1 Dry-Fermented Sausages and Ripened Meats: an Overview, 3 Fidel Toldrá and Y.H

Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry

Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry Second Edition

Editor-in-Chief Fidel Toldrá Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Paterna, Valencia, Spain

Consulting Editor Y. H. Hui Science Technology System, West Sacramento, CA, USA

Associate Editors Iciar Astiasarán Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Physiology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain

Joseph G. Sebranek Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University Ames, IA, USA

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of fermented meat and poultry / editor-in-chief, Fidel Toldrá ; associate editors, Y.H. Hui, I. Astiasarán, J.G. Sebranek, & R. Talon.—2nd edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-118-52269-1 (hardback) 1. Fermented foods–Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Meat–Preservation–Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Fermentation–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Toldrá, Fidel. TP371.44.H357 2015 664′.024—dc23 2014024540

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1 2015 Contents

List of Contributors, xvii Preface, xxi

Part I Meat Fermentation Worldwide: Overview, Production, and Principles, 1 1 Dry-Fermented Sausages and Ripened Meats: An Overview, 3 Fidel Toldrá and Y.H. Hui 1.1 Introduction, 3 1.2 Fermented sausages and ripened meats around the world, 3 1.3 The importance of fermented sausages, 5 Acknowledgement, 6 References, 6 2 Production and Consumption of Fermented Meat Products, 7 Herbert W. Ockerman and Lopa Basu 2.1 Introduction, 7 2.2 Current products, 7 2.3 The Future, 10 References, 10 3 Principles of Meat Fermentation, 13 Eero Puolanne and Esko Petäjä-Kanninen 3.1 Introduction, 13 3.2 Fermentation, 14 3.3 Factors inﬂuencing fermentation, 15 3.4 Proteolysis, 15 3.5 Lipolysis, 15 3.6 Antagonistic effects, 16 References, 16 4 Principles of Curing, 19 Ronald B. Pegg and Karl O. Honikel 4.1 Deﬁnition of curing, 19 4.2 History of curing, 19 4.3 Legislation, 20 4.4 Chemistry of nitrite and nitrate, 20 4.5 Nitrite and nitrate in meat products, 22 4.6 Nitrosomyoglobin (NOMb), 27 4.7 N-nitrosamine formation, 28 4.8 Conclusion, 29 References, 29 5 Principles of Drying, 31 Raúl Grau, Ana Andres, and José M. Barat 5.1 Introduction, 31 5.2 Basic principles of drying, 31 5.3 Hurdle technology applied to dried meat and poultry products, 32 5.4 Fundamentals of the drying of meat and poultry products, 34

v vi Contents

5.5 Drying kinetics modeling, 35 5.6 Air conditioning and circulation in meat drying, 35 References, 36 6 Principles of Smoking, 39 Zdzisław E. Sikorski and Izabela Sinkiewicz 6.1 Introduction, 39 6.2 Wood-smoke composition, 39 6.3 The preserving effect, 40 6.4 The ﬂavoring effect, 41 6.5 Beneﬁts and risks, 42 6.6 Food engineering approach, 43 6.7 Smoking procedures, 45 References, 45

Part II Raw Materials, 47 7 The Biochemistry of Meat and Fat, 49 Fidel Toldrá and Milagro Reig 7.1 Introduction: muscle structure, 49 7.2 Meat composition, 49 7.3 Muscle proteases and lipases, 51 7.4 Adipose tissue lipases, 52 7.5 Post mortem muscle metabolism and quality, 53 References, 53 8 Ingredients, 55 Jorge Ruiz and Trinidad Pérez-Palacios 8.1 Introduction, 55 8.2 Lean, 55 8.3 Fat, 56 8.4 Factors affecting the suitability of lean and fat for processing, 56 8.5 Other ingredients, 62 References, 65 9 Additives, 69 Pedro Roncalés 9.1 Introduction, 69 9.2 Acids and related additives, 69 9.3 Antioxidants, 70 9.4 Colorants, 70 9.5 Emulsiﬁers, 71 9.6 Flavor enhancers, 72 9.7 Flavoring agents, 73 9.8 Preservatives, 74 9.9 Multipurpose additives: phosphates, 75 References, 76 10 Spices and Seasonings, 79 Suey Ping Chi and Yun Chu Wu 10.1 Introduction, 79 10.2 Ethnic preferences, 79 10.3 Commonly used spices in processed meats, 80 10.4 Botanical properties, 80 Contents vii

10.5 Product forms and appearances, 80 10.6 Chemical properties, 80 10.7 Quality standards, 81 10.8 Sensory properties, 82 10.9 Applications in fermented meat processing, 87 10.10 Conclusion, 87 References, 87 11 Casings, 89 Yun Chu Wu, Suey Ping Chi, and Souad Christieans 11.1 Introduction, 89 11.2 Natural casings, 89 11.3 Artiﬁcial casings, 93 11.4 Regulatory compliance, 94 11.5 Handling casings, 95 11.6 Quality determination, 95 11.7 Conclusion, 96 References, 96

Part III Microbiology and Starter Cultures, 97 12 Microorganisms in Traditional Fermented Meats, 99 Sabine Leroy, Isabelle Lebert, and Régine Talon 12.1 Introduction, 99 12.2 Traditional sausage manufacture, 99 12.3 Description of ecosystems, 100 12.4 Identification of technological microbiota, 102 12.5 Conclusion, 103 References, 103 13 The Microbiology of Fermentation and Ripening, 107 Margarita Garriga and Teresa Aymerich 13.1 Introduction, 107 13.2 The manufacture of fermented sausages, 107 13.3 Technological microflora, 108 13.4 Spoilage microflora, 111 13.5 Foodborne pathogens, 111 13.6 Starter cultures, 111 References, 112 14 Bacteria, 117 Pier Sandro Cocconcelli and Cecilia Fontana 14.1 Introduction, 117 14.2 Bacterial starter cultures used for fermented meats, 117 14.3 Starter cultures: technological advantage in the meat environment, 120 14.4 Safety of selected meat starter-culture bacteria, 123 14.5 Conclusion, 124 References, 124 15 Bioprotective Cultures, 129 Graciela Vignolo, Patricia Castellano, and Silvina Fadda 15.1 Introduction, 129 15.2 Starter cultures for meat fermentation, 129 15.3 Competitiveness of starter cultures, 131 viii Contents

