECTRICAL °UWFG PRODUCTION INTHE SOUTHWEST: REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULARAFFAIRS.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 296 P. THE COMMITTEE CONCLUDED THAT SOME WAY MUSTBE FOUND TO PRODUCE ELECTRIC POWER IN THE ARID SOUTH'AFST ANDSTILL PROTECT THE AIR, EARTH, WATER AND PEOPLE OF THE REGION. NUMEROUSCHARTS, MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS, HEARINGS ANO A ONE - TABLES. CONTAINS EXTRACTS FROM THE SIX VOLUMES OF VOLUME APPENDIX. ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION/POWERPLANTS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /AIR POLLUTION / WATER RESOURCES /POTENTIALWATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /COAL MINES /REVEGETATION/ECONOMIC IMPACT /COLORADO RIVER/ SALINITY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS/ POLLUTIONABATEMENT /WATER POLLUTION/ COOLING /FLY ASH /SULFUR /INDIAN RESERVATIONS/SCENERY /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /SOIL EROSION /ADNINISTRATIVE AGENCIES/THERMAL POLLUTION /UTAH/ ARIZONA /NEVADA /COLORADO /NEW MEXICO

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERSPOWER PROJECT /SAN JUAN POWERPLANT/ I KAIPAROWITZ POWERPLANT/HUNTINGTON CANYON POWERPLANT /NAVAJO POWERPLANT/ /MOHAVE POWERPLANT /BLACK MESA /LAKE POWELL/MINE -MOUTH PLANT/SULFUR OIOXIOE /NAVAJO INDIANS /HOPI INDIANS /UTE INDIANS

2/0

U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, 920 CONGRESS, 23 SESSION

1972 D

PROVIDING A TEMPORARY MORATORIUM ON FEDERAL COAL LEASINGIN THE STATE Q. MONTANA: A REPORT TOGETHER WITH MINORITY VIEWS TO ACCOMANY S.RES. 377.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, REPORT 1284. 6 P.

FEDERAL QUALMS ABOUT EXPLOITING THE COAL DEPOSITS OF EASTERNMONTANA ARE MATCHED BY THOSE OF THE STATE S GOVERNMENT ANO OF THE RANCHERSWHO LIVE ON THE PROPOSED MINE SITES.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES /LAND RECLAMATION /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES/ MONTANA /REVEGEETATION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /SITES /ENERGY 249

271 U.S. SENATE. COMMITTEE ON INTERIORANO INSULAR AFFAIRS, SUBCOMMITTEE ON MINERALS, MATERIALS AND FUELS,920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1971

COAL GASIFICATION DEVELOPMENT:HEARINGS JULY 27 AMU JULY 28, 1971 ON S. 1846. A BILL TO ESTABLISH A COALGASIFICATION DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION. U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 169 P.

TESTIMONY ON THE ECONOMIC ANDENVIRONMENTAL COSTS OF DEVELOPING A FEASIBLE COAL GASIFICATION PROCESS TOREPLACE DWINDLING NATURAL GAS RESERVES AS AN ENERGY SOURCE.

COAL MINES /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES/LEGISLATION /ENERGY CONVERSION/ ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /NATURALGAS /FUELS

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION

272 U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIORANO INSULAR AFFAIRS, SUBCOMMITTEE ON MINERALS, MATERIALS, ANDFUELS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1972 A

REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENTS IN COALGASIFICATION.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,SERIAL 92 -15. 122 P. +;

THE HEARING (NOVEMBER 18, 1971)CONTAINS DETAILED INFORMATION ON THE COMMERCIAL COAL GASIFICATION PLANS OF VARIOUS COMPANIES TO BUILD SENATORS ARE THE SIZE PLANTS. ASPECTS OF SUCH DEVELOPMENT EXAMINED BY OF THE PLANTS, THEIR LOCATION, ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIOJ PLANS AND THE AVAILABILITY OF COAL AND WATER. ESTIMATES OF THE NUMBER OF PLANTS PLANNED VARIED WIDELY -- SENATOR GAYLORDNELSON MENTIONED RUMORS OF 176 SUCH PLANTS FOR THE AMERICAN WEST.

COALS /STRIP MINES /COAL MINES /WATERPOLLUTION /LAND RECLAMATION /AIR POLLUTION /NATURAL_ GAS /ENERGY /GREATPLAINS /SOUTHWEST U.S. /ECONOMIC IMPACT /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT/EENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /REVEGETATION/ /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION

273 U.S. SENATE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, SUBCOMMITTEE ON MINERALS, MATERIALS AND FUELS, 920 CONGRESS, 1ST SESSION

1972 8

SURFACE MINING: HEARINGS. 3 PARTS.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, SERIAL 92 -13. 1173 P.

THESE HEARINGS ON NOVEMBER 16 ANO 17. DECEMBER 2, 1971, ANO FEBRUARY 24, 1972, CONTAIN TESTIMONY FROM FEDERAL AGENCIES, ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS AND COAL COMPANIES. BASICALLY, THE COAL COMPANIES CONTEND THAT THEY KNOW HOW TO RECLAIM STRIP -MINED LAND, THAT THEY ARE STUDYING HOW TO RECLAIM STRIP -MINED LAND IN ARIO WESTERN STATES, ANO THAT THE COAL IS TOO IMPORTANT IN MEETING NATION S ENERGY NEEDS FOR ANY DELAY TO BE PERMITTED. THE ENVIRONMENTAL GROUPS PREFER A DEMONSTRATION OF LAND RECLAMATION IN ARID REGIONS BEFORE THE LAND IS STRIPPED AND /OR A LAW OUTLAWING STRIP MINING. FEDERAL AGENCIES DIFFER OVER THE MANNER ANO EXTENT OF NECESSARY FEDERAL REGULATION OF STRIP MINING. 250

STRIP MINIS /MINE WASTES /COALS /COAL MINES /LAND RECLAMATION/ RFVEGETATLON /WAT[R r- OL LUTION/é: *OSION /ENVIR.ONNENTAL EFFECTS /ECONOMIC ImP ACT /ENE RGY /AMMIN1ST'.A1IViAC,ENCIES /GR[AT PLAINS /SOUTHWEST U.S./ INDIAN RESERVATIONS /LAND RESOURCES

= IDENTIFIERS : /PEADODY COAL COMPANY

6274 UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, TUCSON, OFFICE OF ARID LANDS STUDIES

1973 EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES IN ARID AND SEMIARID LANDS: A LITERATURE REVIEA AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.

SAME AS AUTHOR. ARID LANDS RESOURCES INFORMATION PAPER 2. 119 P.

CONTEMPORARY TECHNIQUES FOR EXPLORATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCESARE OUTLINED, WITH PARTICULAR EMPHASIS ON THE WESTERN U.S. AS TYPICALOF PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN ARID ADD SEMIARID LANDS. THESE INCLUDE FIELD RECONNAISSANCE, INFRARED AERIAL RECONNAISSANCE, PHOTOGEOLOGIC MAPPING, DRILLING, GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSES OF GROUNDWATER, APPLICATION OFFLUID DYNAMICS TO NATURAL STEAM SYSTEMS. ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING,SEISMIC, GRAVITY, ANO MAGNETIC SURVEYS. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, INCLUDING NOISE, ODORS, SUBSIDENCE, AND LEGAL PROBLEMS INVOLVING DEVELOPMENTAL REGULATIONS, ARE REVIEWED. THE ADVANTAGES OF CHEAP POWEP, MULTIPLE USE INCLUDING GREENHOUSE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND DILUTION OF PRESENT SALINE IRRIGATION WATER SOURCES, POWER FCR COOLING AND HEATING ARE DISCUSSED. A 102 -ITEM COMPUTERIZED BIBLIOGRAPHY, MOST WITH FULL ABSTRACTS, IS INCLUDED, PLUS AUTHOR INDEX, AND A DETAILED COMPUTERIZED KEYWORD INDEX CONSTRUCTED FROM TERMINOLOGY APPLIED TO EACH CITATION FROM THE WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC CENTER S WATER RESOURCES THESAURUS, 2ND ED. REFERENCE IS MADE THROUGHOUT THE TEXT TO THESE CITATIONS.

COST -BENEFIT ANALYSIS /BIBLIOGRAPHIES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL POWERPLANTS /BRINES /GREENHOUSES /EXPLORATION /SALINITY/ COSTS /DESIGN CRITERIA /CALIFORNIA

= IDENTIFIERS: /BAJA CALIFORNIA

275 UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, TUCSON, OPTICAL SCIENCES CENTER

1972

SOLAR ENERGY AT OSC.

SAME AS AUTHOR. NEWSLETTER G(31 :65 -67. SWRA W73- 10215.

THE FIRST THERMAL TEST BED MODEL OF A SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTOR ON DISPLAY AT THE UNIVERSITY Or ARIZONA S OPTICAL SCIENCES CENTER DEMONSTRATES AT FULL SCALE ALL ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE COLLECTOR SYSTEM AS DESIGNED BY A.B. AND MARJORIE P. MEINEL. THE MODEL WAS BUILT BY HELIO ASSOCIATES, INC., AND FUNDED THROUGH FOUR WESTERN UTILITY COMPANIES. ITS PURPOSE IS TO ESTABLISH THROUGH 251

EXPERIMENTATION THAT THE CONCEPT WILL WORK AS PREDICTED.ANO TO USE IT TO OBTAIN BASELINE ENGINEERING DATA ON THE COLLECTINGAND HEAT TRANSFER SUBSYSTEMS. TWO BASIC TYPES OF DATA WILL BEDERIVED FROM THE MEASUREM;"NTS, A DYNAMIC. ANALYSIS OR DETERMINATION OFHEATING AND COOLING PATES, AND HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICSWHEREBY GAS TRANSFER ANO ABSORBER TEMPERATURES ARE DETERMINED AS A FUNCTION OFTHE FLOW RATE, PRESSURE, ETC. IT IS HOPED HAT A10 MEGAWATT EXPERIMENTAL SOLAR POWER FARM CAN BE OPERATIONAL NEAP YUMA, ARIZONA,BY 1976. (GALS:

MODEL STUDIES /STRUCTURAL MODELS /SOLAR RADIATION /HEATTRANSFER /THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY /ARIZONA /ENERGY CONVERSION /ENERGY TRANSFER/ENERGY BUDGET

= IDENTIFIERS: /SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS/BUILDING DESIGN

276

UNIVERSITY OFNORTH DAKOTA, GRAND FORKS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

1973 EXTENSIVE UTILIZATION OF LIGNITE IN THE WEST RIVER DIVERSIONAREA: STUDY OF MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS AND POPULATION-ECONOMICIMPACT.

SAME AS AUTHOR. 94 P. THERE ARE 12 BILLION STRIPPABLE TONS OF LIGNITE IN THE14 COUNTIES COMPRISING THE NEST RIVER DIVERSION AREA. IF THE TOTAL ESTIMATED STRIPPABLE RESERVES WERE MINED IT WOULD AFFECT AN AREAEQUIVALENT TO 28 TOWNSHIPS. THIS STRIPPED LAND CAN PROBABLY BE RECLAIMED. THE MAJOR IMPACT FROM EXPLOITATION OF THE LIGNITE WILL COME PROMCONVERTING IT TO GAS OR ELECTRICITY. EACH METHOD USES A GREAT DEAL OF WATER AND, IN THIS SPARSELY POPULATED AREA, CREATES SEVERAL THOUSAND NEW JOBS PER PLANT. CAREFUL PLANNING IS NECESSARY IF THIS POTENTIAL BONANZAFOR NORTH DAKOTA IS TO BE KEPT FROM OVERTAXING CITIES AND TOWNS.

NORTH DAKOTA /LIGNITE /STRIP MINES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATERDEMAND/ SOCIAL ASPECTS /RECLAMATION /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION

= IDENTIFIERS: /WEST RIVER DIVERSION AREA(N.D.1/COAL GASIFICATION

277 UTAH DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

1972

THE STATE OF UTAH WATER.

SAME AS AUTHOR. N.P.

UTAH LACKS THE WATER RESOURCES TO FULLY DEVELOP THE STATE. AS AN EXAMPLE, THE FOUR MILLION ACRES OF LAND SUITABLE FOR IRRIGATION NOT PRESENTLY BEING IRRIGATED WOULD REQUIRE 12 MILLION ACRE FEET PER YEAR. OR NEARLY FIFTY PERCENT MORE THAN THE TOTAL. SUPPLY FOR THE ENTIRE STATE AND ALL ITS REQUIREMENTS. SINCE SUCH LEGITIMATE USE COULD FAR EXCEED AVAILABLE WATER RESOURCES. THE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT OF UTAH S COAL ANO OIL SHALE WILL HAVE TO 3E MADE AT THE EXPENSE OF PRESENT WATER USERS. BY BUYING OUT THEIR WATER RIGHTS, OR THROUGH WATER IMPORTATION FROM OTHER BASINS.

