Preface xiii Foreword xv Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Genesis of the Institution 9 2.1. Introduction 9 2.2. Open Source Software: Early Developments and Evolution 10 2.2.1. Property Domains 10 2.2.2. ‘Opening’ of Software ‘Freedom’ 17 2.2.3. Deﬁning Open Source Software 22 2.3. Conclusion 26 Chapter 3 The Legal Governance Structure 29 3.1. Introduction 29 3.2. Legal Governance Structure of Open Source Software 30 3.2.1. Existing Intellectual Property Protection and Open Source Software 31 3.2.1.1. Trade Secret Protection 32 3.2.1.2. Copyright Protection 33 3.2.1.3. Moral Rights 37 3.2.1.4. Patent Protection 39 3.2.1.5. Trademarks 43 3.2.2. Existing Contractual-License Protection and Open Source Software 44 3.3. Conclusion 46 Table of Contents

Chapter 4 The Licensing Regime 47 4.1. Introduction 47 4.2. A Taxonomy of Licenses 48 4.2.1. GNU General Public License (GPL) and Other Related Licenses 51 4.2.2. The Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) and Other Related Licenses 54 4.2.3. The Mozilla Public License and Related Commercial Licenses 56 4.2.4. Other Open Source Software Licenses 59 4.3. Conclusion 60 Chapter 5 Licensing and Rights Management 61 5.1. Introduction 61 5.2. Groundwork Deﬁnitions 62 5.3. The Granting Clause 64 5.3.1. Intellectual Property Grant 65 5.3.1.1. Copyright Grant 65 5.3.1.2. Patent Grant 70 5.3.1.3. Trademarks Grant 75 5.3.2. Other Aspects of the Granting Clause 77 5.3.2.1. Character 77 5.3.2.2. Sublicensing 78 5.3.2.3. Territorial Extent 79 5.4. Exclusions, Term, Revocation and Termination 80 5.4.1. Exclusions from the Granting Clause 80 5.4.2. Term 81 5.4.3. Revocation of License 82 5.4.4. Termination Issues 84 5.5. Conclusion 88 Chapter 6 Improvements Management: Licensing and Copyright Law 89 6.1. Introduction 89 6.2. Copyleft and Infectious Terms 90 6.3. Copyleft Triggers 95 6.3.1. Modiﬁcation 96 6.3.2. Aggregation and Compilation 105 6.3.3. Distribution 108 6.4. Technical Issues and Scope of Infection 114 6.4.1. System Libraries 116 6.4.2. Kernel Modules 119 6.4.3. Source Code Editors and Compilers 120 6.5. Conclusion 121 viii Table of Contents

Chapter 7 Improvements Management: Patent Law 123 7.1. Introduction 123 7.2. Patents: Angst and Agenda 124 7.2.1. Protection against Patents 126 7.2.2. Patent Retaliation/ Peace Provision 128 7.2.3. ‘Knowing Reliance’ and Downstream Users 130 7.2.4. Cross-License Restriction 132 7.3. Conclusion 135

Chapter 8 The Case for Interoperability 137 8.1. Introduction 137 8.2. The Interoperability Scenario: Angst 140 8.2.1. Technological Protection Measures 140 8.2.2. Trusted Computing 141 8.2.3. Technological Tweaking 145 8.2.4. Law and Reverse Engineering 147 8.2.5. Contract and License Restrictions 154 8.3. The Interoperability Scenario: Agenda 156 8.3.1. GPLv3 License Provision 156 8.3.2. Patents and Interoperability 161 8.4. Conclusion 162

Chapter 9 Challenges: Issues in Law 163 9.1. Introduction 163 9.2. Principle of Exhaustion 163 9.2.1. Principle of Exhaustion under Copyright Law 163 9.2.1.1. U.S.A. 164 9.2.1.2. E.U. 166 9.2.2. Principle of Exhaustion under Patent Law 169 9.3. The Unclean Hands Defence 170 9.4. The Misuse Doctrine 170 9.4.1. The Patent Misuse Doctrine 171 9.4.2. The Copyright Misuse Doctrine 173 9.4.2.1. U.S.A. 173 9.4.2.2. E.U. 176 9.5. Implied License 178 9.6. Conclusion 181

Chapter 10 Challenges: Issues in Licensing 183 10.1. Introduction 183 10.2. Project Management 183

ix Table of Contents

10.2.1. License Proliferation 184 10.2.2. Compatibility of Licenses 186 10.2.3. Centralization 189 10.2.4. Standardization of Licenses 193 10.3. Internationalization Challenges 194 10.3.1. Internationalization and Copyright Law 195 10.3.2. Internationalization and Patent Law 197 10.3.3. Internationalization and Licensing Law 198 10.3.4. Responsive Change and Evolution 200 10.4. Contract-License Law Issues 202 10.4.1. Contract as a Foundation for Open Source Software 204 10.4.1.1. Offer 205 10.4.1.2. Acceptance 207 10.4.1.3. Consideration 209 10.4.1.4. Privity 211 10.4.2. License as a Foundation for Open Source Software 212 10.4.3. Dual Solution: License Contract 214 10.5. Conclusion 219

Chapter 11 Commercialization 221 11.1. Introduction 221 11.2. Freedom, Not Price 222 11.3. Facets of Commercialization 226 11.3.1. Arms-Length Commercialization 226 11.3.2. Symbiotic Commercialization 229 11.3.3. Integrative Commercialization 230 11.3.3.1. Layering 230 11.3.3.2. Multi-Licensing 231 11.4. Open Source Software: Procurement and Deployment 232 11.4.1. Case Study: India 236 11.5. Conclusion 240

Chapter 12 Software Protection: The Sui Generis Option 243 12.1. Introduction 243 12.2. Legal Protection of Software 244 12.3. Need of a Sui Generis Regime 250 12.3.1. The Software Industry 251 12.3.2. Legal Protection of Software 254 12.3.2.1. Copyright Law Issues 254 12.3.2.2. Patent Law Issues 255 12.3.2.3. Diversiﬁed Protection Regime 257 x Table of Contents

12.3.3. Evolving Landscape of Technology-Law Interaction 259 12.3.4. Legal Recognition of Protection for Evolving Technological Arenas 260 12.3.5. International Harmonization of Laws 262 12.4. Evolving Property Rights Jurisprudence in Context of Software 263 12.5. Conclusion 269

Chapter 13 Software Protection: Revisiting the Sui Generis Option 271 13.1. Introduction 271 13.2. Proposal for a Model Software Law 272 13.2.1. Conditions for Grant of Protection 273 13.2.1.1. Originality-Novelty Balance 274 13.2.1.2. Technical Advance 276 13.2.1.3. Utility 277 13.2.1.4. Developing an Incremental Range 278 13.2.2. Scope of Protection: General 278 13.2.3. Scope of Protection: Incremental Innovation 280 13.2.4. Duration of Protection 285 13.2.5. Grant of Rights 290 13.2.6. Limitations on Exclusive Rights 295 13.2.7. Negotiated Licenses and Compulsory Licensing 298 13.2.8. Infringement 301 13.2.9. Remedies 303 13.2.10. Dispute Resolution 304 13.2.11. Administrative Procedure 304 13.3. Conclusion 306

Appendices 309 Appendix I: GNU General Public License, v2 311 Appendix II: GNU General Public License, v3 319 Appendix III: The BSD License 333 Appendix IV: Mozilla Public License, v1.1 335 Appendix V: The Open Software License 3.0 345

Bibliography 349

Index 379