15.4 Bioprotective cultures for fermented meat products, 132 15.5 Conclusion, 135 References, 135 16 Yeasts, 139 M.D. Selgas and M.L. Garcıa´ 16.1 Introduction, 139 16.2 Presence of yeasts on meat sausages, 139 16.3 Role of yeasts in meat products, 140 16.4 Yeast starter cultures, 144 References, 144 17 Molds, 147 Elettra Berni 17.1 Introduction, 147 17.2 Fungal contamination in ripening environments, 147 17.3 Fungal starter cultures, 148 17.4 Lipolytic and proteolytic activity of starter cultures, 149 17.5 Growth and competitiveness of starter cultures, 149 17.6 Conclusion, 151 References, 151 18 Probiotics, 155 Keizo Arihara 18.1 Introduction, 155 18.2 Probiotics and probiotic foods, 155 18.3 Probiotics and meat products, 156 18.4 Prebiotics and synbiotics, 157 18.5 Conclusion, 158 References, 158 19 The Genetics of Microbial Starters, 161 Jamila Anba-Mondoloni, Marie-Christine Champomier-Vergès, Monique Zagorec, Sabine Leroy, Emilie Dordet-Frisoni, Stella Planchon, and Régine Talon 19.1 Introduction, 161 19.2 Chromosome elements, 161 19.3 Plasmids, 163 19.4 DNA transfer and genetic tools, 163 19.5 Post-genomics studies, 164 References, 165 20 The Influence of Processing Parameters on Starter Culture Performance, 169 F. Leroy, T. Goudman and L. De Vuyst 20.1 Introduction, 169 20.2 Influence of raw materials, 169 20.3 Influence of temperature, 170 20.4 Influence of added fermentable carbohydrates, 171 20.5 Influence of salting and drying, 172 20.6 Influence of curing agents, 173 20.7 Influence of spices, 173 20.8 Influence of sausage caliber, 173 20.9 Influence of maturation and molding, 173 20.10 Conclusion, 174 Acknowledgments, 174 References, 174 Contents ix

21 Methodologies for the Study of Microbial Ecology in Fermented Sausages, 177 Valentina Alessandria, Kalliopi Rantsiou, Paola Dolci, and Luca Cocolin 21.1 Introduction, 177 21.2 Molecular approaches to the study of microbial ecology in fermented sausages, 178 21.3 Culture-independent methods, 178 21.4 Deﬁnition of the microbial ecology in fermented sausages by culture-independent methods, 180 21.5 Culture-dependent methods, 182 21.6 Deﬁnition of the microbial ecology in fermented sausages by culture-dependent methods, 183 21.7 Conclusion, 184 References, 185

Part IV Sensory Attributes, 189 22 Sensory Analyses-General Considerations, 191 Asgeir Nilsen, Marit Rødbotten, Ken Prusa, and Chris Fedler 22.1 Introduction, 191 22.2 Sensory methods, 191 22.3 Sensory analysis of fermented meat products, 192 References, 194 23 Color, 195 Jens K.S. Møller, Sisse Jongberg, and Leif H. Skibsted 23.1 Introduction, 195 23.2 Color-forming compounds, 195 23.3 Chemistry of meat color, 195 23.4 Influence of fermentation parameters on color, 197 23.5 Bacterial role in meat color, 199 23.6 Natural and organic cured meat, 200 23.7 Color stability of cured meat products, 201 23.8 Conclusion, 203 Acknowledgment, 203 References, 203 24 Texture, 207 Shai Barbut 24.1 Introduction, 207 24.2 Texture of commercial products, 207 24.3 Texture development during fermentation, 207 24.4 Texture development during ripening, 210 24.5 Texture development during cooking (nondried/semidried), 211 24.6 Effects of processing parameters, 213 24.7 Effects of product modification with non-meat ingredients, 214 24.8 Conclusion, 214 References, 215 25 Flavor, 217 Mónica Flores and Alicia Olivares 25.1 Introduction, 217 25.2 Precursor generation reactions of fermented meat flavor, 217 25.3 Volatile compound generation reactions, 218 25.4 Extraction and identification of volatile compounds, 218 x Contents

25.5 Elucidation of aroma active compounds, 220 25.6 Relevance of volatile compounds in fermented meats, 220 References, 224

Part V Product Categories: General Considerations, 227 26 Composition and Nutrition, 229 Daniel Demeyer 26.1 Introduction, 229 26.2 Nutrient supply from meat and meat products, 229 26.3 Meat and meat products in healthy nutrition, 232 26.4 Recommended meat intakes, 233 26.5 Effects of fermentation on the nutritional and health properties of meat, 234 References, 236 27 Functional Dry-Fermented Sausages, 241 Diana Ansorena and Iciar Astiasarán 27.1 Introduction, 241 27.2 Modification of the mineral content in dry-fermented sausages, 241 27.3 Fat modifications in dry-fermented sausages, 243 27.4 Incorporation of fiber into dry-fermented sausages, 245 27.5 Use of dry-fermented sausages as probiotics, 246 27.6 Incorporation of vitamins, 246 27.7 Conclusion, 247 References, 247 28 Low-Sodium Products, 251 Fidel Toldrá and José M. Barat 28.1 Introduction, 251 28.2 Relevance of salt in fermented meats, 251 28.3 Strategies for sodium reduction, 252 28.4 Effects of sodium reduction on quality and safety, 253 References, 254 29 International Standards: United States, 259 Elizabeth Boyle and Melvin C. Hunt 29.1 Introduction, 259 29.2 US regulatory process, 259 29.3 Regulatory definitions and specifications, 260 29.4 HACCP options, 261 29.5 Validation, 261 References, 261 30 International Standards: Europe, 263 Reinhard Fries 30.1 Introduction, 263 30.2 Quality, 263 30.3 Microbiological safeguarding in food chains, 266 30.4 Generating microbiological data in practice, 268 30.5 Microbiological criteria for foodstuffs in Reg. (EC) 2073/2005, 270 References, 270 31 Packaging and Storage, 273 Byungrok Min and Dong Uk Ahn 31.1 Introduction, 273 Contents xi

