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Subject Index Subject Index Abduction, 335, 336, 346, 377 Amputation Acceleration above-knee, 278 linear, 61, 118, 213 below-elbow, 357 Acceptors Amputee, 278, 279, 281, 282, 356–358, 363 finite-state, 417 Anthropomorphic appearance, 442 Action potentials, 141 Anthropopathic robots, 442 Action selection, 115, 137, 168 Aquatom, 222 Activation function, 143, 145, 147–149 Arbitration, priority-based, 106 ActivMedia Robotics, 4, 15, 65, 187, 343 Architectures Actuators, 10, 47 3T, 109 cybernetic, 323 ALLIANCE, 407 electromagnetic, 48, 56 application programming layer, 121 hydraulic, 55 AuRA, 109, 404 nonlinear, 47 behavior-based, 3, 8, 10, 21, 97, 104, 107, 134, pneumatic, 48, 55, 330 409, 488 prismatic, 228 BERRA, 109, 110 series elastic, 270 cognitive, 110, 113, 114, 168, 170, 173, 447 Adaptive Suspension Machine, 289, 290, 303 control, 3, 7, 10, 33, 118, 384, 413 adaptive cord mechanism, 204 deliberative, 8, 100 adaptivity, 31, 279 hierarchical-deliberative planning, 108 Adduction, 335, 336, 346, 377 hybrid deliberative reactive, 107, 109 Adept Technology, 4 layered, 105, 121 Adonis, 178 MissionLab, 404 Aerosonde, 233, 234 multiple robot, 10, 402 AeroVironment, 234, 236, 244, 245 open, 8, 121 AFSMs. See Augmented finite-state machines pheromone, 411 Aggregation, 403 Ranger-Scout, 412 AIBO, 5, 22, 62, 121, 318, 319, 429, 430, 452, reactive, 104 510 sense-think-act, 102 Aircraft software, 13, 97, 99, 457, 509 semiautonomous, 232 subsumption, 3, 106–108, 294, 295 tilt-rotor, 232 supervisory layer, 108 Algorithms three-level, 13, 14 control and mapping, 489 Ariel, 223–225, 303 evolutionary, 9, 153 Arms genetic, 154, 155, 168, 170, 173, 175, 235, 291, anthropomorphic, 344, 464, 465 296, 415, 504, 516 control system redundancy, 337 optimization, 480 human, 14, 43, 47, 334, 335, 337, 339, 344 ALLIANCE, 407, 409–411, 432, 437 humanoid, 344 Alpha motoneuron, 276, 338 major movements, 336 Ambler, 298, 299, 324 mechanical, 333 American Sign Language, 176 prosthetic and orthotic, 10, 355, 358 564 Subject Index Arms (cont.) Biped structure, exoskeletal, 278 robot, 12, 333–335, 338, 352, 354, 358, 364, 396, Biped walkers, 23, 447 397 Biped robots. See Humanoids Stanford-Rancho, 361 Birds, 21, 57, 186, 200, 233, 244, 254, 276, 393, Arnold, 468, 470–471 420, 475–477 Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. See Massa- Blackboard, 326, 433 chusetts Institute of Technology Bode diagram, 522, 527 ASIMO, 5, 23, 24, 263, 270, 429, 449–452 Body posture, 218, 260 Asimov’s laws, 3 Box-pushing, 131, 133 Assemblages, 51, 405 Brachiation, 231 Atlantis, 109 Bradbury, Ray, 514 ATR Computational Neuroscience Laboratories, Broadcast, 416 346, 453 Broca’s area, 175 ATRV, 187, 189 Brown-Boveri industrial robot, 339 Attractors, 417, 418 Buoyancy, 212, 216 Auction, 434 Augmented finite-state machines (AFSMs), 294 C3PO, 441, 442 AuRA. See Architectures Cams, 49, 51 AUSS (Advanced Unmanned Search System). See Camera Underwater robots CCD, 118 Australian Defence Science and Technology digital, 242 Organization, 233 Canter, 304, 306, 322 Automata, finite-state, 405 Carnegie Mellon University, 5, 19, 109, 189, Automatons, 285, 444 190, 208, 209, 238, 244, 298, 328, 430, 432, Autonomous robots, future