Western Energy Corrid r Western Energy Corridor

Executive Summary

he energy resources con- In 2009, WEC oil production was Coal production within the WEC Significant quantities of uranium centrated along the Rocky approximately 2.3 million barrels was approximately 620 million found in the WEC supply a number Mountains and northern per day, with continued produc- short tons (~560 million metric of nuclear power plants interna- Tplains in Canada and the United tion growth anticipated from the tons) with approximately 15 billion tionally. Saskatchewan currently States (U.S.) are world class, Alberta oil sands and the Bakken short tons (14 billion metric tons) dominates uranium production and as measured by their diversity, Formation. Proven reserves, domi- in recoverable reserves from active hosts the largest uranium mine in magnitude, and longevity. This nated by Alberta oil sands, cur- mines in 2009. WEC coal supplies the world. The province contrib- area, informally referred to as rently place the region third in the much of the electricity produc- uted 18% of world production in the Western Energy Corridor world with approximately 170 bil- tion for Canada and the U.S., and 2009, and is complemented by lion barrels. Undeveloped potential the WEC hosts the largest coal- (WEC), is strategic to meeting growing production south of the oil resources within the WEC are producing area (the Powder River U.S.-Canada border. the increasing energy demand in estimated at over 4 trillion barrels Basin) in Canada and the U.S. Canada, the U.S., and interna- (in-place). This includes oil shale Although large amounts of WEC tionally. These energy resources, reserves in the Green River Forma- The WEC also contains several raw energy resources are exported, collectively, also provide a tion that spans parts of Wyoming, large river systems, which host these resources also contribute to foundation for regional economic Colorado, and Utah. a number of hydropower dams local electricity and transportation development, including a plat- within and outside the WEC. Brit- fuel production. In 2009, electric- form for moving the region’s en- Natural gas production in the WEC ish Columbia alone produced over ity generation within the WEC was ergy products up the value chain. was approximately 10.5 trillion cu- 62 GWh of hydropower in 2009. over 370 million MWh. Of this, To provide a foundation and bic feet (297 billion cubic meters) Significant electrical generation more than 70% came from fossil stimulus for a bi-national regional in 2009, which places the WEC potential remains untapped, espe- energy plants (primarily coal and dialogue, Idaho National Labora- third in natural gas production cially in the north. natural gas), approximately 24% tory (INL) created this document worldwide. Although conventional from hydropower, and approximate- with input from representatives of gas production is declining, new Other renewable energy resources, ly 4% from other renewables with participating states and provinces. techniques and technological ad- such as some of the greatest wind no contribution from nuclear energy. Further data was gathered from vances have enabled development and bioenergy potential in Canada reliable internet and print sources of unconventional gas resources and the U.S., are available, but Transportation fuels production and compiled to provide an over- within the area (i.e., shale gas, remain mostly untapped in the in the WEC is primarily from oil view of energy resources within tight gas, and coal bed methane), WEC. Efforts are underway to refining, with small amounts of the WEC. increasing overall natural gas also develop geothermal and solar biofuels (i.e., biodiesel and etha- production. potential within the region. nol). Plans are underway to build Western Energy Corridor

Executive Summary

coal-to-liquids (CTL) and liquid wildlife, and climate change. In ad- WEC states and provinces are criti- natural gas (LNG) plants. dition, energy resources are critical cal players in supplying the U.S. for developing other natural re- and Canada with energy resources Energy delivery infrastructure is sources in the region such as water, this century and beyond. Given rapidly expanding. Oil and gas minerals, agricultural, and fertil- the importance of these resources pipelines are both planned and izer. Also, technological innovation there is an unprecedented opportu- built to provide access from newly continues to play a pivotal role in nity for these states and provinces developed fields such as the Bak- accessing energy resources and ken Formation to both traditional mitigating environmental impacts. The Western Energy Corridor contains a world-class and nontraditional markets, includ- And energy demand and invest- ing Asia. There are also plans to ment from Asia will continue to concentration of energy resources critical to ensuring expand CO pipelines to enhance impact markets around the world. 2 regional, U.S., Canadian, and international energy security oil recovery and CO2 sequestration. New transmission lines are being The outlook for the WEC’s eco- and economic development. The states and provinces planned and built to access and nomic prosperity is both timely integrate more remote renewable and promising. Vast natural within the Corridor have an unprecedented opportunity energy sources, such as wind. Rail resources, strong commitment expansion continues to be essen- to economic development and a to collaborate with each other relative to challenges and tial to coal development. New rail pledge to maintain quality of life lines could also support delivery place the WEC in a unique posi- opportunities associated with developing these resources. of biomass feedstock as well as tion to capitalize on its riches and product from the Alberta oil sands become an international leader to collaborate and more effectively and the Bakken Formation to new in energy resource development. address pertinent energy chal- markets. Realizing the potential for devel- lenges and opportunities including opment, distribution, and utiliza- policy, regulation, technology de- Sustainable energy development tion of the WEC’s energy resources ployment, and regional economic within the WEC relies on a num- will present both opportunities and development. Such an approach ber of interdependent factors. For challenges that will require more may be advantageous to these low- example, energy development sophisticated and regionally inte- population jurisdictions given their increasingly requires mitigating grated approaches, enabling policy, sometimes limited political influ- impacts on air, water, landscape, and continued investment. ence at the national level. Western Energy Corridor

