Professor Bemard S. Bachrach Bernard S. Bachrach

Arlnies and Politics in the Early Medieval West

VARIORUM WAS THE MARCHFIELD PART OF THE FRANKISH CONSTITUTION?

OR many medievalists it is alrnost axiomatic that the of the F Merovingian era were a nation of infantrymen who, disdaining Iior- semanship, could begin campaigns early in the spring before there was sufficient grass for fodder. It is also traditionally held that the armies of Clovis and his descendants gathered on the first day of March each year at a Camp Mar&iw or Marchfield for the purpose of beginning the regular season of military campaigning. Further, scholars have main- tained that King Peppin I moved the muster from March to May so that the newly-created Carolingian cavalry would have enough fodder for its horses.' The traditional picture of the Merovingian army as a horde ,of half-naked axe-throwing infantrymen has recently been shown to be a myth which has flourished because scholars have ignored most of die available evidence and put excessive faith in the remarks of two Byzan- tine writers who were poorly informed.' Freed from previous views of

1 Heinrich Brunner. 'Dcr Rcitcrdicnst und die Anfingt des Lchnwcsens," ZriLrdn/L dn Savigqp-Stifiuna fir Rrc~whuh~.Gmniiiiuhc AbLluilmg. 8 (1887), 1-38; Cliristian Pfister, 'Gaul undcr thc Mcroviwian Franks: lnsti~urions,"Combndgr Mcdur*11 Ilirfoty,p (Camb"dgc.igrg). 135; C. L. Burr. 'The Carlovingian Rcvdution. and Frantish lntcrvcntion in luly:' C,IflI, X. 581; arid Ccrhard Sccligcr. 'tcgidatim and Administration ofCharles thc Crcat," CMIi. X, 669. For nurc rcccnt works, sce R. H. C. Davis. A H- ofMrdirvo1 Europr (London. 1957). PP. 115,141; Lym T. Whitc. Jr.. Mrdirwl Tab- adW1 Changr (Oxford. 196a). pp. 3-4. 136137; F. L. Cansw, Fmnhid IInJilutwnr wdrr Charhgne (Providcncc.R. 1.. 1968).pp. 6s. 155; Petcr hfuru, Lifi in Ilu~gc of Cluirlnmgru (London, 1969). pp. 69-70; Erich Zöllncr. G&& dn Frankn (Munich, 1970),P. 49; and A. V. B. Nornnn. TkMafhlSoLivr(Ncw York. 197i).pp. 81, sg.This list is in no KM mcant ro bc cxhustivc anti caild be trcblcd in si~cwilh Iittlc fit.For an casily availablc prcscnution 'dihe traditiaul vim of the Mcmvingian miliury. sec John &clcr. li'afarc in FdlEi

the Merovingian military which have had the effect of buttressing faith in the Campur rlfartiw, we can now give serious attention to the evidence for the existence of this institution itself.' Over the years a few scholars have reexarnined unconvinced that the Franks ever had a tribal custom which called for a muster on the first day of March of each year for the purpose of beginning the cam- paigning season. In fact, doubt about the very existence of this custom goes all the way back to the ninth century and focuses upun the dif- ference between a Campur hfartiu, a Marchfield, and Camw Martb, a mustering field narned for Mars, the god of war, a gathering which might be held at any time during the year! In the present study all of the evidence has been brought together for the first time in an effort to ascertain if there is sufficient basis to substantiate the traditional in- terpretation of the Campw r\fartiw. The famous story, or perhaps more accurately legend, of the Vase in- cident at Soissons provides die earliest evidence for a Cnrnpw hfarfit~r. , the first writer to record the Vase incident, tells us that Clovis ordered liis followers to come to a Cnrnjriy Afartiiu for the in- spection of their arrns. At this gathering Clovis supposedly split open the head of a warrior who a year earlier at Soissons had defied him by sniashing an important Vase which had been taken as booty.' - The rneaning of Cnrnpur Afnrtiirr in Gregory's text, however, is far fi.oni