of, 11, 509, 511, 513, 458, 517 515, 517 Case Western Reserve University, 291 Autonomous air vehicles. See Flying robots Caster, 186, 189, 194, 195 Autonomous ground vehicles. See UGVs CDL, 405, 406 Autonomous underwater vehicles. See UUVs CEBOT, 415 Autonomy, 1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, Cell body, 140, 141 443 Cellular robotic systems, 246, 413, 415 AVATAR, 8, 19, 21, 110, 117, 118, 120, 237 Center of curvature, instantaneous, 194 Avatars, 515 Central pattern generator (CPG), 258, 259 Averaging, statistical, 497 Cerebellum, 33, 260, 286, 354 Avoiding, 3, 7, 99, 106, 108, 111, 131, 132, 175, Cerebral palsy, 260, 358 327, 473, 489, 503 Chain of friendships, 422, 423, 424 Axon, 140, 141, 142 Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, 221 Chromosome, 170 Back-propagation, 146, 147, 154 C-Leg, 279, 280, 281 Barrett Technology, Inc., 374, 467 Clock, 294, 476, 478 Batteries, 358 Clustering, 95 Bayes’ rule, 486, 503 CMOMMT, 407, 410, 411 Behaviors CNS (central nervous system), 31, 286 built-in, 99 Cockroach, 291–294, 296, 299–302, 322 cooperative, 391 Coelacanth, robotic, 222 emergent, 516 Cog, 5, 24, 52, 378, 463, 465, 466 low-level, 118 Cognition, 2, 13, 105, 464, 511 map-building, 491 Cognitive ability, 2, 429, 441, 443, 447, 457 midlevel, 118 Collective, 19, 21, 117–119, 242, 411, 412, 415, nonlinear, 38 505 odometry correction, 491 Collective tasks, 392 primitive, 398, 404 Collision avoidance, 402, 403, 404, 409, 415 reflex, 13 Commitment, 435 social, 395 Communication Belgrade hand, 379, 381 goal, 418 Biological control systems, nonlinear, 7, 38 human-robot, 419 Biped kinematics, 9, 274 inter-robot, 419, 436 Biped locomotion, 253 point-to-point, 416 Subject Index 565 state, 417 optimal, 71, 88, 240 stigmergic, 418 position, 7, 76, 77, 79, 80, 294, 351, 352 via the environment, 416, 436 redundancy, 32 Comparators, 7, 29, 30, 36, 38, 72, 75–78, 526 resolved motion, 351 Compass, 201, 214, 236, 242, 300, 327, 478–480, skeletal muscles, 36 488 sliding-mode, 212 celestial, 476 software-enabled, 239 flux gate, 215, 242 theory, 6, 71, 82, 99, 392, 398 magnetic, 475, 476, 477 trajectory, 16 sun, 475, 476, 478 uncertainty, 8, 92 Competition, 136, 393, 428, 457 very simple robots, 10, 400 RoboCup, 428 vision-based, 243 Compliance, 259, 299, 300, 302, 307, 313, 345, 467 vorticity flow, 221 Compliant legs, 302, 332 Controllability, 194, 214 Computer, on-board, 12, 298, 400 Controller CONDOR, 376 biologically inspired, 94 Configuration description language, 405 cerebellar model articulation, 354 Configuration space, 485 design, 8, 76 Connectionist networks. See Neural networks feedforward, 354 CONRO, 247, 249, 250, 514 fuzzy, 93, 120, 183 Construction, autonomous, 432 heading, 119 Contrast enhancement, 11, 13, 63, 138 lateral velocity, 119 Control, robot, 7, 8, 2, 7, 43, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, learning, 128 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95 multipurpose, 32 adaptive, 8, 43, 88 navigation, 119 altitude, 119 PID, 78 behavior-based, 10 programmed gain, 89 blood volume, 27, 32 Control systems body temperature, 9, 34 biological, 7, 10, 25, 28, 30, 33, 34, 38, 42, 43, centralized, 391, 392, 402, 407, 413, 428 44 chemical, 28 closed-loop, 29, 72, 73, 