UTAH /IRRIGATION WATER /WATER SHORTAGE /WATER REQUIREMENTS /WATER UTILIZATION /ENERGY /COALS /OIL SHALES /NATURAL RESOURCES /WATER RIGHTS/ WATER IMPORTING 252

278

VANVOAST, W.A.

1973 STUDY OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS, OE STRIP COAL MINING ON THE HYDROLOGICAL REGIMEN IN EASTERN MONTANA. MONTANA COLLEGE OF MINERAL SCIENCE /STATE BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY. BUTTE, MONTANA (UNPUBLISHLO). THIS PROJECT IS DESIGNED 1O ANALYZE THE EFFECTS OF STRIPMINING OF COAL ON THE HYDROLOGIC SYSTS1 INCLUDING CHANGES IN'WATER QUALITY, ARTESIAN PRESSURE, G^RQUNDNAT,ER STORAGE ANí) SURFACE WATER RUNOFF. THE HYDROLOGIC CHANGES. DUE TO STRIP MINING CAN BE BOTH DETRIMENTALAND BENEFICIAL. MONTANA IS FACING MASSIVE. EXPLOITATION OF ITS COAL RESOURCES BY SURFACE MINING.

STRIP MINES /MINE WASTES/WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATERPOLLUTION/ COALS /GROUNDWATER AVAILABILITY /SUDSUFACF. WATERS /ARTESIAN WELLS/ SURFACE RUNOFF /MONTANA /HYDROLOGIC SYSTEMS

279

VELORE, I.A.

1969 EFFICIENCY OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN SHALE -PROCESSING COMBINES (TRANSLATED TITLE).

HYGIENE AND SANITATION 34(12):413 -417. SWRA W71- 12049. TAR HATERS FROM SEVERAL SHALE PROCESSING PLANTS IN RUSSIAWERE ANALYZED AND FOUND TO CONTAIN: 1) A PHENOLIC 000P INTËNSITY OF 4 -5 POINTS: 2)A BROWN- YELLOW OR CINNAMON COLOR: 3) AN OLFACTORY THRESHOLD AT A DILUTION OF 1:4000 TO 1:10,000: AND 4)A COLOR THRESHOLD OF 1 :200 -1:500. BOO AVERAGED 8000 -9000 MG /L BUT WAS AS HIGH AS 14,000 MG /L. THESE EFFLUENTS ARE DEPHENOLIZED BY EXTRACTION WITH BUTYLACETATE AND THEN D(:TARRED IN THREE STAGES TOA RESIDUAL TAR CONTENT OF 10 -35 MG /L (DETARRING EFFICIENCY IS APPROXIMATELY 97 PERCENT), AND THEN MIXED WITH DOMESTIC AND OTHER PLANT WASTES FOR BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT. THE EFFLUENTS FROM THE KOKHTLA -YAVE COMPLEX PASS INTO THE GULF OF FINLAND WITH A PHENOLIC ODOR OF 2 -3POINTS, A YELLOWISH COLOR, 2 -4 MG /L NONOHYORIC AtJD 30 -40 MG /L DIHYDRICPHENOLS. AND 50 -50 MG /L BOD. OTHER PROCESSORS PRODUCE WASTES OF SIMILAR CHARACTERISTICS. IN EACH INSTANCE, THE REMOVALS ARE NOT SUFFICIENT TO PREVENT POLLUTION NUISANCE' IN THE RECEIVING WATERS. IN EACH INSTANCE, IN -PLANT HOUSEKEEPING AND RE -USE OF WATER HAVE BEE,J SUGGLSTED AS BENEFICIAL_ IN REDUCING POLLIJTIONAL LOADS, AND MOST OF THE CURRENT EFFORTS ARE BEING DIRECTED TO THAT END.

OIL SHALES /OIL WASTES /PHENOLS /COLOR /ODORS /SEPARATION TECHNIQUES/ FILTRATIO :N /BIODEGRADATION /BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMANI /INDUSTRIAL WASTES/ /WATER RE-USE /WASTE WATER TREATMENT

= IDENTIFIERS: /TAR 253

280

VLACHOS, E.

1972

MANAGING GROWTH IN A FRAGILE ENVIRONMENT: PROBLEMS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES. PRESENTED AT SYMPOSIUM ON PROPERTY RIGHTS ANO INSTITUTIONS FOR ACHIEVING PUBLIC INTERESTS IN MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 26 -31. 1972. 45 P. SWRA W74- 04505.

IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN STATES, THE LIMITED WATER RESOURCESCOMBINED WITH THE PRECARIOUS PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ARE CONSTANT CONSTRAINTS OF PRESENT AND FUTURE GROWTH IN THE AREA. TRENDS AFFECTING THESE STATES ARE: INCREASING POPULATION THROUGH WESTWARD MIGRATION, INCREASING URBANIZATION AND RURAL DECLINE, INCREASING INDUSTRIALIZATION WITH NEW VALUES AND BEHAVIOR PATTERNS, AND INCREASING CONCERN WITHECOLOGICAL MISMANAGEF:ENT. WATER SHORTAGES APE EXPECTED BY.THE YEAR 2020WITH CONTINUING POPULATION ANO URBAN GROWTH. WATER MANAGEMENT BECOMES AN IMPORTANT MEANS CF CONTROLLING, COORDINATING, ANOALLOCATING THE EXISTING AND FUTURE RIGHTS TO THE USE OF WATER,AND THUS OFFERS THE OPPORTUNITY FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF LARGER GOALSOF A SOCIAL POLICY FOR CONCERTED LAND DEVELOPMENT. CHOICES INVOLVED ARE EITHER TOTAL USE IS BROUGHT INTO LINE WITH SUPPLY OR ONE TYPE OF USEMIGHT BE SACRIFICED TO MAINTAIN ANOTHER. USE OF WATER THROUGH FEDERAL PROJECTS FOR AGRICULTURE IN FORMERLY ARID LANDS WHILE MOISTURE -RICH AREAS OFTHE COUNTRY EXIST IS INCREASINGLY QUESTIONED. INTERSTATE RIVALRY FOR WATER MAY BE EXPECTED. THE FUTURE OF THE REGION DEPENDS ON BOTH AUGMENTING THE NATURAL SUPPLIES AND DEVELOPINGALTERNATIVE MEANS FOR MEETING COMPETING DEMANDS. THE POLICY FOR MAXIMIZING WATER SUPPLIES HINGES ON STRONG INCENTIVES FOR EFFICIENT OR NEWUSES INCLUDING ECONOMIC BENEFITS, AND REDEFINITION OF THE DOCTRINEOF BENEFICIAL USE; STRUCTURAL CHANGES SUCH AS NEW ORGANIZATIONALARRANGEMENTS, CREATION OF NEW STATE AGENCIES: AND REGULATORY COUNTER-INCENTIVES SUCH AS STRICTER ENFORCEMENT AND PRICING POLICIES. OTHER POLICIES WHICH CAN SUPPLEMENT WATER AS A MEANS OF CONTROLLING GROWTHARE SUGGESTED.

WATER SUPPLY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ROCKY MOUNTAINREGION /WATER RESOURCES /WATER OUALITY / MONTANA / IDAHO /WYOMING /COLORADO/NEVADA /ARIZONA/ /UTAH /NEW MEXICO /WATER SHORTAGE /WATER RIGHTS /POLITICALASPECTS /WATER REQUIREMENTS /WATER POLLUTION /WATER MANAGEMENT /CITYPLANNING

281

WALI, M.K. ED.

1973 SOME ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF STRIP MININGIN NORTH DAKOTA.

NORTH OAKOTA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, EDUCATIONAL SERIES 5. 121 P. 254

THIS VOLUME RESULTS FROM A SVMPOSIUH ON THE. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF STRIP MINING HELD AT THL fTH ANNUAL.. MrrTTPIG OF THE NORTH DAKOTA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, APRIL rT, 1973, AT THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA IN GRANO FORKS. THE ARTICLES TNCLUJF DI:`:USSIUN OF POTENTIAL FOR RECLAMATION OF LIGNITE SPOILS IN THE NORTHERN GREAT 1'LATNS; ECOLOGY OF SOME MINED AREAS II: NORTH DAKOTA: AN HISTORICAL. ACCOUNT OF STRIP MINE RECLAMATION IN NOEI.H DAKOTA A GEOLOGISTS VI:'I4 OF STRIP MINING; A BIOLOGISTS VIEW OF STRI' IMINING; THE ECONOMIC A lD SOCIAL IMPACT OF STRIP MINING; TrE ENVIPG'!M NTAIIMPLICATIONS OF EXPLOITING COAL RESERVES: NORTH DAKOTA LAN ON SURFACE AINING ANO RECLAMATION. CAPSULE BIOGRAPHIES OF CONTRIBUTORS ARE APPENDED.

STRIP MINES / NORTIH DAKOTA /LAND RECLAMATION /SOCIAL_ IMPACT /ECONOMIC IMPACT /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /LIGNITE /SPOIL BANKS /COAL MINES

282

WARD, J.C. /REINECKE, S.E.

1972 WATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL OF SNOWFALL ON SPENT OIL SHALE RESIDUES.

U.S. BUREAU OF MINES. OPEN FILE REPORT 20 -72. 62 P. AVAILABLE NTIS AS PB -210 930. SWRA W73- 06934. BECAUSE OF THE POLLUTION OF RUNOFF FROM SPENT SHALE RESULTING FROM OIL RECOVERY BY THE TOSCO II PROCESS,A STUDY WAS DESIGNED TO SIMULATE PROCESSES THAT MIGHT OCCUR UNDER NATURAL CONDITICNS. A MODEL SYSTEM CONSISTED OF A SHALE WASTE PILED ON SAND UNDERLAYE3 WITH PLASTIC SHEET TO PREVENT LOSS OF DRAINAGE. A PERFORATED PLASTIC PIPE WAS PLACED IN THE SANO TO COLLECT THE DRAINAGE AND DIVFRT IT TO A DRUM FOR STORAGE AND LATER ANALYSIS. TO SIMULATE ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS, ARTIFICIAL SNOW WAS BLOWN ONTO THE SPENT SHALE AND ALLOWED TO MELT. ANALAYSIS OF THE RUNOFF WATER SHOWED THAT THE NA (PLUS), CA(2 PLUS), MG (2 PLUS), HCO3 (MINUS). AND SO4 (2 MINUS) WERE THE MOST COMMON IONS PRESENT AFTER CONTACT WITH SPENT SHALE. H (PLUS), K (PLUS), AND CL (MINUS) WERE ALSO DETERMINED IN THE SAMPLES. IN ADDITION, AN EMPIRICAL EQUATION WAS DEVELOPED TO PREDICT THE CONCENTRATION OF THE RUNOFF WATER AS A FUNCTION OF INDEPENDENT PARAMETERS. A TENDENCY FOR SATURATION OF THE RESIDUE TO OCCUR DURING A PERIOD OF SNGWMELT WAS REVEALED. THE EFFECTS OF THIS SATURATION ON THE RESIDUE WERE ALSO CONSIDERED. AN OVERLAND FLOW WATER QUALITY MODEL WAS DEVELOPED AND SUCCESSFULLY APPLIED TO RUNOFF RESULTING FROM RAINFALL AND SNOWFALL ON OIL SHALE RETORTING RESIDUE. THE SURFACE WATER RUNOFF FROM SNOWFALL ON OIL SHALE RESIDUE HAS LESS WATER POLLUTION POTENTIAL THAN THE RUNOFF FROM RAINFALL. THE CONCENTRATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIOS IN THE RUNOFF WAS A FUNCTION OF THE CUMULATIVE VOLUME OF RUNOFF PER UNIT WIDTH, THE POROSITY OF THE OIL SHALE RETORTING RESIDUE. THE SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT, THE SNOWMELT RATE, AND THE FACTION OF THE SNOWMELT WATER THAT IS RUNOFF. (LITTLE-BATTELLE) WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /OIL SHALES /INDUSTRIAL WASTES /MODEL STUDIES/ RAIN /DISSOLVED SOLIDS /HYDROGEN ION OONCENTRATION /MATHEMATICAL MODELS/ SNOW /SODIUM/ CALCIUM / MAGNESIUM /BICARBONATES /SULFATES /POTASSIUM/ CHLORIDES /RUNOFF /RAINFALL -RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS /LEACHING /OIL WASTES/ EQUATIONS/ MELTWATER / PRECIPITATION (ATMOSPHERIC) /IONS /PATH OF POLLUTANTS /SNOWFALL

283

WARNER, M.M.