31.2 Functions of food packaging, 273 31.3 Packaging materials, 274 31.4 Packaging systems, 276 31.5 Storage, 279 References, 279

Part VI Semidry-Fermented Sausages, 281 32 US Products-Semidry Sausage, 283 Robert E. Rust 32.1 Introduction, 283 32.2 Methods of acidiﬁcation, 283 32.3 Food safety, 283 32.4 Manufacturing processes, 284 32.5 Different types of US semidry sausage, 285 Reference, 285 33 European Products, 287 Friedrich-Karl Lücke 33.1 Introduction, 287 33.2 Deﬁnition of “semidry-fermented sausage” in Europe, 287 33.3 General remarks on the manufacture of European-style semidry-fermented sausages, 288 33.4 Types of European-style semidry-fermented sausage, 290 33.5 Safety and stability, 291 33.6 Conclusion, 291 References, 291

Part VII Dry-Fermented Sausages, 293 34 US Products-Dry Sausage, 295 Robert Maddock 34.1 Introduction, 295 34.2 European versus US products, 295 34.3 Deﬁnitions, 295 34.4 US manufacturing processes for dried sausages, 296 34.5 Basic formulations and processes for selected large-diameter dried sausages, 297 34.6 Safe production of dried sausages in the United States, 298 34.7 Process control points for dried sausage manufacturing, 298 References, 299 35 Mediterranean Products, 301 Eva Hierro, Manuela Fernández, Lorenzo de la Hoz, and Juan A. Ordónez˜ 35.1 Introduction, 301 35.2 Production of Mediterranean dry-fermented sausages, 301 35.3 Changes during ripening of Mediterranean dry-fermented sausages, 303 35.4 Innovation in Mediterranean dry-fermented sausages, 306 35.5 Conclusion, 308 References, 309 36 Northern European Products, 313 Askild Holck, Even Heir, Tom C. Johannessen, and Lars Axelsson 36.1 Introduction, 313 xii Contents

36.2 Characteristics of Northern European sausages, 313 36.3 Sausages of Central Europe, 316 36.4 Sausages of Eastern Europe, 317 36.5 Sausages of the Nordic countries, 318 References, 320 37 Asian Products, 321 Ming-Ju Chen, Rung-Jen Tu, and Sheng-Yao Wang 37.1 Introduction, 321 37.2 Chinese products, 321 37.3 South East Asian products, 324 37.4 Himalayan fermented meat products, 326 References, 326

Part VIII Fermented Products from Poultry and Other Meats, 329 38 Fermented Poultry Sausages, 331 E. Arnaud, S.J. Santchurn, and A. Collignan 38.1 Introduction, 331 38.2 Fermented poultry sausages, 332 38.3 Other fermented products, 336 References, 336 39 Fermented Sausages from Other Meats, 339 Emin Burçin Özvural and Halil Vural 39.1 Introduction, 339 39.2 Fermented products from other meats, 339 39.3 Scientiﬁc studies on other meats, 340 References, 342

Part IX Ripened Meat Products, 345 40 US Products-Dry-Cured Hams, 347 Dana J. Hanson, Gregg Rentfrow, M. Wes Schilling, W. Benjy Mikel, Kenneth J. Stalder, and Nicholas L. Berry 40.1 Introduction, 347 40.2 Country ham standards, 347 40.3 Commercial dry-cured ham production in the United States, 348 40.4 Ham curing at home, 351 40.5 Safety, 352 40.6 Cooking, 352 40.7 Research, 352 References, 353 41 Central and South American Products, 355 Silvina Fadda and Graciela Vignolo 41.1 Introduction, 355 41.2 Meat consumption and habits, 355 41.3 Meat production in Latin American countries, 355 41.4 Typical meat products, microbial ecology, and safety risks, 356 41.5 Conclusion, 359 References, 359 42 Mediterranean Products, 361 Mario Estévez, Sonia Ventanas, David Morcuende, and Jesús Ventanas 42.1 Introduction, 361 Contents xiii

42.2 Production of dry-cured hams, 361 42.3 Spanish dry-cured hams, 362 42.4 Italian dry-cured hams, 365 42.5 French dry-cured hams, 367 References, 368 43 Nordic Products, 371 Torunn Thauland Håseth, Gudjon Thorkelsson, Eero Puolanne, and Maan Singh Sidhu 43.1 Introduction, 371 43.2 Norwegian fenalår, 371 43.3 Norwegian pinnekjøtt, 372 43.4 Norwegian dry-cured ham (spekeskinke), 373 43.5 Icelandic hangikjöt, 373 43.6 Faroese skerpikjøt, 373 43.7 Greenlandic mattaq and igunaq, 374 43.8 Finnish Lapin Poron kylmäsavuliha, 374 43.9 Finnish Lapin Poron kuivaliha, 375 References, 375 44 Asian Products, 377 Guang-Hong Zhou and Gai-Ming Zhao 44.1 Introduction, 377 44.2 History and traits of Jinhua ham, 377 44.3 Processing of Jinhua ham, 377 44.4 Possible factors causing differences in Chinese dry-cured hams, 380 References, 381

Part X Biological and Chemical Safety of Fermented Meat Products, 383 45 Spoilage Microorganisms: Risks and Control, 385 Marie-Christine Champomier-Vergès and Monique Zagorec 45.1 Introduction, 385 45.2 Putative spoilage microorganisms, 385 45.3 Examples of spoilage occurring in fermented sausage, 386 45.4 Strategies for spoilage control, 386 45.5 Conclusion, 387 References, 388 46 Pathogens: Risks and Control, 389 Panagiotis Skandamis and George-John E. Nychas 46.1 Introduction, 389 46.2 Hazard identiﬁcation, 390 46.3 Hazard characterization: defense mechanism, 390 46.4 Exposure assessment, 392 46.5 Control measures, 406 References, 409 47 Biogenic Amines: Risks and Control, 413 M. Carmen Vidal-Carou, M. Teresa Veciana-Nogués, M. Luz Latorre-Moratalla, and Sara Bover-Cid 47.1 Introduction: biogenic amine classiﬁcation and relevance, 413 47.2 Health risks of biogenic amines in fermented sausages, 413 47.3 Aminogenesis in fermented sausages and measures for its control, 415 47.4 Conclusion, 424 References, 424 xiv Contents