3 Additional wpport hsbccn givm to belief in the Gmpw Marliu by thc rolc ascribcd to it as cvidcnce Tor rhe clssic ihcory of feudal bcginnings. Thir thcory formulrtcd by Brunncr (&r.cif.) and populanzcd with a new iwisi by \Vhiic (Lw.of.1 has bccn shown to be untcnablc in rccint studies. Sec. for cxarnplc. Bullough. 'Eumpac Pater." 8~90,and Bcrnard S. Bachrach, 'Charla Martcl. Mountcd Shock Conibat. thc Stimp. and Fcudalism." SIudia in Mrdwal und Rtruiiuancc H*, 7 (1970). 49-75. 4 Thc hsic critiquc oT i!x tnditionrl vicw is still hat of L. Lwilldin, 'Carnpus Martius," Biblidh+c dr I'&& &I Charia, 107 ( 1947/48). 68-69. Scc Bullough, 'Turopac Patcr." p. 86. arid Thr Agr D[ Chahmp (London. 1965). p. 36; Lwis Halphen. Charkmap ri I'rrnliirr rnr,din&i (Paris, 1947). P. 861;J. hl. Waliacc-Hadrill. Thr Borbamn \Vc>t (3rd cd.; Londoii. 1967). p. 75,ii. I. a.wrts: 7hc&m/ruc hfarfiuc is dim wroii~lytnnriatcd as thc hlarrhfirld; but in bct ii was the Ficld oT Man. thc Wariicld. adwar not Icu W whcn. as Iatrr happciwd, the asrrmbly mtin May"; and Hiimr. I'& Rtmigri. ch. II (cd. B. Kntsch: MGH. Sn. rrr. 6lmu.. 111 [Haniiovcr. i8g6D. xgx-$93. It huld be poinicd out ihii Gcmn scholars havc tcndcd to ignorc LcvillainL work I=, tor cxampic. hherb by Bullough, 'Europae Patcr." p. 69) and Whitc, hftdir~olTrchndo~, P. 137. ara it in such a way u to irnply htLcvilhin wpporu thc traditional intcrprcution of the Gmpy kiioriulr. 5' Cregory ofToun. t/i>loriorumIibri, 11.17 (cd. B. Kmxh and W. kison: MGII, Scr. rn. Mmu..I. I land cd; Hannover. ig~pig5iD:'Trarucio vero anno. iwit. omncm cum ;mmm appanni advcnirc fakn(runmtcnrunm in ampo hfarcio hoium ammm nitorcm." On hc lcgciiclry ruturc of

6 Lcvillain. 'Caml>us Mariius." pp. 61-63. 7 Alitiou~liittc Gitnpiri blarin~~docr not appcar iii hc hlcr&iigiati soiirccs, wrne cvcnis ol' im- Ix>rtanrc arc notcd as acurring WI ihc ralnds oT March. Thus. King Childeberi I1 hrld a council wiili Iii5 rnap;naicr on sg Fcbruary 596.This was not. however. a nlustcr of iroops Tor

have never been discussed with reference to the Campw Martiw. It would seem logical that if the rnajority of these efforts were begun in March ihen a prima I'acie case could be made for this inctitution. Considercrd below are all the military campaigns undertaken by Merovingian forces which can be dated even approxirnately as to the month in which they were initiated. In 507 Clovis called together his followm for an invasion of the Visigothic kingdom. One of Clovis's or- den for that campaign survives; this directive restricts his men from taking anything except grass and water for their hcrses fi-orn the coun- aysidel If in fact there was suficient grass available for fodder when this campaign was launched, then May is a more likely month for its beginning than March." In 531 King Theuderic I campaigned against the Thuringians. Gregory of Tours describes the events in the following manner: 'The Thuringians preparecl traps for the oncoming Franks. In a field where the battle would surely be fought, they dug ditches which they covered over with sod so that the field appeared smooth. When the battle began and the Frankish horsemen charged, rnany of themYe11 into the ditches which were a very great obstacle to them; but after they realized the nature of the irap, they went more carefully."" Not only was there presumably grass available as fodder for the Frankish horsemen's mounn but the field was covered with grass as well. In 539 King Theudebert led an army into Italy; in 554 his son sent an army south of the Alps, and in ggo Childebert 11's forces made the trek so~ith.Though there is no mention of when these forces were rnustered or when they crossed the Alps, it is hardly likely that the expeditions were begun in March. If these campaigns had been attempted that early in the year at least one of the several con- temportaries wh6 mention the events (some in great detriil) would