1972 255

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES OF IDAHO. IN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, GEOTHERMAL OVERVIEWS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES, 1972, El CENTRO CONFERENCE, FEB.16 18. 1972, PROCEEDINGS. PAPER F,5 P.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL, DAVIS, CALIFOZNIA. PUBLICATION. SWRA W7303425.

THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HAS OUTLINED TWO KNOWN GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE AREAS (KGRA S)IN IDAHO. ONE OF THESE IS ON THE STATE S EASTERN BORDER NEXT TO YELLOWSTONE PARK AND THE OTHER IS NEAR THE SOUTH - ,CENTRAL BORDER ALONG THE RAFT RIVER..THE TOTAL AREA IS ABOUT 22.000 ACRES. ANOTHER RECONNAISSANCE HAS OUTLINED 5 AREAS IN ADDITION TO THE TWO KGRA S OF THE USGS, WHICH SHOW INDICATIONS OF PROBABLE GEOTHERMAL POTENTIAL. IF THIS POSTULATED POTENTIAL PROVES TO BE VALID, THE ACREAGE OF KNOWN POTENTIAL IN IDAHO WILL BE INCREASED TO ABOUT 400.000 ACRES. SURFACE CONDITIONS IN THE 7 FAVORABLE AREAS INDICATE THAT MOST OF THE AREAS ARE OF THE HOT WATER TYPE SYSTEM RATHER THAN THE VAPOR DOMINATED TYPE. MUCH OF THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE STATE WHERE MOST OF THE FAVORABLE AREAS ARE. IS UNDERLAIN WITH HUNDREDS TO THOUSANDS OF FEET OF PERMEABLE SEDIMENTS. THEREFORE, MORE THAN ONE GEOTHERMAL AQUIFER MAY EXIST BENEATH THESE AREAS. (USGS)

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /SUBSURFACE WATERS /THERMAL POWER /IDAHO /THERMAL WATER /WATER TEMPERATURE /THERMAL PROPERTIES /HYDROGEULOGY /GEOPHYSICS/ EXPLORATION

IDENTIFIERS: /GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

284 WATER FOR ENERGY MANAGEMENT TEAM

1974 REPORT ON WATER FOR ENERGY IN THE UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D.C. 71 P.

THIS REPORT CONCLUDES THAT NOT ONLY IS WATER NOT AVAILABLE IN THE WEST FOR MINING COAL ANO OIL SHALE ON. THE SCALE IMPLICIT IN PROJECT INDEPENDENCE, BUT THE MINING ITSELF COULD POLLUTE WATER NOW USED FOR INDUSTRY. IRRIGATED FARMING, RECREATION AND HUMAN CONSUMPTION. SUCH POLLUTION IS ESPECIALLY WORRISOME BECAUSE HALF THE POPULATION OF THE WEST DEPENDS ON COLORADO RIVER WATER. INCREASED EXPLOITATION OF THIS WATERSHED COULD SEND SALINITY LEVELS SKYROCKETING. IF THE ENERGY RESOURCES OF THE REGION ARE NOT EXPLOITED AT THE RATES NOW PROJECTED, OR EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT USED AT ALL, THE WEST WILL STILL FACE A WATER SHORTAGE IN THE NEXT CENTURY. THUS THE WEST HAS A POTENTIAL WATER PROBLEM NO MATTER WHAT IS DONE TO DEVELOP ITS ENERGY RESOURCES, BUT A POTENTIAL CRISIS IF MINING IS DONE ON THE SCALE NOW BEING CONSIDERED.

WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /COALS /OIL SHALES /COLORADO RIVER /WATER SUPPLY/ /SALINITY /ENERGY /RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /WATER SHORTAGE /MINING /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /WATER UTILIZATION /WATER REQUIREMENTS

=IDFNTIFIERS: /PROJECT INDEPENDENCE 256

285

WEAVER, G.D.

1971 ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF SHALE OIL RECOVERY BY IN-SITU METHODS. PAPER AVAILABLE FROM COLORADO PLATEAU ENVIRONMENTAL ADVISORY COUNCIL, C/0 MUSEUM OF NORTHERN ARIZONA, FLAGSTAFF. 67 P.

IN -SITU METHODS OF PRODUCING OIL FROM WESTERN SHALE ARE OFTEN PRESENTED AS ENVIRONMENTALLY ATTRACTIVE COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL MINING TECHNIQUES. THIS IS QUESTIONABLE. FRACTURING OF THE SHALE UNDERGROUND COULD LEAD TO POLLUTION OF AQUIFERS. WATER PRODUCED BY RETORTING WOULD BE POLLUTED. POPULATION GROWTH NECESSARY FOR EXPLOITING THE SHALE RESERVES COULD SERIOUSLY OVERSTRAIN AVAILABLE WATER IN THE REGION. IN SHORT, THE AUTHOR FINDS IN -SITU METHODS FRAUGHT WITH ENVIRONMENTAL DANGER AND GROSSLY UNDERSTUDIED. SURFACE METHODS ARE EQUALLY HAZARDOUS TO THE ENVIRONMENT. HIS CCNCLUSIONS CALL INTO QUESTION THE FEASIBILITY OF EXPLOITING SHALE OIL AT ALL.

OIL SHALES /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS / HAZARDS /OIL /HYDROFRACTURING /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /WATER POLLUTION SOURCES /SOCIAL IMPACT

286

WEHLAGE, E.F.

1973 TESTS RUN ON NEW PRIME MOVER FOR GEOTHERMAL POWER GENERATION.

CONSULTING ENGINEER 41(2):128 -129. FOR SOME REASON THE AMERICAN UTILITY INDUSTRY HAS PAID LITTLE ATTENTION TO A GEOTHERMAL FLUID PRIME MOVER THAT IS NOW BEING TESTED BY THE MEXICAN GOVERNMENT. CALLED THE HELICAL ROTARY SCREW EXPANDER, IT HAS THE ABILITY TO ACCEPT DIRTY PRESSURIZED HOT WATER SUCH AS IS FOUND IN A GEOTHERMAL FIELD IN BAJA CALIFORNIA. LESS THAN A MILE FROM THE TEST SITE THE MEXICAN GOVERNMENT NOW OPERATES A75,000 KW GEOTHERMAL GENERATOR.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /THERMAL POWER /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /WATER POLLUTION /MEXICO

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES /BAJA CALIFORNIA /HELICAL ROTARY SCREW EXPANDER

287

WEICHMAN, B.E.

1973 OIL SHALE, COAL AND THE ENERGY CRISIS.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS 69(51:94 -96.

ONLY COAL AND OIL SHALE EXIST IN LARGE ENOUGH DEPOSITS TO ALLEVIATE THE PROJECTED ENERGY DEFICIT FACING THIS COUNTRY BETWEEN NOW AND THE YEAR 2000. CURRENT TECHNOLOGY IS CAPABLE OF PRODUCING A CLEAN FUEL.

MINERAL INDUSTRY /OIL SHALES /COALS /COAL MINES /LAND RESOURCES /ENERGY CONVERSION 257

288

' WEIR, A., JR. /PAPAY, L.T.

1973 SCRUBBING EXPERIMENTS AT THE MOHAVE GENERATING STATIONS.

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY S DESULFURIZATION SYMPOSIUM, NEW ORLEANS, MAY 14 -17, 1973. 35 P. THE MOHAVE GENERATING STATION IS CURRENTLY TESTING EIGHT PILOT SCRUBBERS AND FOUR REAGENTS --SODA ASH, LIMESTONE, LIME, AND AMMONIA. PAPER GIVES THE HIGHLIGHTS OF THE EXPERINEiNT AND THE CONCLUSIONS WHICH LED THE PLANT TO SETTLE ON CONSTRUCTION OF TWO 450.030 SCFM SCRUBBERS. BESIDES CONSUMING WATER, SCRUBBING SYSTEMS PRODUCE A WASTE DISPOSAL PROBLEM.

AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /SULFUR /WATER QUALITY /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /CLEAN AIR ACT /POWERPLANTS /ACIDS /SOUTHWEST U.S./ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ENERGY CONVERSION /COALS /WATER LOSS /WASTE DISPOSAL

= IDENTIFI -RS)/MOHAVE POWERPLANT /BLACK MESA /EMISSIONS CONTROLS/ SCRUBBERS /SULFURIC ACID /SULFUR DIOXIDE

289

WEISMANTEL, G.

1973 GEOTHERMAL POWER STILL IFFY.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 80(61:40 -42. GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COULD HZ()) IN MEETING THEGROWING U.S. ENERGY THIS RESOURCE IS OUR DEMAND. A KEY PROBLEM REMAI ING IN EXPLOITING LACK OF KNOWLEDGE OF BRINE -RESERVOIRCHARACTERISTICS. UNTIL WE HAVE MORE EXPERTISE IN HANDLING GEOTHERMAL FLUIDSTHIS ENERGY SOURCE CANNOT BE SERIOUSLY CONSIDERED FOR POWER GENERATION.

GEOTHERMAL STUDIES /EXPLORATION /THERMAL POWER/ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /WATER POLLUTION/BRINES

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGYSOURCES

290

WEN, C.Y.

1972 OPTIMIZATION OF COAL GASIFICATION PROCESSES.

U.S. OFFICE OF COAL RESEARCH, RESEARCH ANODEVELOPMENT REPORT 66; INTERIM REPORT 2 PREPARED UNDER CONTRACT 14 -01- 0001-497. 74 P.

SINCE COAL IS BULKY AND SUFFERS FROM TWO POLLUTANTS--FLY ASH ANO SULFUR --GASIFICATION PROCESSES ARE DESIRABLE INENERGY PRODUCTION. THIS STUDY MATHEMATICALLY SIMULATES AND EVALUATESVARIOUS GASIFICATION PROCESSES. GAS CAN BE PRODUCED AT A VIABLE PRICE ANOSULFUR CAN BE REMOVED FROM THE COAL. A PLANT PRODUCING 250 MILLION CUBIC FEET OF PIPELINE GAS PER DAY WOULD REQUIRE AT LEAST 21,600TONS OF COAL DAILY (7.5 MILLION TONS PER YEAR). ALSO, THE PLANT WOULD CONSUME 2.8 MILLION GALLONS OF NON -RECOVEPABLE WATER PER DAY, AND 21MILLION 258

GALLONS OF MAKE UP WATER FOR ITS COOLING SYSTEM. THERE WILL BE SOME LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM.,. THE PLANT WILL REJECT 450 TONS OF ELEMENTAL SULPHUR, 2050 TONS OF CHAR OP. ASM, ANO 13,90U TONS OF CARBON DIOXII:'E THROUGH ITS STACKS EACH DAY. ONE' SUCH PLAIT WILL CONSUME 25 PERCENT MORE COAL THAN IS PRESENTLY PRODUCED IN THE LARGEST MIME IN THE UNITED STATES.

COALS /COAL MINES /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /SULFUR /WATER LOSS /FLY ASH /WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT /ENERGY CONVERSION /COOLING/ ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION

291

WESTERN GASIFICATION COMPANY

1974

COAL GASIFICATION: A TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION. SAME AS AUTHOR, PETROLEUM PLAZA 3UIL.DING, 3535 EAST 30TH STREET, FARMINGTON, NEW MEXICO. 32 P. THIS ILLUSTRATED BOOKLET IS INTENDED TO MEET THE NEEDS OF ENVIRONMENTALISTS, GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS, SCHOLARS. ENGINEERS. AND OTHERS WHO DESIRE DETAILED INFCRMATICW ABOUT COAL GASIFICATION. IT TREATS VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THE COAL GASIFICATION PLANT TO BE BUILT SOUTH OF FARMINGTON, NEW MEXICO, BY PACIFIC COAL GASIFICATION C0FMPANY, TRANSWESTERN COAL GASIFICATION COMPANY, AND UTAH INTERNATIONAL, INC. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CAN BE OBTAINED FROM THE ABOVE ADDRESS.

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION /PACIFIC COAL GASIFICATION COMPANY/ TRANSWESTERN COAL GASIFICATION COMPANY /UTAH INTERNATIONAL, INC. /FOUR CORNERS AREA

292

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION. HEAT TRANSFER DIVISION

1973 ADVANCED COAL GASIFICATION SYSTEM FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION. ANNUAL TECHNICAL REPORT FOR THE PERIOD AUGUST 9, 1972 -JUNE 30,1973. WORK DONE UNDER U.S. OFFICE OF COAL RESEARCH CONTRACT 14- 32 -OCG1 -1514.