48 Toxic Compounds of Chemical Origin, 429 Milagro Reig and Fidel Toldrá 48.1 Introduction, 429 48.2 N-nitrosamines, 429 48.3 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 430 48.4 Oxidation, 431 48.5 Veterinary drug residues, 431 48.6 Environmental contaminants, 433 References, 433 49 Foodborne Outbreaks, 435 Colin Pierre 49.1 Introduction, 435 49.2 Staphylococcus aureus, 435 49.3 Salmonella spp., 435 49.4 Verotoxigenic strains of Escherichia coli, 436 49.5 Yersinia enterocolitica, 437 49.6 Listeria monocytogenes, 437 49.7 Thermotolerant Campylobacter, 438 49.8 Parasites, 438 49.9 Conclusion, 438 References, 438

Part XI Processing Sanitation and Quality Assurance, 441 50 Basic Sanitation, 443 Beatriz Melero, Ana M. Diez, and Jordi Rovira 50.1 Introduction, 443 50.2 Raw materials and ingredients, 443 50.3 Plant environment, 443 50.4 Personnel hygiene and training, 446 References, 448 51 Processing Plant Sanitation, 451 Jordi Rovira, Ana M. Diez, and Beatriz Melero 51.1 Introduction, 451 51.2 Fermented meat products and poultry, 451 51.3 Fermented sausage processing plant sanitation, 452 51.4 Methods of evaluating the sanitation state of a plant, 457 51.5 Final considerations, 458 References, 458 52 Quality Control, 461 Fidel Toldrá, Mónica Flores, and M. Concepción Aristoy 52.1 Introduction, 461 52.2 Quality controls at each stage of processing, 461 52.3 Control of drying, 462 52.4 Control of sensory quality, 462 References, 466 53 HACCP: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, 469 M.J. Fraqueza and A.S. Barreto 53.1 The HACCP concept: why use it, 469 Contents xv

53.2 HACCP model for fermented sausages: a generic model for HACCP implementation in traditional establishments and small fermented sausage plants, 470 53.3 Validation of the operative HACCP plan, 483 53.4 Revision of the HACCP plan, 483 53.5 Certiﬁcation of food safety management systems, 484 References, 484 54 Quality Assurance Plan, 487 Friedrich-Karl Lücke 54.1 Introduction, 487 54.2 General remarks on the purchase and selection of raw materials, 487 54.3 Quality assurance plans and records for fermented sausages, 488 54.4 Quality assurance plans and records for raw dry hams, 490 54.5 Slicing, packaging, and storage of fermented sausages and raw dry hams, 492 54.6 End-product testing, 492 54.7 General remarks about the structure and extent of documentation, 493 References, 493 Index, 495

List of Contributors

Dong Uk Ahn Shai Barbut Department of Animal Science Department, Iowa State University, Food Science Department, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Ames, IA, USA Canada

Valentina Alessandria A.S. Barreto Università di Torino, Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária CIISA, Universidade de Lisboa, Alimentari, Turin, Italy Lisbon, Portugal

J. Anba-Mondoloni Lopa Basu INRA, UMR1319 Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas, France; AgroPArisTech, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA UMR Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas, France Elettra Berni Ana Andres DepartmentofMicrobiology,SSICA,Parma,Italy Institute of Food Engineering for Development, Food Science and Technology Department, Universitat Politècnica de València, Nicholas L Berry Valencia, Spain Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Diana Ansorena Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Physiology, University Sara Bover-Cid of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain IRTA Food Safety Programme, Institute for Food and Agricultural Research and Technology, Finca Camps i Armet, Monells, Spain Keizo Arihara School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada-shi, Elizabeth Boyle Aomori, Japan Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA M. Concepción Aristoy Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Patricia Castellano Paterna, Valencia, Spain Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA), CONICET, E. Arnaud Tucumán, Argentina UMR QUALISUD, CIRAD, France Marie-Christine Champomier-Vergès Iciar Astiasarán INRA, UMR1319 Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas, France; AgroPArisTech, Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Physiology, University UMR Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas, France of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain Ming-Ju Chen Lars Axelsson Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan Nofima, Ås, Norway University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

Teresa Aymerich Suey Ping Chi Institute for Food and Agricultural Research and Technology Department of Animal Products Processing, Livestock Research (IRTA), Food Safety Program, Monells, Spain Institute, Council of Agriculture, Hsinhua, Taiwan, Republic of China José M. Barat Food Science and Technology Department, Universitat Politècnica Souad Christieans de València, Valencia, Spain ADIV, Clermont-Ferrand Cedex, France

xvii xviii List of Contributors

Pier Sandro Cocconcelli Cecilia Fontana Istituto di Microbiologia, Centro Ricerche Biotecnologiche, Istituto di Microbiologia, Centro Ricerche Biotecnologiche, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza-Cremona, Italy Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza-Cremona, Italy

Luca Cocolin M.J. Fraqueza Università di Torino, Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária CIISA, Universidade de Lisboa, Alimentari, Turin, Italy Lisbon, Portugal

A. Collignan Reinhard Fries UMR QUALISUD, Institut des Régions Chaudes, Montpellier, Panel Veterinary Public Health, Institute of Meat Hygiene and France Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany Lorenzo de la Hoz Departamento de Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de los M.L. García Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Departamento Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de los Madrid, Madrid, Spain Alimentos, Facultad Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Madrid Daniel Demeyer Laboratory of Animal Production and Animal Product Quality, Margarita Garriga Department of Animal Production, Ghent University, Melle, Institute for Food and Agricultural Research and Technology Belgium (IRTA), Food Safety Program, Monells, Spain