Contents

Contents Electricity Power Generation . 22 Energy-Resource Nexus . . . 38 Acronyms ...... 1 Coal-Fired Electric Power Agriculture ...... 38 Generation ...... 23 Introduction ...... 2 Fertilizer Production . . . .38 Natural Gas ...... 24 Fossil Energy Resources . . . .4 Water Resources . . . . . 39 Renewable Energy . . . . 24 Crude Oil ...... 4 Fossil Energy Development . 39 Nuclear Energy ...... 25 Conventional Crude Oil . .5 Influences on WEC Energy Liquid Fuels Production . . . 26 Development ...... 40 Unconventional Oil Resources ...... 5 Petroleum Refineries and Demand ...... 40 Upgraders ...... 26 Natural Gas ...... 6 Energy Supply ...... 40 Liquid Natural Gas Energy & Environment . . 41 Conventional Natural Facilities ...... 26 Gas ...... 7 Existing and Emerging Coal-to-Liquids . . . . . 27 Unconventional Export Markets ...... 41 Biofuels ...... 27 Natural Gas ...... 7 Price ...... 41 WEC Energy Delivery . . . .28 Coal ...... 9 Investment ...... 41 Electricity Transmission . . 28 Renewable Energy Resources . 12 Infrastructure ...... 42 Natural Gas Pipelines . . . 29 Hydropower ...... 12 Technological Innovation . .42 Oil Pipelines ...... 31 Wind ...... 13 Research Assets ...... 42 CO Pipelines ...... 32 Solar ...... 15 2 Summary ...... 44 Rail ...... 34 Biomass ...... 16 Appendix A—References . . .48 Energy and Environment . . .36 Geothermal ...... 17 Appendix B—Tables . . . . .57 Air ...... 36 Tidal/Ocean Energy . . . .19 Glossary ...... 73 Uranium Resources . . . . . 20 Water ...... 36 Landscapes and Wildlife . .37 Climate Change . . . . . 37 Western Energy Corridor

Acronyms

AECO Alberta Energy Company CSUG Canadian Society for IPPBC Independent Power SAGD steam-assisted gravity (trading symbol) Unconventional Gas Producers of British drainage ARRA American Recovery and CTL coal-to-liquids Columbia TCF trillion cubic feet Reinvestment Act DOE Department of Energy U308 triuranium octoxide 2 ATR Advanced Test Reactor EEI Edison Electric Institute kWh/m kilowatt-hours per square UHOP Utah Heavy Oil Program meter bbl/d barrels per day EIA Energy Information USGS United States Geological BCF billion cubic feet Administration Survey BCFD billion cubic feet per day EOR enhanced oil recovery MMCFD million cubic feet per WCI Western Climate day BDt/yr bone dry metric tonnes EPA Environmental Initiative per year Protection Agency MMst million short tons WEC Western Energy Corridor BOE barrel of oil equivalent EPAct Energy Policy Act MRO Midwest Reliability WECC Western Electricity Organization BP British Petroleum FERC Federal Energy Coordinating Council MW megawatt Bst billion short tons Regulatory Commission WGA Western Governors’ MWh megawatt-hour Association CAPP Canadian Association of GIS geographic information Petroleum Producers system NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation CBM coal bed methane GW gigawatt NETL National Energy CCEI Canadian Center for GWh gigawatt-hour Technology Laboratory Energy Information IEA International Energy NPP nuclear power plant CCS carbon capture and Agency sequestration NYMEX New York Mercantile Exchange (trade symbol) CEA Canadian Electricity combined cycle Association IJHD International Journal of R&D research and development CHA Canadian Hydropower Hydropower and Dams Association INL Idaho National Testing Center CO carbon dioxide Laboratory 2 RPS renewable portfolio CPV concentrator photovoltaic IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change standard