SAME AS AUTHOR, LESTER, PENNSYLVANIA.

COAL GASIFICATION IN CONJUNCTION WITH C0H3INED GAS AND STEAM TURBINE GENERATION PROVIDES FOR THE ECONOMIC, EFFICIENT, NON -POLLUTING POWERPLANTS NOW DEMANDED IN THE U.S. USING A NWLY- DEVISED FLUIDIZED -BED GASIFICATION PPOCESS, WESTINGHOUSE AND THE OFFICE OF COAL RESEARCH HOPE TO PRODUCE A SULFUR -FRÉE PROTOTYPE GASIFICATION PLANT.

COALS /ENERGY CONVERSION /NATURAL GAS /SULFUR /AIR POLLUTION /WATER POLLUTION /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES /ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION

= IDENTIFIERS: /COAL GASIFICATION /SULFUR DIOXIDE /U.S. OFFICE OF COAL RESEARCH 259

293

WHETSTONE, G.A.

1970 HYDRO POTENTIAL OF THE TEXAS WATER PLAN.

WATER POWER 22(2):52 -53. SWRA W76- 08524. THE BASIC PROPOSALS CONTAINED IN THE TEXAS WATERPLAN ARE OUTLINED ANO POTENTIAL WATER POWER DEVELOPMENT UNDER THEPROJECT IS DISCUSSED. THE MAJORITY OF THE ENERGY SUPPLY IN TEXAS HASNEVER BEEN DERIVED FROM WATER POWER ANO CONVENTIONAL HYDROELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTSARE UNLIKELY TO OCCUR IN THE FUTURE. PUMPED STORAGE, HOWEVER,MAY BE FEASIBLE IN AREAS OF FAVORABLE TOPOGRAPHY AND ADEOUATE WATERSUPPLY. A NUMBER OF SITES SHOULD BE AVAILABLE IN EAST TEXAS IN CONNECTIONWITH STORAGE RESERVOIRS ENVISIONED AS PART OF TH= TEXAS WATERPLAN. OTHER SITES SHOULD EXIST AT THE PUMPING STATIONS OF THE TRANS-TEXAS CANAL. IN LIGHT OF THIS, IT IS QUITE LIKELY THAT A NUMBEROF PUMPED STORAGE PROJECTS WILL BE INCLUDED IN THE PLAN. (OALS)

TEXAS /INTER -BASIN TRANSFERS /PUMPED STORAGE/HYDROELECTRIC POWER/ MISSISSIPPI RIVER /WATER TRANSFER /DIVERSION /WATER UTILIZATION/ IRRIGATION /NEW MEXICO /ARID LANDS /SEMIARID CLIMATES/ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION /DAMS /RESERVOIRS /HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS/ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

c IDENTIFIERS: /TEXAS WATER PLAN /TRANS -TEXAS CANAL

294

WILKINSON, L.E.

1974 ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT FOR THE WEST.

WESTERN INTERSTATE NUCLEAR BOARD, LAKEWOOD, COLORADO. 61 P.

THE WEST, OVER THE NEXT TEN TO TWENTY YEARS, CAN NOT ONLY MEET ITS OWN DEMANDS FOR ENERGY, BUT BECOME AN EXPORTER TO THE REST OF THE NATION. CURRENTLY, THE REGION IS A3OUT 10 PERCENT DEFICIENT IN MEETING ITS OWN NEEDS, BUT DEVELOPMENT OR-THE AREA S. COAL, OIL, AND OIL SHALE SHOULD REVERSE THIS SITUATION. NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS HAVE BEEN DELAYED BECAUSE OF PURLIC REVIEW PROCEDURES WHICH MUST BE STREAMLINED IN THE FUTURE. FOCUSING ON HOW THE WEST MUST INCREASE ITS ENERGY PRODUCTION AND HOW IT SHOULD AVERT PUBLIC PROTEST, THE AUTHOR EMPHASIZES THE REGION S OBLIGATION TO FREE THE NATION FROM O PENDENCE ON FOREIGN ENERGY SOURCES. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS ARE NOT DISCUSSED.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /ENERGY /COALS /OIL /OIL SHALES /NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS /ENVIRONMENT

295

WILLIAMS, N.R.

1974 DISPLACEMENT OF APPALACHIAN COAL BY WESTERN COAL.

U.S. HOUSE, COMMITTEE ON INTERIOR AND INSULAR AFFAIRS, MEMORANDUM, FEBRUARY 28, 1974, WASHINGTON, D.C. 9 P. 260

MAJOR UTILITIES AND COAL CONFANI_S ARE USING THE CLEAN AIR AMENDMENTS OF 1970 TO SUBSTITUTE TRADITIONAL APPALACHIAN COAL WITH LOWGRAOE WESTERN SUBUIIUMINOUS COAL. CLAIMING WESTERN COAL HAS A LOWER SULPHUR CONTENT THAN TRADITIONAL EASTEPN SOUCES (A DEBATA3LE POINT IN VIEW OF THE LOWER BTU VALUE FOR WESTERN COAL), THC CORPORATIONS ARE DISPLAYING A DISREGARD FOR THL ECONOMY OF THE E ASTERN COAL REGIONS AND FOR THE HEALTH -EFFECTING PKOPFRTIES OF WESTERN COAL. MOREOVER, THE MEMORANDUM CONCLUDES, THE DISINTEGRATION OF PAIL TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES IN THE EAST, COUPLED WITH THEABILITY Or SOME UTILITIES TO PASS- THROUGH TRANSPORTATION GUSTS DIRECTLY TO THE CONSUMERS OF ELECTRIC POWER AND THE INABILITY CF COAL COMPANIES TO DEAL. WITH EASTERN LABOR AND SAFETY PROBLEMS HAS LED TO THE ANOMALOUS SITUATION OF COAL BEING IMPORTED INTO ONE OF THE RICHEST COAL REGIONS ON EARTH, IN THE PROCESS WASTING FUEL OIL WHICH IS NOW AT AN ALL -TIME PREMIUM.

COALS /CLEAN AIR ACT /APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION /ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION /TRANSPORTATION /COST TRANSFER

296

WINGET, R.N.

1973 THE EFFECT OF A COAL -BURNING POWER PLANT AND ASSOCIATED RESERVOIR ON 'THE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM. BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY, PROVO, UTAH, CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (UNPUBLISHED).

THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS CONTINUING STUDY ARE TO DETERMINE EFFECTS ON THE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM CAUSED BY EMISSIONS ANO EFFLUENT FROM A COAL - BURNING POWERPLANT AND AN ASSOCIATED 30,000-ACRE RESERVOIR TO BE CONSTRUCTED IN CENTRAL UTAH. DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF THE STUDY, COMPONENTS OF THE FLORA AND FAUNA AND CHEMICAL ANO PHYSICAL PARAMETERS WILL BE DETERMINED AT 14 STATIONS ON VARIOUS STREAMS, RESERVOIRS AND LAKES PERIPHERAL TO THE PROPOSED PLANT. DETAILED ANALYSES WILL BE MADE OF THE ECOSYSTEM OF HUNTINGTON CREEK, UPON WHICH THE PROPOSED RESERVOIR AND POWER PLANT WILL BE BUILT. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS TO BF DETERMINED INCLUDE 1) TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS, INCLUDING FLY ASH. 2) DISSOLVED NITRATES. AMMONIA, SULFUR COMPOUNDS, PHOSPHATES. CARBONATES, SILICON COMPOUNDS, FLUORIDES, SELECTED METAL IONS, OXYGEN, AND CARBON DIOXIDE, 3)PH, ALKALINITY, TURBIDITY AND TEMPERATURE. CONCENTRATIONS OF PLY ASH AND POTENTIAL POLLUTANTS IN ACCUMULATED SNOWCOVER WILL ALSO BE DETERMINED. IT IS ANTICIPATED THAT THIS STUDY WILL BE CONTINUED FOR FOUR YEARS PRIOR TO THE OPERATION OF THE PLANT AND AT INTERVALS UP TO 10 YEARS AFTER THE PLANT BEGINS OPERATION.

THERMAL POLLUTION /WATER CONSERVATION /WATER RESOURCES /FLY ASH /SULFUR COMPOUNDS /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS /COOLING /SOUTHWEST U.S. /WATER POLLUTION /COALS

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /HUNTINGTON CANYON POWERPLANT

297

WOLFF, A.

1972

SHOWDOWN AT FOUR CORNERS.

SATURDAY REVIEW OF THE SOCIETY, JUNE 3,1972. P. 29 -34. 261

THE POWERPLANTS IN THE FOUR CORNES AREA WILL WASTE WATER IN THE ARID SOUTHWEST. BY REMOVING WATER FROM THE COLORADO FIVER, THE INSTALLATIONS WILL HEIGHTEN THE S. +LINITY PROBLEM IN THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS DOWNSTREAM. PLANT COOLING TOWERS LOSE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER TO EVAPORATION- -THE FOUR CORNEPS PLANT ALONE SUFFERS AN EVAPORATION RATE OF TWENTY MILLION GALLONS PER DAY. AIR POLLUTION AND DESTRUCTION OF THE LAND BY STRIP MINING ARE ALSO DISCUSSED.

ENERGY CONVERSION /ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS/SOOTHNEST U.S. /AIRPOLLUTION/ WATER RESOURCES /POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY /STRIP MINES /COLORADORIVER/ POWERPLANTS /COAL MINES /MINE WASTES /REVEGETATION /ECONOMIC IMPACT/ SALINITY /ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /POLLUTION ABATEMENT

= IDENTIFIERS: /FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT /BLACKMESA /NAVAJO INDIANS/ HOPI INDIANS /MINE -MOUTH PLANT /SULFUR DIOXIDE /NITROGEN OXIDES

298

WORLD PETROLEUM

1972

OIL SHALE ECONOMICS TODAY.

SAME AS AUTHOR 43(51:21 -24. A DETAILED COST ANALYSIS IS PRESENTED FOR A HYPOTHETICAL OILSHALE EXTRACTION PLANT WHICH WOULD PRODUCE 100,000 BARRELS PER DAY FROM COLORADO OIL SHALE. SUCH A PLANT WOULD BE VIABLE IF THE OIL PRODUCED COULD BE SOLD FOR 3 DOLLARS AND 74 CENTS PER U.S. BARREL.

MINERAL INDUSTRY /OIL SHALES /EXPLOITATION /ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY/ COLORADO /COLORADO RIVER BASIN /COST ANALYSIS

= IDENTIFIERS: /ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

299 WYOMING WATER PLANNING PROGRAM

1973 WYOMING S GROUNDWATER SUPPLIES.

STATE ENGINEER S OFFICE, CHEYENNE, WYOMING. 28 P. MAPS, GRAPHS, AND CHARTS INDICATE THE NATURE, CAPACITY, AND EXPECTED FUTURE DEPLETIONS OF WYOMING S AQUIFERS. ONE MAP. SHOWING DEPLETIONS, PLOTS POSSIBLE FUTURE USERS SUCH AS COAL MINES AND OIL SHALE EXTRACTING PLANTS.

WYOMING /GROUNDWATER RESOURCES /OIL SHALES /COAL MINES /WATER UTILIZATION 262

300

YOUNG, G.