L. De Vuyst T. Goudman Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Research Group of Industrial Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology (IMDO), Brussels, Belgium Microbiology and Food Biotechnology (IMDO), Brussels, Belgium

AnaM.Diez Raúl Grau Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, University of Food Science and Technology Department, Universitat Politècnica Burgos, Burgos, Spain de València, Valencia, Spain

Paola Dolci Dana J Hanson Università di Torino, Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Food, Bioprocessing & Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State Alimentari, Turin, Italy University, Raleigh, NC, USA

E. Dordet-Frisoni Torunn Thauland Håseth INRA, UR454 Microbiologie, Saint-Genès Champanelle, Animalia—the Norwegian Meat Research Centre, Oslo, Norway France Even Heir Mario Estévez Nofima, Ås, Norway Department of Food Technology, University of Extremadura, Extremadura, Spain Eva Hierro Departamento de Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de los Silvina Fadda Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA), CONICET, Madrid, Madrid, Spain Tucumán, Argentina Askild Holck Chris Fedler Nofima, Ås, Norway Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University,Ames,IA,USA Karl O. Honikel Max Rubner-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and Manuela Fernández Food, Kulmbach, Germany Departamento de Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Y.H. Hui Madrid, Madrid, Spain Science Technology System, West Sacramento, CA, USA

Mónica Flores Melvin C. Hunt Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State Paterna, Valencia, Spain University, Manhattan, KS, USA List of Contributors xix

TomC.Johannessen Herbert W. Ockerman Nofima, Ås, Norway Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Sisse Jongberg Alicia Olivares Food Chemistry, Department of Food Science, University of Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark Paterna, Valencia, Spain

M. Luz Latorre-Moratalla Juan A. Ordóñez Departament de Nutrició i Bromatologia, Campus de l’Alimentació Departamento de Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de los de Torribera, Universitat de Barcelona-INSA-Xarta, Santa Coloma Alimentos, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de de Gramenet, Spain Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Isabelle Lebert Emin Burçin Özvural INRA, UR454 Microbiologie, Saint-Genès Champanelle, France Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Çankırı Karatekin University, Çankırı, Turkey F. L eroy Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Research Group of Industrial Ronald B. Pegg Microbiology and Food Biotechnology (IMDO), Brussels, Belgium Department of Food Science & Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA Sabine Leroy INRA, UR454 Microbiologie, Saint-Genès Champanelle, Trinidad Pérez-Palacios France School of Veterinary Science, University of Extremadura, Caceres, Spain Friedrich-Karl Lücke Hochschule Fulda (University of Applied Sciences), Fulda, Esko Petäjä-Kanninen Germany Department of Food Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Robert Maddock Department of Animal & Range Sciences, North Dakota State Colin Pierre University, Fargo, ND, USA French Food Safety Agency, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France Beatriz Melero Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, University of S. Planchon Burgos, Burgos, Spain CTCPA, Site Agroparc, Avignon, France

W. B e n j y M i k e l Ken Prusa Department of Food Science, Nutrition, and Health Promotion, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, USA University, Ames, IA, USA

Byungrok Min Eero Puolanne Food Science and Technology Program, Department of Department of Food Technology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Agriculture, Food, and Resource Sciences, University of Maryland Finland EasternShore,PrincessAnne,MD,USA Kalliopi Rantsiou Jens K.S. Møller Università di Torino, Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Chr. Hansen A/S, Natural Colors Division, Hoersholm, Denmark Alimentari, Turin, Italy

David Morcuende Milagro Reig Department of Food Technology, University of Extremadura, InstitutodeIngenieríadeAlimentosparaelDesarrollo,Universitat Extremadura, Spain Politècnica de València, Ciudad Politécnica de la Innovación, Valencia, Spain Asgeir Nilsen Matforsk A/S, Ås, Norway Gregg Rentfrow Department of Animal and Food Science, University of Kentucky, George-John E. Nychas Lexington, KY, USA Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Foods, Department of Food Science & Human Nutrition, Agricultural Marit Rødbotten University of Athens, Athens, Greece Matforsk A/S, Ås, Norway xx List of Contributors

Pedro Roncalés Fidel Toldrá Department of Animal Production and Food Science, Laboratory Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), of Food Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Paterna, Valencia, Spain Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain Rung-Jen Tu Jordi Rovira Livestock Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, Executive Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, University of Yuan, Tainan, Taiwan, Republic of China Burgos, Burgos, Spain M. Teresa Veciana-Nogués Jorge Ruiz Departament de Nutrició i Bromatologia, Campus de l’Alimentació Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, de Torribera, Universitat de Barcelona-INSA-Xarta, Santa Coloma Copenhagen, Denmark de Gramenet, Spain

Robert E. Rust Jesús Ventanas Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Department of Food Technology, University of Extremadura, Extremadura, Spain S.J. Santchurn Department of Agricultural and Food Science, University of Sonia Ventanas Mauritius, Faculty of Agriculture, Réduit, Mauritius Department of Food Technology, University of Extremadura, Extremadura, Spain M. Wes Schilling Department of Animal and Food Science, University of Kentucky, M. Carmen Vidal-Carou Lexington, KY, USA Departament de Nutrició i Bromatologia, Campus de l’Alimentació de Torribera, Universitat de Barcelona-INSA-Xarta, Santa Coloma M.D. Selgas de Gramenet, Spain Departamento Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Facultad Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Graciela Vignolo Madrid Centro de Referencia para Lactobacilos (CERELA), CONICET, Tucumán, Argentina Maan Singh Sidhu The Research Council of Norway, Oslo, Norway Halil Vural Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Zdzisław E. Sikorski Hacettepe University, Ankara, Department of Food Chemistry, Technology, and Biotechnology, Turkey Gdansk´ University of Technology, Gdansk,´ Poland Sheng-Yao Wang Izabela Sinkiewicz Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan Department of Food Chemistry, Technology, and Biotechnology, University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China; Experimental Farm, Gdansk´ University of Technology, Gdansk,´ Poland National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China Panagiotis Skandamis Laboratory of Food Quality Control and Hygiene, Department of Yun Chu Wu Food Science & Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Tunghai Athens, Athens, Greece University, Taiwan, Republic of China Leif H. Skibsted Food Chemistry, Department of Food Science, University of Monique Zagorec Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark INRA, UMR 1014 Secalim, France; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Nantes, France Kenneth J Stalder Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, Gai-Ming Zhao USA College of Food Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University,Zhengzhou,RepublicofChina Régine Talon INRA, UR454 Microbiologie, Saint-Genès Champanelle, France Guang-Hong Zhou Key Laboratory of Meat Processing and Quality Control, MOA, Gudjon Thorkelsson College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland University,Nanjing,RepublicofChina Preface