1 Western Energy Corridor

Introduction

orld-class energy As world energy demand increases resources strategic in the 21st century, the U.S., to North American Canada, and likely Asia will be- Wenergy security and economic come more dependent upon WEC development are concentrated resources. Development, distribu- along the Rocky Mountains and tion, and utilization of these re- northern plains in Canada and gional resources will present both the U.S. This region is informally opportunities and challenges that referred to as the Western Energy will require more sophisticated and integrated approaches. Strategic Corridor [WEC; Figure 1]. The energy development and steward- fossil energy resources in this ship will be required to ensure region are rivaled in only two energy security, regional economic other regions, and the proven development, and quality of life uranium reserves are among throughout the region. In addition, the world’s largest. Renewable the enormous quantity of energy resources including wind power, resources in the region provides hydropower, bioenergy, geother- a foundation for attracting value- mal energy, and solar energy are added industrial enterprises. also concentrated in this region. Substantial existing and planned The states and provinces hosting energy infrastructure, including these resources can build a greater, refineries, pipelines, electrical more prosperous and sustainable transmission lines, and rail lines future based on their supplies. To provide access to these resources stimulate a bi-national regional and facilitate their development. dialogue on the current and future

Figure 1. Approximate boundary of the WEC and outline of participating provinces and states. [M1]

2 Western Energy Corridor

Introduction

use of these resources, Governor strategy with common goals and provinces, and even Canadian ter- Brian Schweitzer of Montana and policies that promote a balance ritories can potentially be added in Premier Brad Wall of Saskatche- between environmentally-sound the future, which would increase wan solicited interest from several development, energy security, and to the collective energy resource regional governors and premiers to a competitive industrial base. This wealth of the WEC. engage further on this topic. This document provides a foundation group subsequently determined and framework for governors and Finally, the energy sector mar- that it requires additional informa- premiers to focus their dialogue on ketplace is dynamic, meaning tion about the regional resources leveraging each other’s resources information can quickly become to foster a productive dialogue. and capabilities within the bi-na- obsolete and need to be updated as To address this need, Gov. Sch- tional WEC region. research and dialogues progress. weitzer, on behalf of a number of incumbent governors and pre- miers, requested that INL prepare Strategic energy development and resource stewardship are a inventory of energy resources within the WEC. paramount to ensure energy security, regional economic development, and quality of life throughout the region. With the assistance of representa- tives from participating states and provinces, INL prepared this docu- The WEC’s boundary, as currently This document provides the latest ment highlighting general energy outlined for this discussion, is available information at the time resource information, conversion approximate, designed to encour- the research was done, which has methods into marketable forms, age dialogue built around a novel been extracted from public sources and infrastructure required to geographic perspective, and should with references provided. Maps deliver it to users. A select num- be considered preliminary. This included in the document typically ber of affiliated topics have been document focuses on addressing represent compilations of maps included to facilitate the dialogue the following states and provinces: produced at various levels of detail around interdependent aspects of Alberta, British Columbia, Colora- and should be considered qualita- developing these resources. These do, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, tive graphical overviews. topics, whether technical, social, Saskatchewan, South Dakota, or economic, must rely on a sound Utah, and Wyoming. Other states,

3 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

ubstantial crude oil, natu- Crude Oil ral gas, and coal resources exist throughout the WEC. Conventional and unconventional SCrude oil contributes substantial- oil reservoirs exist throughout the WEC [Figure 2]. Combined ly to U.S. and Canadian transpor- proven reserves of both conven- tation needs, while natural gas tional and unconventional oil are and coal contribute substantially estimated to be 175 billion barrels, to electricity production. Both dominated by Alberta oil sands at conventional and unconventional approximately 170 billion barrels WEC oil and gas resources are and the province’s conventional discussed below. Oil and gas that crude reserves of approximately can be recovered through meth- 1.4 billion barrels [1]. This estimate ods in use for decades are con- places Alberta’s reserves (and thus sidered “conventional” resources. the WEC) third behind Venezuela However, fossil resources that (211 billion barrels) and Saudi Ara- require recently developed and bia (267 billion barrels) in proven innovative recovery technologies oil reserves [2; Figure 3]. Proven are deemed “unconventional” reserves provide a conservative resources. As the “easier-to-get” estimate of the amount of oil (or conventional resources are de- gas) that will be produced. Cur- pleted, unconventional resources rent overall crude oil production will make up a greater proportion from the region is approximately of the oil and gas portfolio in the 2.3 million barrels per day, 36% of WEC. which comes from conventional sources and 64% from the Alberta oil sands [Table 1].