1c :69

DRY LANDS AND A HUNGRY WORLD. NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, TRANSACTIONS, SER. II.31(62):145 -187. SWRA W71- 34291. THE WORLD WATER BUDGET IS REVIEWED AND SEVERAL MAJOR RIVERSYSTEMS ARE OISCUSS£D IN DETAIL. ALTHOUGH THE WORLD HAS AN ENORMOUS AMOUNT OF WATER. IT IS NOT EVENLY DISTRIBUTED. THE DESERT LAND AREA OF THE WORLD IS FAR GREATER THAN THE AREA OF ALL CROPLANDS. THE GANGES PLAIN OF INDIA ANO THE'SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY IN A DESERTAREA OF CALIFORNIA ARE . DESCRIBED AND COMPARED IN TERMS OF CLIMATE, GEOPHYSICALASPECTS AND CURRENT AGRICULTURE PRODUCTIVITY. THE OUTPUT OF THE GANGES PLAIN, RELATIVE TO ITS RESOURCES, COMPARES UNFAVORABLY. AN ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEMS INVOLVED INDICATES THAT THE FACTOR- LIMITINGTHE CONVERSION FROM INDIGENOUS AGRICULTURË TO INTENSIVE, MULTI -CROPCEREAL PRODUCTION IS NOT WATER, SOIL OR SUNLIGHT, 3UT POWERPRODUCTION, WHICH IN TURN FACILITATES BOTH FERTILIZER PRODUCTION AND WATER TRANSPORT. MOST MODERN AGRICULTURE IS ESSENTIALLY PETROLEUM BASED, BUTIN AN UNDERDEVELOPED, OIL -POOR COUNTRY SUCH AS INDIA, POWERPRODUCTION SHOULD GE BASED ON COAL AND /OR NUCLEAR ENERGY. A DETAILED BUDGET IS WORKED OUT FOR NUCLEAR- POWERED IRRIGATION WATERPUMPING IN WHICH CROP PRODUCTION IS INCREASED SEVENFOLD. THE BASIC PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND COST STRUCTURE OF NUCLEAR POWERED DESALINATION AREREE.VIEWED. WATER USE EFFICIENCY IN VARIOUS CROPS AND WORLD CROPPRICES ARE LISTED. IT IS ARGUED THAT IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE AN ECONOMICALLY FEASIBLE AGRICULTURE BASED ON NUCLEAR DESALINATION, THE NUMBER OF CROPS PER YEAR, CROP WATER EFFICIENCY, POWER TECHNOLOGYAND POWER COSTS MUST ALL BE WEIGHED AND COORDINATED IN A CAREFUL PLANNING PROJECT. COALS) ARID LANDS /DESALINATION /WATER COSTS / NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS/COST- BENEFI1 ANALYSIS /ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY /HUMAN POPULATION /CALIFORi`ìIA/DESERTS/ IRRIGATION SYSTEMS /PLANNING /NITROGEN /FERTILIZERS/ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS /NUMERICAL ANALYSIS /RIVER FLOW /VALLEYS /HYDROLOGICCYCLE /CEREAL CROPS /DESALINATION PROCESSES /DESALINATION PLANTS /CROPPRODUCTION/ PRODUCTIVITY /WATER DEMAND /OISTRIOUTTON /AGRICULTURE /ELECTRICPOWER / EFFICIENCIES /COSTS /INDUSTRIAL PLANTS /POWERPLANTS

= IDENTIFIERS: /POWER COSTS /INDIA /GANGESRIVER VALLEY /DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AUTHOR INDEX Author Index

ADAM, J. 1 COLORAD) WATER CONSERVATION BOARD ALLEN, O.R. 2 4 Cí ALTMAN, M. 3 COMMERCE BUSINESS DAILY 46 AMBROGGI, R.P. 4 COOK, G.L. 47 ANDERSON, D.N. 5 CORDES,E.H. 48 ANDERSON, J.H.,JR. 6 COPINER,H. 102 ANDERSON, R.J. 7 COTTER,T.J. 49 ANONYMOUS 8 COUNCIL ON ECONOMIC PRIORITIES 50 ARDEN, T. 112 CROMPTOV, E.J. 233 ARMSTRONG, E.L. 9 AWADY, N.A., AL- 10 AXTELL, L.H. 5

DAVIS, R.K. 51 DETTLOFF, J. 102 DIALS, S.E. 52 BAKER, T.L. 11 DIPESO, C.C. 53 BALDWIN, M.F. 12 69 DONNELL, J.R. 188 BALLIGAND. P. 13 DONOVAN, P. 54 BARNES, P. 14 DOVE, F.H. 55 BARTCN, C.J. 155 DUFFIE, J.A. 130 BASSLER. F. 15 BEAUMONT, E.C. 213 BEN)ER, G.L. 16 BERKMAN, R.L. 17 BERLIN, E. 18 EL PASO NATURAL GAS COMPANY 57 BIROSEYE, H.S. 19 2G ELECTRIC RESEARCH COUNCIL 56

BLACKMAI, W.C.,JR. 21 ' ENGELBERT, E.A. 58 BOBO, D.L. 22 ENGINEERING NEWS -RECORD 59 BORMANN, F.H. 125 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND BOULOTNS, R. 23 TECHNOLOGY 60 BOWEN, R.G. 24 25 26 FRGASHEV, S.E. 61 BOX, T.W. 234 EVANS, N.A. 62 BRANNON, G.M. 27 BREED. C.S. 28 BREGMAN, J.I. 29 BROWN, W.E. 30 BURKE, J.C. 81 FAIRCHILD, W.D. 63 BUSINESS WEEK 31 FASSETT. J.E. 64 FELTIS, R.D. 65 FIREMAN. B. 66 FISCHER, L.K. 67 FLETCHER, K. 68 69 CALIFORNIA, STATE DEPARTMENT OF FOSTER ASSOCIATES, INC. 70 WATER RESOURCES 32 FRIZ, T.O. 71 72 CARLSON, C.G. 33 FRIZZELL, T. 73 CARTER, L.J. 34 35 CECIL, E.A. 36 CHEOD, G. 37 CHEMICAL ANO ENGINEERING NEWS 38 39 GANUS, W.J. 74 CHERRY, W.R. 40 41 GARDNER. B.D. 75 CICCHETTI, C.J. 18 GARNSEY, M.E. 76 CLARK, J.W. 42 GARSIDE, L.J. 77 CLOSE. J.J. 130 GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES COUNCIL 78 CLOUDSLEY -THOMPSON, J.L. 43 GERAGHTY ANO MILLER, PORT COAL AGE 44 WASHINGTON, N.Y. 79 COHEN, M. 214 GILLEN, W.J. 18

*Item numbers refer to the Bibliography's numbered citations, not topage numbers 264

GILLETTE, Re 80 LAGLER, K.F. 118 GLASER. P.E. 81 82 LAIRD, A.D.K. 119 GOLDSMITH, M. 83 LAIRD, W.M. 33 GORDON, S. 84 LAKE POWELL RESEARCH PROJECT 12C GREENBURG, W. 85 LAPP. R.E. 121 GRIFFIN. R.F. 86 LAROSA, P.J. 110 GRIMES, A.E. 87 LAVI, A. 122 GUFi, R.L. 88 LEBARON, A. D. 75 GYFTOPOULOS. E.P. 89 LEONARD, J.W. 154 LEUNG, P. 123 LEVY, H.D. 124 LIKENS, G.Ë. 125 LINDEN, H.R. 12.6 HALACY, D.S., JR. 90 LINVILLE. 3. 127 HAMMOND, A.L. 91 LITTLE, A.O. 81 82 HAMMOND, R.". 197 LITTLETON, R.T. 128 HAROWAY, J.P. 92 LOEFFLER, M.J. 129 HARSHEA GER, J.W. 93 LOF, G.J.G. 130 131 HAPWCOD, B. 94 LOFERSKI, J.J. 132 HAY, H.R. 95 LUTZ, A.W. 49 HEBB, D.H. 96 HESS, D.N. 97 HIATT, R. 98 HILLHOUSE, R.Q. 99 HINDS, J.S. 64 MACMEEKIN, D.H. 133 HODGE, C.O. 100 MANY FARMS HIGH SCHOOL, MANY FARMS, HODGES, C.N. 100 ARIZONA 134 HOWELL, D.J. 262 MARINELLI, G. 135 HUDSON, W. 101 MAX -NEEF, M.A. 136 MAY, T.H. 137 MCBRIOE, L.L. 138 MCCAULL, J. 139 MCCORMICK, J.L. 140 INGRAM, H. 102, ME1NEL, A.B. 141 142 143 MEINEL, M,. P. 141 142 143 MELCHER, A.G. 144 METZ, W.D. 145 146 METZGER. H.P. 147 148 JACOBS, D.G. 103 MIDGLEY, D.C. 149 JACOBSEN, S. 104 105 MILLS, G.A. 150 JACOBY, S.C. 106 HINEEES MAGAZINE 151 JOSEPHY. A.M.. JR. 1D7 MINING CONGRESS JOURNAL 152 MONTANA LAW REVIEW 153 MOOMAU, H.F. 154 MOORE, E.C. 52 MOORE, R.E. 123 155 KAMAL, I. 108 109 MORSE, F.H. 41 KARVAVAS, J.A. 11C MORTON, R.C.B. 156 KAUFMAN, A. 111 MUFFLER, L.J.P. 157 KEENE, J. 112 MUNN, R.F. 158 KELLEY, M.J. 113 MYBURGH, R.I.D. MCC 159 KHANNA, M.L. 114 KOENIG, J.B. 115 KOLLMORSEN, W.M. 116 KOTTLOWSKI, F.F. 213 KRUGER, P. 117 200 NASIM, M. 160 KUBE, W.R. 137 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING, TASK FORCE ON ENERGY 161 265

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES RAMEY, J.T. 197 1E2 163 REDFIELD, A. 198 NATIONAL PETROLEUM COUNCIL, REINECKE, S.E. 282 COMMITTEE UN THE U.S. E4ERGY RENSCH, J.R. 199 OUTLOOK 164 165 RcTIEF, V. 200 NETSCHERT, B.C. 166 REX, R.W. 201 202 NEUMANN, J. 167 RITTER, W.W. 203 NEVADA DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES, ROGERS, P. 204 CARSON CITY 168 ROSENBERG. H.S. 205 NEW MEXICO STATE ENGINEER OFFICE/ ROSS, S.H. 226 NEW MEXICO INTERSTATE RULLI, J.F. 206 COMMISSION 169 NIELSEN, E. 170 NOVICK, S. 171 NUCLEAR INDUSTRY 172 SAGAN, L.A. 207 NUCLEAR NEWS 173 SAYVETZ, A. 208 SCHILLING, J.H. 77 SCIENCE 209 SCIENCE NEWS 210 SCOFIELO, F.C., III. 211 0 BRIEN, J.J. 176 SHIRAZI. M.A. 212 0 KEEFE, W. 177 SHOEMAKER, J.W. 213 0 MARA, R.L. 179 SHRINER, R.O. 214 OAK RIOGE NATIONAL LABORATORIES SIEHL, G.H. 215 174 SIMONS, M. 216 OBERWAGER, 0. 175 SKOGERB3E, G.V. 217 OLSEN, J.H. 178 SMITH, J.R. 218 ONNEN, J.H. 180 STEINER, W.E. 219 220 ORNI, E. 181 STERLINS, C. 221 OTTE, C. 117 STOCKTON, C.W. 106 OVERSEAS TECHNICAL COOPERATION STORK, K.E. 222 AGENCY, JAPAN 182 STRONBERG, R.P. 223 SUMMERS. W.K. 225 226 SUMMERS, W.K. COMP. 224 SUMNER, D. 227 SWARTMAN, R.K. 228 PAPAY, L.T. 288 SZEGO, G.C. 229 PEABODY COAL COMPANY 183 PEARL, R.H. 184 PELCZARSKI, E.A. 110 FELJSO, R.G. 185 P£RANIO, A. 186 TALBOT, B. 230 PIPER, A.M. 187 TALBOT. J.B. COMP. 231 PITMAN, J.K. 188 TASIEFF, H. 232 POLL, C. 189 THAMES. J.L. 233 POLLARD. B.C. 190 THOMAS, G.W. 234 POLZER, C.W. 191 THORN, J. 235 PORTER, L.R. 192 TODD, O.K. 236 POST, R.G. 193 POWDER RIVER BASIN RESOURCE COUNCIL 194 PUBLIC SERVICE 195 UMAROV, G.Y. 237 UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, TUCSON, OFFICE OF ARID LANDS STUDIES 274 QUINN. F.J. 196 UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, TUCSON, OPTICAL SCIENCES CENTER 275 266

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA, GRAND UTAH DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL FCR.