191, 526 distributed, 392 design, 529 feedback, 6, 7, 26, 29, 31, 34, 37, 43, 58, 71, 74, engineering, 7, 27, 30, 31, 34, 36, 38, 43 75, 76, 99, 193, 320, 325, 332, 355, 407, 522, 525, homeostatic, 27 526, 530 linear, 519 formation, 239, 405, 420, 421, 426, 427, 436 open-loop, 72 forward kinematic, 46 theory, state space approach, 8, 82 forward-speed, 265 Convergence, 148, 354 functional motions, 7, 43 Cooperation gait, 247, 268 without communication, 416 grasping, 369 human-robot, 11, 512 helicopter, 8, 117, 242 Coordinate frames, 340 hierarchical, 33, 399 Coordinates high-level, 34, 98, 99 Cartesian, 80, 81, 344, 348, 351, 352, 353 hopping-height, 265, 266 rotational, 19, 36, 49, 57, 60, 61, 81, 203, 247, 262, in robot colonies, 399 275, 315, 334, 348, 350, 377, 481 inverse Jacobian, 353 Coordinate systems, 178, 333 leg movement, 33, 52, 263 global, 411, 421, 482 level, 3, 34, 426 inertial, 211, 340, 482 local, 33, 285, 399, 400, 427 Coordination, 19, 25, 106, 165, 278, 285, 287, 296, low-level, 3, 76, 79, 98, 99, 214, 278 298, 303, 338, 404, 405, 411, 426, 427, 432, 434, manipulator, 351 435, 466 model-free, 8, 91, 243 eye-hand, 364 multilink structures, 8, 79 leg movements, 288 myoelectric, 358 between limbs, 287 neural, 28, 156, 186, 256, 260, 286, 291, 332, 338, Coriolis acceleration, 275, 350 364 Cost functions, 7, 42 nonlinear, 85 maximum velocity, 42 566 Subject Index Cost functions (cont.) muscle, 256, 338 minimum energy consumption, 42 musculoskeletal, 9, 256, 276 minimum mean square error, 42 uncertain, 499 minimum overshoot, 42 quadratic, 499 Eagle Eye, 232–234 Covariance matrix, 499, 501 Electric motors, 12, 15, 48, 49, 50, 54, 55, 191, 340, CPG. See Central pattern generator 356 Crawling, 25, 185, 186, 203, 209, 250, 304, 305, motor current monitor, 132 312, 320, 321, 324, 483, 509 EMG electrodes, 387, 388, 389 Credit assignment, 131, 138, 139, 168 Electrolux, 22, 511 structural, 131 Electromagnets, 225, 230 temporal, 131, 139 Electromyography, 356 Criterion, performance, 530 Embodiment, 106, 411, 443 Critic, 129, 131, 303 Emergent behavior, 1 Crosscoupling, 242 Emotions, 27, 418, 457, 458, 463, 512, 513 Crossover, 155, 162, 168, 170 Encoders, wheel, 473 Crystals, 246 Encoding, 178 Cyclic, 19, 117, 120, 219, 242 End e¤ectors, 10, 14, 47, 79, 335, 337, 340–342, 348, 349, 351–354, 358, 360, 363, 368, 369, 373, Damping, 40, 54, 86, 91, 99, 127, 182, 212, 345, 379, 380 359 flexible, 371 Dante, 328, 329 industrial, 369, 370 DARS (Distributed Autonomous Robotic Systems simple, 339, 363, 371, 380 Conference), 398 Endoscopes, snakelike, 203 Dartmouth University, 229 environments, unstructured, 184 DB, 346, 453, 455 Equations Dead zone, 39 di¤erential, 7, 19, 21, 85, 94, 237, 273, 507, 519, Defuzzification, 93 524 Degrees of freedom, 14, 46, 247, 293, 298, 300, 302, discrete-state, 84 312, 313, 315, 334, 342, 343, 347, 360, 378, 381, dynamical, 83 389, 454 Hill, 258 Delay, 7, 181, 354 linear di¤erential, 9 Deliberation, 104, 107 measurement, 499 Delta rule, 144 Riccati, 501 generalized, 147 state, 83 Denavit-Hartenberg representation, 340 van der Pol, 40 Dendrites, 141 ERATO, 270, 346, 453, 455 Denning, 189, 405 Errors Describing-function methods, 88 Gaussian, 481
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