Fermentedmeatproductshavebeenconsumedforcenturiesin chemical safety aspects, and, finally, Part XI is focused on sanitation manydifferentpartsoftheworldandconstituteoneofthemost and quality assurance. important types of food. Based on the natural meat microbiota, a This Handbook provides an updated and comprehensive overview wide range of products have been prepared since ancient times; of meat fermentation. It includes important developments that have differentproductsarecreatedbyvaryingthemixtureofmeatsand occurred in the last few decades, including the role of microorgan- salt and through the addition of spices and seasonings, giving rise isms naturally present in meat or added as starter cultures, important to a great variety of flavors and textures. Fermented meat products modern safety aspects, information regarding nutritional quality and are today receiving increased interest from consumers all over the sensory attributes, and the primary chemical, biochemical, physi- world, who are seeking new gustatory experiences. Most of these cal, and microbiological changes that occur during processing and a products still rely primarily on local, traditional manufacturing summary of how they influence the final product quality. It also pro- processes, since little scientific information is available on their vides a detailed description of the major fermented meat products creation, but scientific knowledge has become an important tool for found around the world and the processing technologies currently consistent production of high-quality and safe products. applied in meat processing plants. The first edition of this book dates from 2007 and contains topics This book is the result of the expertise of more than 90 interna- spread across 50 chapters. New developments have evolved very tional contributors from 18 different countries. These experts from rapidly in recent years and this new second edition contains 54 industry, government, and academia have been led by an editorial chapters: both updated and revised versions of the old ones and team of 5 members from 4 different countries. The editorial team new chapters on low-sodium meats, probiotics, and methodologies wishestothankallthecontributorsformakingthisbookpossible for the study of microbial ecology, as well as expanded detail on and remember those who sadly passed away either before or during drying and smoking techniques. These are grouped into 11 parts. the preparation of this book: Esko Petäjä-Kanninen, Lorenzo de Part I deals with general aspects such as curing, fermentation, la Hoz, and especially Karl O Honikel, a very good friend and drying, and smoking. Part II describes the main characteristics and excellent meat scientist. We also thank the production team at Wiley uses of raw materials and ingredients. Part III is focused on the Blackwell, giving special recognition to David McDade, Senior microbiology involved in meat fermentation and describes the most Commissioning Editor and the coordinator of the project, and commonly applied starter cultures and methodologies for the study Fiona Seymour, Senior Project Editor. of microbial ecology. Part IV looks into the sensory properties of We sincerely hope that you will find this book enlightening and fermented meat products, while Part V examines their composition that it provides you with a better understanding of fermented meat and nutritional quality, as well as low-sodium meat products, and poultry products. packaging, and international standards. Parts VI and VII cover the manufacture and characteristics of semidry-fermented and Fidel Toldrá dry-fermented sausages, respectively. Fermented poultry sausages Y.H. Hui and other fermented meats are described in Part VIII, while Part Iciar Astiasarán IXlooksatthemanufactureandcharacteristicsofripenedmeat Joseph G. Sebranek products, especially dry-cured hams. Part X covers biological and RTalon

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PART I Meat Fermentation Worldwide: Overview, Production, and Principles

Dry-Fermented Sausages and 1 Ripened Meats: An Overview

Fidel Toldrá1 and Y.H. Hui2 1Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (CSIC), Paterna, Valencia, Spain 2Science Technology System, West Sacramento, CA, USA

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fermented sausages and ripened meats around the world Drying and smoking were probably the first food-preservation techniques to be developed, in ancient Greece and Rome (Zeuthen, 1.2.1 North America 2007). In fact, the names “sausage” and “salami” probably originate Manufacturing practices were brought to North America by the first from the Latin words “salsiccia”and“salumen,” respectively (Toldrá, European settlers. Today, many European fermented sausages can be 2012). Historically, the manufacturing procedures used to make found in northern states such as Wisconsin (Toldrá & Reig, 2007). fermented sausages were adapted to the climatic conditions of the Lebanon bologna is a semidry-fermented sausage originating from production area. For instance, Mediterranean meat products are Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. It is produced from beef and black dried to low water activity (aw) values, taking advantage of the long pepper, fermented to a very high pH, and heavily smoked (Rust, dry and sunny days, while in Northern Europe fermented sausages 2004). Pepperoni is produced from pork and/or beef and seasoned require smoking for further preservation (Toldrá, 2006, 2014a). with red pepper, ground cayenne pepper, pimento, aniseed, and Summer sausage is traditionally produced in the summer and is garlic.Ithasasmalldiameterandissmoked. heated for safety reasons (Zeuthen, 1995). Preservation results from a series of specific factors known as 1.2.2 South and Central America “hurdle effects” (Leistner, 1992): There is a general Spanish and Italian influence on fermented meat • addition of nitrite, salt, and/or sugar; products in many Latin America countries. Italian milano and • reduction of redox potential; cacciaturi are consumed in Uruguay, Brazil, and Mexico, among • introductionoflacticacidbacteria(LAB); other places. In the Andes, traditional fermented sausages are made •loweringofpH; from llama meat and guanaco. •decreasingofaw; •smoking. 1.2.3 The Mediterranean The sausage remains stable throughout this sequence of hurdles Many types of dry-fermented sausage are produced in the Mediter- (Leistner, 1995). ranean area. They are usually dried, due to the climate, and are LAB play important roles in safety, nutrition, and sensory quality rarely smoked. They have a variety of diameters, shapes, sizes, spices, (Toldrá et al., 2001), and develop important reactions essential to seasonings, and sensory characteristics. Their names differ accord- the development of adequate color, texture, and flavor (Demeyer & ing to the geographic origin, sometimes even between very close Toldrá, 2004). Details can be found in Parts II and III of this book. areas (Toldrá, 2006). Pork is the main meat, and fungi starters may Thischapterlistssomeofthemostimportantfermentedsausages be used for development on the external surface (Talon et al., 2004). produced worldwide. Further details of sausages and ripened meat Salamis of medium diameter (around 6 cm) include French menage, products from North America, the Mediterranean, and Northern French saucisson d’Alsace, Italian turista, and Spanish salchichón, Europe and Asia can be found in Parts VI, VII, VIII, and IX. Space while those of larger diameter include French varzi, Italian milano, limitationprohibitsanin-depthdiscussionoffermentedsausages and Italian crespone; the latter may be ripened for more than 60 days from other parts of the world; the interested reader can refer to the (Toldrá & Flores, 2014). Coppa is an Italian salami with cylindrical references for further information. shape. It is made from pork shoulder butt salted for 7–10 days