ABATEMENT 205 ARABIAN PENINSULA 167 ABSORPTION 38 57 91 103 124 ARABLE LAND 216 155 167 ARAL SEA AREA 61 ABSTRACTS 87 158 ARE: A DEVELOPMENT 15 28 ACCLIMATIZATION 216 ARID LANDS 4 10 15 16 53 66 ACIDS 31 125 288 29 36 43 45 101 108 114 116 ADMINISTRATIVE_ AGENCIES 14 1.7 95 100 149 159 168 35 37 46 94 97 104 123 133 136 105 107 121 127 146 147 169 181 186 189 191 192 156 164 172 173 179 185 196 200 204 211 212 216 234 237 192 210 215 227 235 238 219 220 221 230 243 247 25ù 259 260 261 249 293 300 44 262 263 264 L65 268 269 ARIZONA 11 17 28 30 270 271 273 292 59 66 74 93 102 138 193 AESTHETICS 34 97 253 142 148 152 183 191 AFRICA 170 197 232 219 220 245 263 264 265 AGRICULTURE 67 143 216 300 269 275 280 AGRO- INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX 1 ARIZONA ATOMIC ENERGYCOMMISSION AIR CIRCJLATTON 103 74 86 193 AIR POLLUTION 8 17 31 39 ARIZONA INTERSTATE STREAM 40 46 57 71 83 84 COMMISSION ' 219 88 94 96 97 103 104 ARKANSAS RIVER BASIN 169 107 110 113 125 134 135 ARROYOS 191 147 148 171 172 180 187 ARTESIAN WELLS 4 278 195 207 227 228 236 241 ARTIFICIAL PRECIPITATION 87 258 252 253 259 2b0 261 262 ASIA 197 263 264 265 269 272 28.8 ASSESSMENTS 254 290 292 297 ASWAN HIGH DAM 170 221 234 AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS 12 144 ATLANTIC RICHFIELD 39 255 AUSTRALIA 101 129 ALCOHOLS 103 ALLOTMENTS 134 ALTERNATIVEENERGY SOURCES 9 26 47 69 71 72 90 96 111 112 122 135 144 BAJA CALIFORNIA 226 274 286 162 165 173 174 177 192 BALANCE OF NATURE 234 203 209 232 268 286 289 BALUCHISTAN(HAK1STAN1 108 298 BANK EROSION 170 ALTERNATIVE FUELS 22 54 BASELINE STUDIES 57 ALTERNATIVE PLANNING 12ù 162 243 BASINS 213 ALTERNATIVE WATER USE 75 222 BEGH EROSION 170 AMAZON GREAT LAKES PLAN 234 BLN_FICIAL USE 13 99 196 238 AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER SERVICE 239 CORPORATION 2u5 BENEFITS 44 193 ANALYTI =CAL TECHNIQUES 87 BI3LIOGtAPHIES 11 56 57 97 ANIMAL OFHAVIOR 43 102 158 174 214 224 231 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY 216 238 239 257 258 267 274 ANVIL POINTS OIL SHALE RESEARCH BICARBONATES 282 FACILITY 241 BIG HORN COAL COMPANY 206 APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION 295 BIGHORN RIVER 242 AQUACULTURE 29 E.IOCHEMTCAL OXYGEN DEMAND 279 AQUATIC HHABITATS 234 BIODEGRADATION 279 AQUEDUCTS 242 BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES 130 AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS 146 SIOLOGY 236 tOUIFER SYSTEMS 55 BIOTA 57 AQUIFER TESTING 48 BLACK MESA 8 12 30 44 55 AQUIFERS 4 44 48 61 74 84 134 151 152 183 155 124 183 233 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 269 288 297

* Item numbers refer to the Bibliography's numbered citations, not to page numbers -267- 268

BOF HOLL G':OPHY:ÌICS 5 61 COLO3 264 290 291 292 265 269 290 296 COAL MINES 8 30 42 44 46 COOLING PONDS 29 49 55 60 85 84 94 98 COOLING 1O4ERS 29 36 49 k3 134 150 151 153 154 156 121 123 131 264 21' 212 161 183 185 194 206 210 COOLING WATER 29 42 131 137 213 215 259 260 261 262 CO6RUSION 13 29 203 263 264 265 266 269 271 COST ANALYSIS 298 272 273 281 287 290 297 COST COMPARISONS 18 65 2G4 299 212 214 223 232 268 COALS 14 22 24 3C 39 46 COST EFEICTENGY 135 177 2',]3 50 52 64 73 d8 105 COST TRANSFER 295 107 110 126 134 140 150 COST- BENEFIT ANALYSIS 1 17 152 158 163 174 175 178 51 187 195 238 239 274 180 190 195 199 208 238 300 235 240 2 +2 248 252 272 COST- BENEFIT RATIO 207 273 277 278 284 287 288 COSTS 1 6 7 18 29 52

290 292 264 295 296 60 68 83 90 91 - 96 COASTAL TOPOGPARHIC FEA1 URE:S 170 110 131 132 135 101 176 COASTS 10G 108 1714 197 199 201 2.14 í:2S 2.23 COLONY DEVELOPMENT CORPO ATION 39 226 237 244 274 300 COLOR 279 CRATERS 187 200 236 238 239 CRETACEOUS PERIJD 61 CROP 1'R)DIJCTION 300 CULTURAL CONTROL 191 269

236 DAM CONSTRUCTION 74 ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION 187 DAMS 11 28 43 66 118 170 ECONOMIC PREDICTION 85 67 76 181 221 293 ECONOMICS 3 44 51 158 DAMSITES 86 81 109 119 130 131 DATA COLLECTIONS 170 177 220 229 DECISION MAKING 16 76 120 136 ECOSYSTEMS 43 120 131 300 208 211 219234 EFFICIENCIES 89 DEEP WELLS 112 EFFLUENTS 1G 155 160 DEFERRED COSTS 43 EGYPT 15 170 197 221 246 DELTAS 170 221 EL PASO NATURAL GAS COMPANY 26 DEMAND 254 ELECTRIC POWER 3 15 24 119 122 DENDRITIC 53 38 92 115 117 226 243 DESALINATION 9 83 92 1C0 143 202 214 223 108 119 141 149 176 192 3ù0 197 216 243 244 245 254 ELECTRIC POWER COSTS 18 26 62 300 ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND 212 DESALINATION PLANTS 1 13 92 109 115 117 202 234 89 166 100 109 300 ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY 9 DESALINATION PROCESSES 1 6 ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION 8 13 176 216 300 12 15 26 30 31 42 DESERT LAND ACT 116 46 55 56 72 84 96 DESERT PLANTS 5? 107 110 111 115 117 125 DESERTS 15 16 100 116 159 134 135 137 150 151 161 180 186. 216 243 300 171 172 177 178 DESIGN CRITERIA 82 95 229 274 192 195 201 202 203 207 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 43 136 221 244. 261 262 263 264 265 30E 269 271 272 276 286.288 DIETS 160 289 292 293 DISECONOMIES OF SCALE 18 ELECTRIC POWERPLANTS 13 15 41 DISPERSION 124 44 109 123 143 173 205 DISSOLVED SOLIDS 146 254 282 246 252 259 260 296 297 DISTILLATION 119 ELECTRICAL STUDIES 254 DISTILLED WATER 10 EMISSIONS 205 246 262 DISTRIBUTION 300 EMISSIONS CONTROLS 31 125 180 DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS 234 288 23 DIVERSION 80 181 293 ENERGY 5 7 8 12 DIVERSION LOSSES 234 26 27 29 30 42 51 DIVERSION STRUCTURES 101 55 60 62 63 67 68 DOCUMENTATION 22 23 87 158 70 73 80 84 88 89 119 120 DOMESTIC WATER i 13 98 102 115 117 DRIFT LOSS 29 127 134 139 144 153 161 DRILLING 20 77 78 213 225 162 166 186 190 195 202 247 254 208 218 222 240 247 251 DRY COOLING TOWERS 36 123 137 254 266 267 270 272 273 204 277 284 294 DRY FARMING 116 ENERGY BUDGET 275 DRY STEAM FIELDS 20 24 83 ENERGY CONVERSION 3 9 22 DUNES 159 3G 38 39 4C 46 47 DYNAMICS 120 6C 82 84 90 91 94 98 107 110 111 122 127 132 134 142 143 146 150 157 162 163 165 173 174 180 186 195 198 201 208 ECOLOGY 43 100 131 221 234 232 241 251 253 259 260 236 261 262 263 264 265 266 ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY 60 96 111 267 268 269 271 275 287 123 210 216 288 290 292 297 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY 47 101 129 ENERGY CRISIS 63 222 13b 176 188 189 293 298 ENERGY POOL 222 30G ENERGY STORAGE 3 91 198 ECONOMIC IMPACT 31 39 44 116 ENERGY TRANSFER 82 132 143 275 118 125 156 183 195 213 ENERGY -WATER RELATIONSHIPS 42 254 259 260 261 262 263 51 58 62 63 67 161 264 265 266 268 269 272 222 273 281 297 270

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 101 193 FEDERAL -STATE WATER RIGHTS ENGINEERING STRUCTURES 49 CONFLICTS 99 ENVIRONMENT 16 23 51 67 FERTILITY 221 175 235 160 151 228 294 FERTILIZATION 103 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 2 9 FERTILIZ_E.RS 300 12 15 17 18 24 26 FILTRATION 279 30 35 37 38 39 40 FISH MANAGEMENT 234 41 46 55 60 68 69 FLASH DISTILLATION 92 80 83 87 94 96 97 FLOOD CONTROL 11 101 103 105 107 110 111 FLOOD PLAINS 170 112 116 118 120 125 135 FLOW MEASUREMENT 106 195 259 142 144 147 148 150 151 FLY ASH 8 84 134 263 264 265 152 154 156 158 170 171 260 261 262 172 177 179 183 192 195 269 290 296 196 199 203 206 207 208 FOG 87 210 212 226 227 230 236 FOOD ABUNDANCE 6 240 241 243 246 251 252 FOOD CHAINS 103 160 253 254 259 260 261 262 FOOD HABITS 43 263 264 265 266 267 268 FORAGES 237 269 270 272 273 274 276 FORD FOUNDATION, ENERGY POLICY 28G 281 285 288 289 290 PROJECT 163 103 292 297 300 FORECASTING 73 88 98 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 100 142 161 223 214 267 198 258 FOSSIL FUELS 174 205 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 68 FOUR CORNERS AREA 55 88 213 69 241 243 246 248 251 246 252 291 253 FOUR CORNERS POWER PROJECT 8 EQUATIONS 124 282 12 30 44 49 84 134 259 EQUIPMENT 110 112 156 144 151 156 178 195 EROSION 105 152 175 235 266 260 261 262 263 264 265 273 269 296 297 EROSION CONTROL 170 256 FRACTURE PERMEA3ILITY 124 ESTIMATING 168 FRUITLAND FORMATION 64 ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT 234 FUELS 22 64 89 140 150 166 231 ETHICS 16 174 190 199 212 218 ETHIOPIA 232 240 271 EUROPE 85 135 197 2G4 EVALUATION 1 3 13 40 81 90 122 130 143 157 184 196 261 22G 229 EVAPORATION 15 28 36 123 GANGES RIVER VALLEY 300 131 181 204 211 211 212 GASES 199 205 246 247 EXCAVATION 35 187 236 238 239 GENERATORS 123 EXPLOITATION 14 53 66 105 GEOCHEMISTRY 231 120 177 191 247 250 251 GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS 189 48 298 GEOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS 19 EXPLORATION 9 19 20 25 236 71 77 78 173 191 201 GEOLOGIC TIME 61 203 213 225 226 243 247 GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS 78 248 254 274 283 289 GEOLOGY 169 GEOMORPHOLOGY 28 159 GEOPHYSICS 77 93 283 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 7 128 222 267 FALLOUT 104 238 239 252 255 GEOTHERMAL POLLUTION 112 FALLOWING 116 GEOTHERMAL POWER 79 115 117 FAULTS(GEOLOGIC) 19 78 119 202 77 FEASIBILITY 1 13 GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES 5 25 FEASIBILITY STUDIES 57 154 78 93 165 176 184 225 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 12 22 116 283 129 205 247 250 251 GEOTHERMAL STEAM ACT, 1973 226 FEDERAL JURISDICTION 251 247 250 FEDERAL RESERVATIONS 99 250 FEDERAL RESERVED WATER DOCTRINE 99 271