g Cmpry. Hut, 11.37 (pp. 85.86): 'Scd quoniam pnhostium pcr ~rliniriumTuronicum tran- kht. pm mrrtntia kati Martini dcdit dcnim. ut nullus de rcgione illa aliud, quam herbarum &mtaaqirunquc pncaimcrct." Sec öcmard 5. üachrach. 'The Alans in Gaul:' Tradifw, PS (1967). 488. and as modificd in üachrach. 'Praopius.Agathias.and thc Frankish Military." PP. 439- 440. -.10 Cyf& XI1 mnuiimr. cd. ti. Stcm. RNU~aTCJLidOglpUT. 45 (1959. 185. Cr. Whitc, Mra'inal TnMw. pp- 94. 197. ii Cqpy. Ku.. 111.7 (p. 104): 7horingi vtro vcnientibus Francis dolos praeprant. In am- pim cnim. quo mumcn agi dcbthnt. fou;u &odiunt. quarum anopcru demaipctc planum ;rbinihnt cunpum. In his crgo fovcis. cum pugnarc ccqiuent. multi Fnncomm quitcs wuucnint, ci iuit cir rddc inpcdimcntum;ud post mgnhn; hunc dolurn. obscrvare coc~mnt!' On this tat. sec üachrach. "Prompius. Agah. and Lhe FruJish Military." p. 59. surely Iiave rcniarked upon ttie hardships that would have been en- dured in a latc-winter crossing of ttie Alps.'' Latc in January or early in February of 576 King Chilperic mustered tlic 1oc:il lcvy of Le Maris uridcr its Count and sent it against the city of 'rour.s. Tliis force stayed in ttie field througli Easter. In 585, either late iii Jiiiiiiary or early in Febriiary, King Guntrarn called together a large IOrcc from ttirougtiout his kingdom to attack the city of Poitiers. This lorce cainpaigiied tlirough the winter and returned home late in March 01. carly iri April. In the latc spring of 585, levied another largc force and seilt it against Visigothic Septimania. In the auhimn of ttie sarne year he sent yet another force to die Western borders of his kingdoiii.'" 111 593 Wiritrio, the Duke of Champagne, attacked and found tliere adequate pasturage for his mounts while his enemies found sufficicnt folliage for camouflage." Iri 604 the Neustrians launched a campaign in the auturnn against the which lasted until Christmas tirne."Iri 612 King Theuderic of Burgundy mustered his ar- mies in May for an invasion of !' In September of 643 the nwyor of Burgundy led an army against the Patrician of Burgundy.I1 In March of 7 i 7 Charles Martel led his warband against the mayor of the palace, Ragamfred. In October of 732 Charles mustered his forces arid iittacked the Muslims near Poitiers. In 734 Charles attacked the Frisians in a riaval campaign which certainly could not have been launched until tlie ice had melted. In the autumn of 742 Peppin the Short arid Carloinan attacked the Alamans, and in the winter of 743 the brothers levicd a force frorn Austrasia to attack the Bavarians!' Fr.orii ttiis review of all the military campaigris of the Merovingian era whicli can be dated with some liope of accuracy as to the month of tlieir bcgiriiiing, it seenis clear that troops were mustered for offensive actioiis at rnost ariy time of the ycar. Only one of these carnpaigns can bc firrnly dated as tiavirig originated in March, that of Charles Martel in 717-

t s Chi thc lulian ampigns. sec Bachracb.Lfmingion hfiIiLig Organiuatwn,pp. ~Qo7,&6',~3l. 135. 13 Crcgory. tfut.. V. 1.4; V11.~4.34.31.~8; VIII. SO (pp- 194. 198-sw; 344,350,~~-355,359- 369; 393-397). 14 I.~bcrIlutoriae Franconinc. ch. 36 (4.B. Kr&: hfclf,Sn. rn. hfmv., ll lHamovm, i8881.304. 306).This umpaign was Iaunchcd u>mctim~alter ihe dcath 0f King Cuniram on s8 hlarrh.593. For ihc datc. sce Frcd.. ch. 14. 15 FTC~..ch. 26. 16 Ibid.. ch. 38. 17 Ibd., CI:. 90. 18 Fred. Cocit.. ctu. to. 13. 17. 15. 26. For mmc d~~ionof theu campaig~,xc Bachrach, Mrrniiin~wnhfiliia~~ Orplnidbn. ch. V. / WAS THE MARCHFIELD PART OF THE FRANKISH CONSTITUTiON ? 183