3 4 Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry and dried for 2–4 weeks. Spanish chorizo, which has a strong red & Abd-Allach, 2004). Soudjouk sausages, using only beef, buffalo, color, is seasoned with garlic, pepper, and oregano (Toldrá, 2002). and/or mutton and fat-tailed sheep, are produced in Turkey (Gökalp Mortadella bologna is produced from pork meat and fat, and the & Ockerman, 1985). They may be heavily seasoned by garlic, red and final sausage is thermally treated to an internal temperature of 68 ∘C black pepper, cumin, pimento, and olive oil. (Toldrá, 2014a). Pastırma is extensively consumed in Turkey and North African Dry-curedhamisextensivelyconsumedinMediterraneancoun- countries. It is a dry-cured whole-meat product produced by cur- tries. It is a dry-cured whole-meat product produced by curing, salting, pressing, and drying. Up to 21 different types can be found, ing, drying, and ripening for as long as 24, or sometimes even 36, depending on what part of the animal (usually water buffalo or beef) months (Toldrá, 2014b). It receives different names according to the is used (Yalinkiliç et al., 2014). It is usually covered with a layer pre- region, such as serrano or ibérico in Spain, prosciutto di Parma or pared from water, garlic, red pepper, paprika, and flour from the San Danielle in Italy, Bayonne in France, and Ardennes in Belgium seed of Trigonella foenum-graecum (Ceylan & Aksu, 2011). Pastırma (Toldrá, 2014a). production typically occurs in October/November, a period called “pastırma yazı” (“summer of pastırma”). 1.2.4 Northern Europe A good number of fermented meats are produced in Northern 1.2.7 Africa Europe. The greuβner salami is produced in Thuringia, Germany. It Biltong is a typical South African meat product. It is produced from is a sliceable sausage produced from beef and some pork, as well as youngandleancarcassesofeithercattleorgame,especiallyfrom fat, and flavored with garlic, pepper, and other spices. It undergoes a the round, loin, and tenderloin. The meat is ripened and dried until long-term fermentation process and cold smoking. The rügenwalder losses exceed 50%. Salt, sugar, pepper, and roasted ground are added. teewurst is a semidry-fermented sausage, also produced from beef Vinegar and saltpeter can also be used (Strydom, 2004). and pork, which is fermented and cold-smoked (Gibis & Fischer, Other typical fermented and sun-dried products are summarized 2004). The Austrian katwurst is a long, dried sausage. The Swedish by Campbell-Platt (1995). Most are produced in north-eastern metwursk contains some potato, in addition to spices and season- Africa. Miriss and mussran are made from the fat surrounding a ings. Other meats can be added to the formulation of sausages in lamb’s stomach and small intestine, respectively. Similar products Scandinavian countries, such as horse meat in farepolse, toppen, include twini-digla and um-tibay. Beirta is made in Sudan from trondermorr, stabbur, and sognekorr in Norway and kotimainen goat meat and offal, kaidu-digla is made from chopped bones, and meetwurst in Finland; lamb meat in lambaspaeipylsa in Iceland; and dodery, mulaa el-sebit, and aki-el-muluk are made from crushed reindeer meat in poro meetwurst in Finland and rallersnabb gilde bones, marrow, and fat. in Norway (Campbell-Platt, 1995). Several fermented sausages are produced in Poland, mainly from 1.2.8 East Asia pork, but also beef, game, and poultry (Pisula, 2004). Krakowscha Most of the information in this chapter on fermented sausages sucha is produced from pork and beef, plus black pepper, nutmeg, from East Asian countries is derived from recipe books in both and garlic. It is dry-cured, smoked, cooked, and dried for about 3 Chinese and English. The English references include: Aidells & weeks. Kabanosy is produced from pork and black pepper, nutmeg, Bruce (2000), Campbell-Platt (1995), Inglis et al. (1998), Leistner and caraway. It is smoked and dried for 3–5 days. Jalowcowa is (1995), Rogers (2003), Solomon (2002), and Trang (2006). Although produced from pork and a little beef, plus pepper and juniper. It is their descriptions here do not detail the fermentation stage, most dry-cured, smoked, cooked, and dried for 3–5 days (Pisula, 2004). East Asian sausages require short or long-term fermentation during the manufacturing processes. 1.2.5 Eastern Europe India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, and various other countries The Hungarian salami is a good example of a typical salami. do not have specialty fermented sausages, although ethnic groups It is intensively smoked and then its surface is inoculated with within these countries have their own ethnic heritage sausages, such mold starters or spontaneous mold growth (Incze, 2004). It is as the Chinese, the Thais, and so on. European-style sausages are seasoned with white pepper, garlic, red wine, and paprika. Similar now produced in Japan and India. sausages include winter salami, also produced in Hungary, and hermannstädler, produced in Romania (Roca & Incze, 1990). 