19 176 184 224 GEOTHERMAL STUDIES 2 5 9 HOT SPRINGS 231 2.54 19 20 24 25 26 32 16 43 129 61 63 71 72 77 78 HUMAN POPULATION 79 83 93 96 111 115 300 117 119 128 134 135 157 HUMAN RESOURCFS 102 259 173 174 176 177 184 192 HUNTINGTON CANYON POWERPLANT 264 265 201 202 203 209 224 225 260 261 262 263 226 231 232 243 244 245 269 296 247 254 268 274 283 286 HYDRATES 3 56 159 289 HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS 15 GEYSERS 83 231 165 293 15 17 101 GEYSERS FIELD, CALIFORNIA 5 111 HYDROELECTRIC POWER 118 168 189 221 293 112 117 285 GLEN CANYON NATIONAL RECREATION HYDROFRACTURING 71 209 249 HYDROGEN 155 AREA 120 282 GOATS 43 HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION 254 GOVERNMENTAL INTERRELATIONS 12 HYDROGEN SULFIDE 25 26 48 74 GOVERNMENTS 23 157 228 HYDROGEOLOGY 78 115 117 184 202 GRASSLANDS 116 175 77 GRAZING 43 116 225 283 187 193 236 GREAT BASIN 62 116 HYDROLOGIC ASPECTS 106 GREAT BRITAIN 85 HYDROLOGIC BUDGET 149 300 GREAT PLAINS 17 23 42 105 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 48 49 65 107 116 139 140 144 272 HYDROLOGIC DATA 278 273 HYDROLOGIC SYSTEMS GREEN RIVER FORMATION 47 48 HYDROLOGY 124 169 65 188 GREENHOUSES 274 GROUNDWATER 61 74 79 149 168 169 181 216 219 244 GROUNDWATER AVAILABILITY 30 134 IDAHO 226 280 283 9 83 176 152 278 IMPERIAL VALLEY 32 231 243 244 GROUNDWATER BASINS 4 65 128 192 202 169 220 IMPURITIES 32 83 GROUNDWATER MINING 28 INDIA 114 330 152 GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT 124 INDIAN CULTURE 11 30 134 GROUNDWATER RECHARGE 187 254 INDIAN RESERVATIONS 8 17 30 107 120 133 GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 10 299 44 64 84 178 183 246 GROWTH RATES 219 134 151 152 GULF OF CALIFORNIA 141 248 252 259 261 262 263 264 265 269 273 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 300 INDUSTRIAL WASTES 279 282 INDUSTRIAL WATER 1 10 13 168 HAIL 87 42 62 67 HARBORS 238 239 INDUSTRIES 89 166 HAZARDS 52 57 103 236 285 INFORMATION EXCHANGE 23 22 87 HEAT 100 247 INFORMATION RETRIEVAL HEAT BUDGET 59 211 224 243 HEAT FLOW 79 184 231 INFRARED RADIATION 38 HEAT STORAGE 3 122 INJECTION WELLS 112 HEAT TRANSFER 142 211 231 275 INSTITUTE OF GAS TECHNOLOGY, HEATED SOIL 34 CHICAGO 46 126 HEATED WATER 34 83 204 212 INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS 116 223 INSTITUTIONS 22 23 228 HEAT -EXCHANGES 13 INTAKE SATES 49 HEATING 40 41 81 103 122 INTANGIBLE BENEFITS 136 HELICAL ROTARY SCREW EXPANDER 286 INTER -BASIN TRANSFERS 196 234 HELIUM 247 293 HERBIVORES 43 INTERSTATE COMPACTS 75 HISTORY 11 53 66 136 168 INVESTIGATIONS 243 191 INVESTMENT 136 HOPI INDIANS 8 12 30 44 IONS 282 84 134 151 152 183 195 IRRIGATED LANDS 216 259 264 265 2b9 297 IRRIGATION 17 108 109 149 168 200 219 293 272

IRRIGATION EFFECTS 21 43 234 MAGNESIJM 282 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY 222 MAINTENANCE ANO OPERATION 92 168 IRRIGATION PRACTICES 11 53 191 MAKRAN COAST(PAKISTANI 217 MAPS 20 211 220 IRRIGATION PROGRAMS 1 13 116 MATHEMATICAL MODELS 1G IRRIGATION SYSTEMS 53 101 300 282 124 IRRIGATION WATER 1G 21 34 MATHEMATICAL STUDIES 67 75 245 277 MEDITERRANEAN SEA 15 282 ISRAEL 1 181 186 197 MELTWATER 46 ITALY 135 METALS MEXICAN MATER TREATY 75 106 MEXICO 189 226 286 MICROENJIRONMENT 234 MICROWAVES 82 KAIPAROWIT5 POWERPLANT 259 260 MIDDLE EAST 10 186 212 44 60 261 262 263 264 265 269 MINE WANES 14 30 KALAHARI -NAMIB 159 69 80 84 85 105 137 KRYPTON RADIOISOTOPES 104 113 134 139 152 153 161 175 206 21i 215 233 KUWAIT 10 183 185 235 257 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 269 270 273 278 297 MINED AREA PROTECTION ACT 156 84 LAKE MORPHOLOGY 120 MINE-MOUTH PLANT 8 12 LAKE POWELL 106 120 252 261 134 151 195 259 260 261 265 269 262 263, 264 265 259 295 LAND CLASSIFICATION 16 297 47 127. 146 LAND CLEARING 234 MINERAL INDUSTRY 298 LAND MANAGEMENT 16 116 164 188 227 253 287 LAND RECLAMATION 12 14 33 MINERAL RIGHTS 194 254 39 42 52 80 84 85 MINERAL WATER 245 94 105 107 108 152 156 MINERALOGY 22 247 164 175 183 185 206 208 MINING 140 146 158 159 194 284 210 215 227 233 235 241 247 248 252 254 253 266 270 272 273 281 MISSISSIPPI RIVER 293 LANG RESOURCES 14 17 47 50 MISSOURI RIVER 139 88 254 64 71 72 85 97 99 MODEL STUDIES 10 55 105 107 111 127 146 148 275 282 156 173 178 188 190 2G9 MODES OF ACTION 53 260 218 227 232 268 273 287 MOHAVE POWERPLANT 152 259 LAND SUBSIDENCE 83 261 262 263 264 255 269 LAND TENURE 47 62 253 288 LAND USE 16 43 116 132 2G8 MOJAVE DESERT 141 219 MONITORING 57 254 LANDSLIDES 74 MONOPOLY 166 209 LEACHING 21 256 282 MONTANA 14 105 107 153 LEASES 5G 69 184 194 247 242 270 278 280 248 250 251 MORTALITY 255 LEGAL ASPECTS 2 16 116 129 MOSQUITOES 234 133 138 151 158 187 196 MULTIPLE -PURPOSE PROJtCTS 149 226 2G8 236 25C 251 258 243 LEGISLATION 51 60 78 97 MUNICIPAL WATER 10 62 149 156 268 247 25G 271 LIBYAN DESERT 15 LIGNITE 14 33 276 281 LIPIDS 133 LITTORAL DRIFT 170 NAMIBIA 159 LIVESTOCK 237 NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNnATION 120 LONG -TERM PLANNING 16 76 99 NATURAL GAS 35 37 57 94 234 103 104 110 113 125 127 LONSWALL STRIPPING 154 150 155 161 174 208 249 271 272 292 273

22 127 161 174 247 285 22 64 103 OIL. NATURAL RESOURCES 294 163 169 189 251 254 120 OIL INDUSTRY 166 188 251 267 277 OIL SHALE CORPORATION 39 NAVAJO INDIANS 8 12 30 44 OIL SHALES 37 39 45 47 48 84 120 133 134 151. 64 62 65 68 69 75 99 178 183 195 252 259 152 104 127 139 146 161 164 252 263 264 2b5 269 261 188 208 227 240 241 249 297 251 253 256 277 279 232 30 152 195 NAVAJO POWERPLANT 284 285 287 294 298 299 260 261 262 263 264 259 CIL WASTES 68 164 279 282 265 269 ONCE -THROUGH COOLING ' 29 131 NAVAL OIL SHALE RESERVES 99 57 77 168 226 ON -SITE INVESTIGATIONS NEVADA 17 19 48 280 ON -SITE TESTS 260 264 265 269 212 20 64 OPERATING COSTS NEW MEXICO ii 17 19 10 178 209 213 225 OPTIMIZATION 148 169 OPTIMUM DEVELOPMENT PLANS 219 265 269 280 293 259 264 25 34 226 231 OREGON NEW ZEALAND OSTRICH:S 43 NILE DELTA 170 OVERBURDEN 146 218 254 NILE RIVER 221 OVERDRAFT 28 219 NITRATES 217 OVERLAND FLOW 256 NITROGEN 8 84 134 195 300 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS 246 NITROGEN OXIDES 8 84 134 195 297 NOMADS 43 PACIFIC COAL GASIFICATION COMPANY 49 168 NON- CONSUMPTIVE USE 291 NON -NAVIGABLE WATER 99 PACIFIC LIGHTING COMPANY 199 NORTH AFRICA 162 PAKISTAN 108 169 163 NORTH AMERICAN WATER AND POWER PARACHUTE -ROAN GREEK 45 256 ALLIANCE 189 234 PARTICLE REMOVAL EQUIPMENT 125 107 144 NORTH CENTRAL POWER STUDY PASTURES 237 137 NORTH DAKOTA 14 33 107 PATH OF POLLUTANTS 57 133 124 281 190 276 160 282 56 90 147 166 NUCLEAR ENERGY PAYMENT 250 238 239 174 208 222 PEABODY COAL COMPANY 8 44 84 35 37 134 NUCLEAR ENGItJEERING 134 151 183 233 273 113 148 173 238 239 48 PEAK LOADS 18 NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS 35 37 PECOS RIVER BASIN 169 86 133 134 57 71 74 99 155 173 187 PELTON DOCTRINE 113 124 148 PERMEABILITY 48 236 238 239 193 200 207 PERMITS 247 249 PESTICIDES 217 NUCLEAR PHYSICS 238 239 24 PHENOLS 279 NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS 1 13 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT 4ô 132 169 121 123 34 97 108 PICEANCE CREEK BASIN 188 240 256 171 172 179 148 155 160 PLANNING 76 136 149 169 176 216 246 255 294 197 207 196 21C 219 300 300 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 216 NUCLEAR QUARRYING 86 PLANTING MANAGEMENT 105 175 235 109 148 NUCLEAR REACTORS 97 POLITICAL ASPECTS 16 43 51 207 171 58 76 101 102 129 196 34 57 238 239 NUCLEAR WASTES 220 221 280 124 300 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS POLLUTANTS 86 160 NUTRIENTS 217 POLLUTION ABATEMENT 18 110 112 125 150 193 259 26C 261 262 263 264 265 269 297 POLLUTION TAXES(CHARGES) 27 POPJLATION 155 160 219 236 OASES 4 159 POROUS MEDIA 25o OCEAN THERMAL GRADIENT ENERGY 54 POTASSIUM 2R2 122 POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY 30 80 OCEANS 160 134 152 259 260 261 2F2 279 ODORS 263 264 265 269 297 274

POWDER RIVER BASIN 194 RAINFALL SIMULATORS 256 POWER COSTS 300 RAINFALL -RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS 142 POWER MARKETING 18 166 282 POWER SYSTEMS OPERATIONS 92_ RECHARGE 4 POWERPLANTS 24 31 36 38 RECIRCULATION COOLING 131 59 63 92 107 120 125 RECLAMATION 50 60 84 108 134 141 144 163 176 178 153 161 246 248 276 180 195 204 205 211 212 RECREATION 120 168 203 252 246 252 254 259 260 261 RECREATION DEMAND 129 262 263 264 265 269 288 REFINING OPERATIONS 39 146 164 297 300 227 241 PRECIPITATION(ATMOSPHERIC) 282 REFLECTANCE 91 PRE -COLUMBIAN TECHNOLOGY 53 REGIONAL ANALYSIS 129 159 2C8 PRICES 70 166 226 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT 120 205 PRICING 18 52 REGULATION 2 51 105 166 PRIOR APPROPRIATION 75 248 PRIORITIES 168 REHABILITATION 163 PRODUCTIVITY 43 300 RENT 250 PROFIT 27 RESEARCH ANO DEVELOPMENT 73 222 PROJECT AQUARIUS 74 193 243 244 PROJECT BRONCO 48 RESERVATION DOCTRINE 99 PROJECT GASBUGGY 103 RESERVOIR DESIGN 200 PROJECT INDEPENDENCE 126 140 199 RESERVOIR EVAPORATION 15 200 284 RESERVOIR LEAKAGE 200 PROJECT PLANNING 14 RESERVOIR STORAGE 189 PROJECT PLOWSHARE 35 37 104 RESERVOIRS 15 118 170 211 293 148 171 173 238 239 RESOURCE ALLOCATION 51 99 136 PROJECT RIO BLANCO 35 37 RESOURCE INVENTORY 54 102 157 PROJECT WAGON WHEEL 57 220 PUBLIC HEALTH 57 103 113 155 RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 83 120 193 207 255 163 226 246 247 284 PUBLIC LANDS 50 25G RETARC DAM 86 PUBLIC UTILITIES 27 34 RETURN FLOW 217 PUMPED STORAGE 15 293 REVEGETATION 12 30 39 44 PUMPING 48 55 45 60 80 84 85 105 107 134 146 153 156 164 175 183 206 210 215 227 241 253 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 269 270 QATTARA DEPRESSION 15 272 273 297 REVIEWS 114 RIO GRANDE 169 RIO GRANDE TROUGH 19 20 225 RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT 28 64 RADIATION 160 101 169 RADIOACTIVE WASTES 35 97 147 RIVER BASINS 53 66 169 170 171 172 179 257 221 RADIOACTIVITY 35 37 75 97 RIVER FLOW 28 300 104 113 147 155 2.ï0 207 RIVERS 159 189 191 196 249 255 POCK FILL 74 RADIOACTIVITY EFFECTS 57 103 POCK MECHANICS 74 236 ROCKFILL DAMS 86 RADIOACTIVITY TECHNIQUES 200 ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION 23 42 RAOIOE.COLOGY 57 236 45 50 73 139 140 144 RADIOISOTOPES 57 74 113 124 163 208 248 249 251 253 160 193 280 284 285 294 295 RADIUM RADIOISOTOPES 113 ROYALTIES 250 RAILROADS 230 RUNOFF 21 181 282 PAIN 282 RUNOFF FORECASTING 200 RAINFALL 53 116 181 RAINFALL INTENSITY 256 275