Merovingian silence on the Cambur Marliw seems to be more tlian compensated Tor by ieinarks iri some of the sources which deal with the early Carolirigiari era. in the middle of the eighth century, some 250 years after ihe vasc incident and more than a century and a half after Gregory of Tours recoided it, the Campu Alarliur once again appears in the sources. The Continuator of Fredegar, who had close connections with the Carolingian family, provides us with his firm conviction that there was a Marchfield, that the ~archfieldwas an old Frankish custom, and that Peppin changed the Marchfield to a Mayfield. Concerriing the year 754 the Continuator writes, 'At tlie end of the year the King ordered aII the Franks to come to the royal villa of Berny-Riviere on the first of March as was the custom of the Frariks. There he took counsel with his rnagnates and at the time when kings are accustomed to go to war he set out for Lombardy. ..." The Continuator tells us that in 761 Peppin "ordered all the Frankish magnates to come to Düren in Ripuariati territory for a Mayfield, whcre a court was to be held to discuss matters pertaining to the interest of the kingdom and to ;the welfare of the Franks." In 763 Peppin "again levied the eiitire Frankish army and moved through Troyes arid Auxerre to the city of Nevers. There he held a court with his Franks and his magnates at a Mayfield." The Con- tinuator notes that woyears later Peppin "gathered together the entire Frankish army along with the ottier peoples who dwelled within his kingdom and corning to Orleans held his court at the Mayfield, which he had been the first to sqbstitute for the Marchfield for the good of the Franks. There hc received many gifts from the Franks and from his rnagnates." Coricerning the next year, the Continuator remarks that Pgppin "brougtit togetlicr the wtiole Frankish army, moved through the Troyes area aiid the city of Auxen-e to a fort called Gordon ..., he then crossed the and wcnt to Bourges. There again he ordered a Mayfield to be held as was ttie custom and having tzken counsel with his magnates he left Qyeen Bertranda at Bourges. ..T" Although Fredegar's Continuator seems convinced that the March- field and later die Mayfield werc Frankish institutions, we are left to ascertain for ourselves the purpose of these gatherings. In the texts cited above, consultation between King Peppin and his important followers scems to be the primary purpose for the Marchfield and later the hlayfield. In fact. in 761 Peppin ordered only his rnagnates to attend the Mayfield. In 763, 766, and 767, Peppin mustered his troops long bcfore he held the Mayfield and in areas far different from the actual location of the Mayfield. Although scholars argue that the Marchfield and latcr the ~ayfieldwere called to begin the carnpaigning season, the Continuator clearly states that in 754 the Marchfield was ordered "at the end of the ~ear."In addition, the Continuator was mistaken when lie crcdited Peppin with being die first to use May for calling together his followers. As early as 612 there is a record of Frankish kings musteririg their troops in May?' Fredegar's Continuator shows that consultation was the prirnary pur- pose Sor Peppin's gatherings, and a study of Peppin's and Charle- magne's consultations, mustcrs, and campaigns iridicates that neither March nor May was prefcrred for their beginning. Fredegar's evidence docs not support the traditional interpretation that the Marchfield, later the Mayfield, was a miister of troops on either the first of March or latcr the first of May for the purpose of beginning the campaigning season erich year?' Soiirces Tor the early Carolingian era other than Fredegar's Con- tinuator provide no support for the notion of an institutionalized Marchfield as tradi tionally defined. Concerning the year 750, the author of the nnnntes Lat~rüseme~minores wrote, "in die autem Martis camp0 secundum aiitiquam consuetudinem dona illis regibus a populo offere- hantur ..."'' This text seerns to indicate that it was an old custom for the people (fightingmen?) to give the king presents when they gathered on the mustering field-the Field of Mars. The Anmies Peiuuiani for 755 seem to rnake matters more clear:

so Frcd., ch. 38. ni Annah Rtgm Fmmm(cd. F. Kunc: MGH, Smplmrr mmGmnirorum in uarm Sclidanrm [Hannover, i 8951. for thc ycan 776. 783, 8~.815.8~0,8s:.813. and Sn4 providc a largc sample drawn from onc vcry important rource indiating htthc Carolingians bcmn ampaignr and heu councils fol military purpovs at any and aIi tim d thc yeu. kvillain. 'Campus Martius," p. 64, n. I, quotes a morc limircd rclcction from xvml sourccs which suggest the nrne conclusion. ~a additional infarmtion. scc T. Brcyu'g (cd.),jaht+Cchnder frädirrhtn Rtuh. 714-758 (kipiig, 1869); L. Oclrner (cd.).jahr6Urhnda f%~4lrhenR& unln König Rppin (Lcipzig. 1891); and S. Abc1 & B. 3;- (cds.). Jahrklur &J fmdlrhen Reich unln Kar1 km Gmum(Lcipzig. 1883-i888), r vob. I Hans Dclbriidr. G~huhledcr Xrir~~kuiulim Rahmrn dnpliliuhrn G~hichte,o (snd cd.; Win, igil), I 463, c~ncludc~rtiai ihc ~arcNicldwuWnur cinc AnReichstag". Whiic, Mrdhl T~hndogl,pp.136 137. is too hold in claimirs ihai ihcrc is no cn'dcnce to Support Dclbriid;'~ asscrtiw. G=&, Fradiih Imfdutwn~p. 6s. poinir out Ihai bc~ccfl756 and 768 the Mayficld tdplacc mly ax tim in May; undcr Chrlcs who mied for foiiy-fivc ycars thc Mayficld was hcM in May a maximum d mrntcrn tim. Scc also. pp. ri. i 17. 155. WC find a Mayficki uxd Tor cauulutim wiih thc mapparn as carly u Qi (Frcd.. ch. 90). ss Annah,, lounurnuj mimrr, a. 750 (cd. C. Pau: MGH. WmnI [Hannova. iSr6L p. 116). "Venit Thasilo ad Martis campo et mutaverunt Martis campum in mense Maio."u Thasilo came to the Field of Mars, i.e. the muster for war, and then they changed the meeting to the month of May. Although it is clear that the second Campus Martis was in the month of May, there is no way to ascertain from this text the month in which the oiiginal muster was in fact held. These differentes in the Carolingian sources which have enabled modern scholars to arrive at varying interpretations also engaged the mind of at least one famous ninth-century writer. When Hincmar of Rheims came to describe the famous Soissons Vase incident in his Vita Remigii, he felt compelled to comment on the meaning of Campus Manius. Hincmar writes as if to correct some mistaken notions which had become popular: "So tliey named the gathering after Mars, whom the pagans believed to be the god of war, and from which both the month of March and the third day of the week, the dag of Mars, are named. This gathering later Franks came to call a MayfieId because that is when kings are accustomed to go to war."u It is Hincmar's conclusion that the Franks of old called the place iwhere they gathered to go to war a field of war or a Marsfield. Later writers, misunderstanding Campus Manius as found in the, story of the Vase incident, thinking that it meant Marchfield, an analogy with Mayfield, but knowing the Franks did not confine the begimings of their military activities to the month of March, concluded that some fundemental change had taken place. Therefore, the entire theory of a Campus Marrius, as traditionally defined by scholars, rests upon a misunderstanding by an early Carolingian chronicler of Gregory's text wherein is found sole evidence for Campus Martius for the entire Merovingian era. It seems possible that the Merovingians had a Campus Martius, a war field, which might be held at any time of the year.

23 Annulu Pe&r.iani, a. 755 (4. G. Pcrtz: MGH. ScriprorrrI [Hannover, 1824, p. 11). 24 Hincmar, V Remigii, ch. 11: "Sic enim amvcntum illum vocabant a Marte, quun pagani &um beb atdebam a quo d Marcium mensan d iutiarn feriam diun Martis appeiiavcrunt; .qucm anventum posiuiorcs FmiMai campum, qua& regu ad klia soieni procedcre, vocari iqituaun~"Thc phrase %hui kings art acastomcd io go to war" is of bibiical pmvcnanffi and is iko quoted by Frcd. Cont., ch. 37. The phrase "pasteriorcs Franc?' may indicate thc Cirolingi as comparcd to che Muuvingii, who may bc rcgardcd as Fmncl anferiores.