1.2.8.1 Chinese sausages Russian salami and Moscow salami are produced in Russia from “Lap cheong” (la chang) is a general term for Chinese sausages, but pork, and sometimes some beef. itcanalsobeusedtodescribeChineseporksausages.Literally,it means winter (lap)intestines(cheong), which can be interpreted as 1.2.6 The Middle East “intestines stuffed in the winter.” Traditionally lap cheong is made Fermented sausages are produced from many different animals (beef, in the winter months to take advantage of the lower temperatures, buffalo, mutton, lamb, goat, camel, and horse) in Middle Eastern which reduce the chance of spoilage during curing after the sausages countries. Pork meat is not used, because of religious prohibition. are stuffed. The ingredients vary from place to place, but essentially Sausages,whichcancontainrice,wheat,corn,andriceflour,are they are cut-up pork and pork fat (today ground pork and fat), cured and smoked. Different flavors are imparted by the addition of sugar, and salt, plus optional ingredients such as soy sauce, alcoholic olive oil, garlic, cinnamon, onion, paprika, black pepper, rosemary, beverages, spices, and others. The amount of pork fat used also andsoon.Fermentedandstronglysmokedbeefsausageswerefirst varies, with regular and low-fat types of lap cheong more common produced in Lebanon and then spread to other countries (El-Magoli nowadays. Traditionally, when the intestines or casings are stuffed 1 Dry-Fermented Sausages and Ripened Meats: An Overview 5 at the beginning of the winter season, they are hung by a string in Nham (Thai fermented sausage) a ventilated area to gradually dry the ingredients and the surface, Nham is made similarly to north-eastern Thai sour sausage, except andtoproducethetypicalflavor(odor,color,andtexture).With thatchiliandporkskinarealsoadded,andthemixtureispackedin the decrease in aw and moisture content, the product hardens and bamboo leaf or plastic film. After keeping (fermenting) for 3–4 days can be kept edible (after cooking) for the winter and spring months. at room temperature, the sausage is ready for cooking and consump- It is not uncommon to see mold and yeast development on the tion. Currently, some manufacturers apply irradiation treatment to surfaceofthedriedproductwhentherelativehumidityishigh. kill parasites and ensure safety. In order to extend the self-life, some people store a small amount of the dried product in oil in a sealed container in a cool place. Goon Chiang This can keep the product available for the summer and even the Goon chiang is made by first marinating the pork with nitrite at autumn months. For several decades, industrial production of refrigerating temperature for 24 hours, and then grinding and mix- lap cheong has involved curing or drying of the green sausage in ing it with sugar and erythrobate and stuffing it into pork casing. It is ∘ temperature- and humidity-controlled dryers, in order to speed up dried at 60 C to appropriate dryness. This sausage requires cooking theprocess.Theproductisnowpackedinvacuum-sealedpouches before consumption. anditisrecommendedthesebestoredinrefrigeratorsinorderto maintain quality year-round. However, the traditional procedure is 1.2.8.4 Filipino sausage still practiced in rural areas of China. Longamisa Longamisa is a sweet–sour sausage made rurally using lean pork, Aap gon cheong pork fat, white vinegar, soy sauce, and sugar. After stuffing, it can be Aap (duck) gon (liver) cheong (sausage) is a specialty Cantonese smoked or cooked fresh. product made in a similar manner to lap cheong, but with cut-up duck liver replacing the pork. The amount produced is small due 1.2.8.5 Korean sausages to the low availability of duck liver. Traditionally, soy sauce is one Sundae of the main ingredients in the making of duck-liver sausage, and it ThisKoreanstuffedsausageispopularlysoldbystreetvendors.It contributes to the special flavor. is made with pig’s blood, rice, green onions, garlic, minced pork, and sweet-potato vermicelli, all stuffed into small and large pig’s Gam ngan cheong intestines. It is steamed before consumption. Gam (gold) ngan (silver) cheong (sausage) is a very special Can- Soonday tonese product that is made without a casing. A chunk of pork fat Soonday is also popularly sold at public markets. The stuffing con- iscutintoawedgeshapeandwrappedwiththinslicesofporkliver sists of firmly cooked rice, crushed garlic and cloves, crushed fresh that have been marinated with salt and sugar. The gam ngan cheong ginger, black or white pepper, Korean sesame oil, crushed sesame is then dried naturally in the same way lap cheong is cured. Because seeds, crushed scallions, and either beef or pork blood. The mixture of concerns over cholesterol and fat intakes, this product has become is stuffed into small beef intestines. The sausages are cooked in water less popular recently. before consumption. Chicken-liver sausage, with or without pig liver 1.2.8.6 Nepalese sausages This is a modification of aap gon cheong, with chicken and/or pig Nepalese sausage is similar to German sausage except that chicken is liver replacing the duck liver. used as the main meat ingredient. 1.2.8.2 Singaporean sausages 1.2.8.7 Sri Lankan sausages Singaporean sausages are similar to Chinese sausages. This is under- Sri Lankan sausage is made with lean pork, pork fat, toasted and standable as the majority of the population in Singapore is of Chinese ground coriander seeds, ground cinnamon, ground cloves, ground ethnic origin. They include special-grade (reduced-fat) pork sausage, black pepper, finely grated nutmeg, salt, and vinegar. After stuffing, chicken sausage, and pig-liver sausage. it is cold smoked at temperature not higher than 30 ∘Cforafew hours, to appropriate dryness. It requires proper cooking before 1.2.8.3 Thai sausages consumption. Saiua(adriednorthernThaisausage) SaiuaismadebystuffingporkwithThaicurrypaste(onion,galangal, 1.2.9 The Paciﬁc Rim lemongrass,parsley’sroot,curcuma,chili,andsaltmashedinshrimp Pepperoni is produced in Australia. Vento salami, made from paste) into a pork casing. It is dried and roasted before consumption. beef with peppercorns and red wine, is also produced there (Campbell-Platt, 1995). North-eastern sour Thai-style sausage North-easternsourThaisausageismadewithgroundpork,cooked rice, nitrite, erythorbate, pepper, salt, and sugar. After the mixture is 1.3 The importance of fermented sausages stuffed into a pork casing, it is kept at room temperature for about 24 hours to allow lactic acid fermentation. The sour sausage requires Fermented sausages are very popular with most population thorough cooking (such as roasting or frying) before consumption. groups that consume meat. 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