52 97 104 SOIL MOISTURE 233 SAFETY 35 37 256 148 171 172 179 207 SOIL TEMPERATURE SOIL WATER MOVEMENT 256 SAGEBRUSH 57 3 41 SAHARA 4 15 43 SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING 198 223 229 SAHELIAN ZONE 143 95 38 82 132 167 SOLAR CELLS SALINE LAKES 162 216 221 SOLAR COOKERS SALINE SOILS 6 162 237 13 176 237 SOLAR DISTILLATION SALINE WATER 7 22 38 SALINE WATER CONVERSION 92 SOLAR ENERGY 6 40 41 54 59 81 90 SALINITY 17 21 146 176 181 91 95 102 114 122 130 217 245 256 259 260 261 141 143 162 165 167 262 263 264 265 269 274 132 198 214 222 223 228 284 297 174 237 24G 267 221 229 SALINIZATION 3 6 SALMON 112 SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS 4G 41 54 81 130 143 SALTON SEA 32 226 162 198 223 SALTS 3 21 6 38 SAN DIEGO GAS AND ELECTRIC COMPANY SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS 59 82 91 95 132 142 92 259 260 261 198 275 SAN JUAN POWERPLANT 3 6 263 264 265 269 SOLAR POWER GENERATION 262 82 90 122 SAN JUAN RIVER BASIN 64 169 213 38 40 '41 142 143 246 132 38 40 59 91 55 SOLAR RADIATION SANOSTONES 167 228 275 SATELLITES(ARTIFICIAL) 82 95 142 95 237 216 SOLAR STILLS SATURATED SOILS 162 198 229 13 29 203 SOLAR WATER HEATERS SCALING 149 84 134 195 259 260 SOUTH AFRICA SCENERY 14 107 261 262 263 264 265 269 SOUTH DAKOTA SOUTHWEST ENERGY STUDY 106 SCRUBBERS 31 180 288 SOUTHWEST U.S. 8 11 12 16 SEA WATER 1 13 186 17 19 30 42 49 55 200 SEDIMENT LOAD 84 88 91 128 170 64 80 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT 14C 152 156 183 235 133 134 SEDIMENTATION 196 199 209 211 57 192 195 SEISMIC PROPERTIES 246 252 259 263 SEISMIC WAVES 57 83 220 245 262 263 264 255 268 ß6 238 239 261 SEISMOLOGY 273 288 296 297 SEMIARID CLIMATES 57 159 293 269 272 3 41 198 229 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES 1 13 SPACE HEATING 73 279 SPAIN 197 33 281 SETTLEMENTS 143 SPOIL BANKS SHEEP 237 SPRINGS 168 SILTS 221 STANDARDS 2.9 STATE JURISDICTION 250 SITES 36 144 172 197 204 211 70 259 261 270 STATISTICS 20 24 83 112 224 231 SLURRIES 30 55 256 STEAM 244 247 250 254 SNOW 282 26 115 117 141 SNOWFALL 256 282 STEAM TURBINES SNOWY MOUNTAINS PROJECT 101 129 202 212 234 STORAGE 15 SOCIAL ASPECTS 16 43 58 76 STRATIGRAPHY 213 181 187 101 116 129 136 138 143 STREAMFLOW 170 196 221 230 234 276 STREAMS 168 12 45 52 68 STRIP MINE LAKES 206 SOCIAL IMPACT 33 69 88 230 234 240 246 STRIP MINE WASTES 8 12 14 30 281 285 STRIP MINES 44 52 60 SOCIAL VALUES 99 151 33 39 42 84 85 94 SODIUM 282 64 73 80 140 151 256 105 107 120 134 SODIUM SULFATE 158 163 SOIL CHEMISTRY 256 152 153 154 156 185 188 190 SOIL CONSERVATION 53 175 178 183 206 208 210 213 SOIL CONTAMINATION 86 195 199 230 235 242 246 SOIL EROSION 30 80 134 170 215 218 26G 261 262 263 210 221 259 260 261 262 252 259 266 269 270 272 263 264 265 269 264 265 273 276 278 281 297 276

STRONTIUM RADIOISOTOPES 113 THERMAL WATER 5 25 32 61 225 STRUCTURAL ENGTNEERING 86 193 77 78 79 93 154 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY 61 86 193 247 253 STRUCTURAL MODELS 275 THERMOCLINE 61 STRUCTURES 193 THRDWOUT DAM 86 SUBSIDENCE. 176 219 THUNDER BASIN NATIONAL GRASSLAND SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE 217 230 SUBSURFACE WATERS 4 5 25 TIDAL ENERGY 7 101 65 77 78 93 184 225 TOPOGRAPHY 49 86 237 278 283 TOSCO II PROCESS 256 SULFATES 282 TOXICITY 155 193 91 SULFUR 8 31 84 110 125 TRANSMISSION LINES 15 134 180 195 205 213 259 TRANSM1SSION(ELECTRICAL) 260 261 262 263 264 265 TRANSMISSIVITY 48 269 288 290 292 TRANSPORTATION 295 SULFUR COMPOUNDS 296 TRANS-TEXAS CANAL 293 SULFUR DIOXIDE 8 31 84 110 TRANSWESTERN COAL GASIFICATION 125 134 18G 195 205 246 COMPANY 291 113 155 259 26G 261 262 263 264 TRITIUM 86 103 104 265 259 288 292 297 187 200 SULFURIC ACID 31 125 180 288 TUNNELS 15 189 SURFACE RUNOFF 278 SURFACE RUNOFF RELATIONSHIPS 74 SURFACE WATER AVAILABILITY 75 106 SURFACE WATERS 74 149 160 168 UINTA BASIN 65 169 196 216 ULTIMATE DISPOSAL 257 37 104 113 SURVEYS 7 213 UNDERGROUND 35 124 173 238 239 UNDERGROUND POWERPLANTS 15 UNDERGROUND SECONDARY RECOVERY(OIL) 155 257 TANGIBLE BENEFITS 6 URANIUM MILL TAILINGS 171 TAR 279 URANIUM RADIOISOTOPES 148 TAXES 27 URBAN HYDROLOGY 16 TECHNOLOGY 47 75 89 98 154 URBANIZATION 76 219 222 U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION 35 148 TECTONICS 61 37 97 104 121 147 TEMPERATURE 61 131 167 171 173 207 TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY 85 U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMMATION 17 TERRESTRIAL HABITATS 234 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR TEST WELLS 32 68 69 144 151 TESTING 48 243 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TEXAS 11 57 293 AGENCY 154 TEXAS WATER PLAN 234 293 U.S. OFFICE OF COAL RESEARCH 292 142 275 USSR 51 204 237 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 75 THERMAL POLLUTION 26 29 34 UTAH 11 19 47 65 99 253 261 36 49 91 97 121 131 146 148 164 227 277 283 172 204 212 259 261 262 253 264 265 269 263 264 265 269 296 UTAH INTERNATIONAL, INC. 291 269 THERMAL POWER 5 9 20 25 UTE INDIANS 262 72 77 78 79 93 96 UTILITIES 27 144 166 111 112 135 184 192 2C3 UTILIZATION 129 224 225 226 231 232 250 UZBEKISTAN 237 268 283 286 289 THERMAL POWERPLANTS 2 5 24 26 36 42 63 83 115 117 119 123 131 202 204 212 244 274 VALLE CALDERA 20 THERMAL PROPERTIES 5 25 77 VALLEYS 53 300 78 93 184 225 247 283 VAPOR COMPRESSION DISTILLATION THERMAL SPRINGS 5 77 78 79 13 93 VEGETATION EFFECTS 101 116 VEGETATION ESTABLISHMENT 233 VOLCANOES 78 277

39 100 164 185 WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 4 WASTE DISPOSAL 26 28 263 227 241 288 10 11 12 14 53 66 80 84 WASTE DUMPS 257 3.9 44 115 116 117 WASTE HEAT 29 101 107 108 WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION 100 119 121 128 134 1S6 138 164 168 169 WASTE WATER DISPOSAL 32 34 149 152 159 WASTE WATER TREATMENT 279 176 183 186 189 191 195 197 2CC 202 219 227 WASTES 257 196 236 243 244 253 272 WATER ALLOCATION(POLICY) 28 99 234 129 149 219 222 278 290 99 222 WATER ANALYSIS 256 WATER RESOURCES PLANNING 279 WATER BALANCE 43 WATER RE -USE WATER RIGHTS 75 99 99 133 WATER CONSERVATION 1 13 49 277 280 66 129 181 191 222 296 WATER SHORTAGE 43 75 80 123 WATER CONSU,MPTION(EXCLUOES CONSUMPTIVE USE) 168 222 138 139 189 216 220 222 284 WATER CONVEYANCE 242 277 280 WATER SOURCES 65 68 100 108 WATER COSTS 176 30C 109 119 WATER DEMAND 1 30 42 51 WATER STORAGE 74 187 55 62 63 67 88 109 1 6 11 42 12G 137 139 161 168 219 WATER SUPPLY 120 133 138 159 222 234 276 300 63 109 176 192 219 22G 222 WATER DISCHARGE 49 169 254 28C 284 WATER IMPORTING 244 277 237 244 WATER TABLE 28 WATER LAW 2 28 5 25 34 WATER LOSS 28 168 212 288 290 WATER TEMPERATURE 77 78 93 167 176 184 WATER MANAGEMENT 11 222 280 WATER MANAGEMENT(APPLIED) 51 62 225 283 129 186 189 216 63 138 187 WATER TRANSFER 9 17 3ù 31 234 293 WATER POLLUTION 247 39 46 60 71 74 75 WATER TYPES 168 WATER USERS 43 149 168 181 84 96 97 105 107 110 191 111 112 113 121 124 125 30 34 134 147 148 153 156 164 WATER UTILIZATION 12 51 63 67 68 109 134 171 172 179 180 183 185 169 176 222 242 244 192 193 195 203 207 210 138 284 293 299 215 222 227 238 239 241 277 149 249 253 257 259 260 261 WATER VAPOR 48 57 262 263 264 265 266 268 WATER WELLS 193 269 272 273 278 280 286 WATER YIELD 13 109 13 142 288 289 290 292 296 WATER YIELD IMPROVEMENT WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT 125 159 181 187 193 219 258 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 29 103 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT 74 74 131 160 WATERSHEDS(BASINS) 116 216 WATER POLLUTION EFFECTS 57 236 WEATHER MODIFICATION 87 WATER POLLUTION SOURCES 21 26 245 258 57 35 37 48 74 104 139 WELL DATA 49 115 117 159 168 146 148 158 160 173 179 WELLS 26 193 217 236 251 252 253 202 243 247 256 282 284 285 WEST GERMANY 85 204 WATER POLLUTION TREATMENT 200 WEST RIVER DIVERSION AREA(N.D.) WATER PROPERTIES 149 276 KATER PURIFICATION 109 WESTERN U.S. 116 WATER QUALITY 31 43 61 78 WILDLIFE 252 109 125 180 217 220 225 WILDLIFE CONSERVATION 227 33 69 234 244 245 252 280 288 WILDLIFE HABITATS WATER RATES 75 222 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 234 WATER REQUIREMENTS 45 68 75 WILLAMETTE VALLEY 34 126 146 146 163 172 179 WINO POWER i1 54 '114 174 197 242 249 252 277 280 WIND PRESSURE 7 284 WINOS 103 WATER RESOURCES 49 151 159 169 WINTER S DOCTRINE 133 193 219 220 222 237 259 WITHDRAWAL 168 260 261 262 263 264 265 WITHDRAWN LANDS 99 269 280 296 297 278

~~WYOMING 14 17 36 47 75 99 107 146 164 175 194 206 218 227 230 242 253 280 299 WYOMING OPEN CUT LAND RECLAMATION ACT 206~~

~~XEROPHILIC ANIMALS 43~~

~~YELLOWSTONE RIVER 242~~

~~ZONING 16 76~~