Figure 2. WEC crude oil reservoirs. [M2]

4 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

300 tion, the Cardium Formation in development of this resource is still 267 Alberta is generating significant in its infancy. As a result, reserve 250 211 interest given the potential to apply estimates for the Grosmont Deposit 200 175 fracturing stimulation techniques, have not been released because similar to those employed in the there are no commercial projects 150 Bakken, which may dramati- operating in the area. In 2009, total

Billion bbl of Oil 100 cally increase oil recovery in these bitumen production in Alberta was fields. There are also emerging approximately 1.5 million barrels 50 opportunities within the Viking per day [7]. Utah’s in-place bitu- 0 Formation in Alberta and Shauna- men reserves are between 12 and Saudi Arabia Venezuela WEC von Formation in Saskatchewan. 19 billion barrels [8]. Figure 3. Unconventional Oil Resources Conventional and unconventional proven crude oil resources. Oil Sands In Place: 1,800 B bbl Ultimate Recoverable: 315 B bbl An “oil boom” has recently Conventional Crude Oil In 2009, proven bitumen oil sands Proven: 170 B bbl emerged around development of reserves within the WEC were Some of the larger conventional the Bakken Formation, which approximately 170 billion barrels. oil reserves are located in Alberta, encompasses portions of Montana, Ultimate recoverable reserve esti- Saskatchewan, and North Dakota North Dakota, and Saskatchewan. mates for this Alberta resource are [Table 2]. Collectively, the WEC The Bakken Formation’s estimated as high as 315 billion barrels. Esti- is estimated to contain proven re- proven reserves are between 3.1 mates of Alberta’s in-place resource serves of approximately 5.4 billion billion barrels (95% probability of are about 1.8 trillion barrels of bitu- barrels as of 2009 (excludes oil recovery) and 4.3 billion barrels men [Figure 4]. It is estimated that sands), which accounts for about (5% probability) [3]. In the fall of the Grosmont Carbonate Deposit 21% of total Canada/U.S. conven- 2011, the U.S. Geological Survey contains approximately 406 billion tional reserves. Production of con- will initiate a new assessment of barrels of bitumen resource in place ventional crude oil within the WEC the recoverable oil in the Bakken and is the second largest bitumen- is just under 1.3 million barrels per Formation [4]. In 2010, from North bearing formation in Alberta [6]. day, based on 2009 data, which is Dakota alone, production averaged Technologies and techniques to Figure 4. about 35% of total U.S./Canadian nearly 310,000 barrels per day [5]. recover bitumen from carbonates Alberta’s unconventional oil production in 2009 [Table 1]. In addition to the Bakken Forma- are not finalized, and commercial reserves from oil sands.

5 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

Oil Shale room-and-pillar mining)yields a behind a much heavier crude oil tional production and declining Oil shale is another immense recoverable resource estimate of [11]. Heavy/extra heavy oils have onshore conventional production in yet relatively undeveloped WEC 1.58 trillion barrels of oil, which higher densities and viscosities the U.S. through 2035 [Figure 3]. resource. Approximately 70% of is close to the 1.82 trillion barrels than light oil, but their densities Shale gas will be the largest con- the world’s oil shale is found in the suggested by the Department of and viscosities are lower than those tributor to the projected increase Green River Formation in Colo- Energy [10]. Estimates of recover- of bitumen. Approximately 1.25 in gas production. Tight gas and rado, Utah, and Wyoming—nearly able oil shale resource are 17-33% billion barrels are found in the U.S. CBM will contribute significant 3.15 trillion barrels in place [Table greater than current estimates of portion of the WEC, primarily in fractions to the projected total [12; 3; Figure 5]. Oil shale deposits also world-wide proven conventional Wyoming. Alberta and Saskatch- Figure 6]. exist in Saskatchewan and British oil resources. ewan have significant resources of Columbia. However, these deposits heavy oil, primarily in their car- Total reserves of conventional are not well characterized and are Heavy Oil bonate formations; Wyoming and and unconventional natural gas in considered small relative to the Heavy and extra heavy oils are un- the rest of the WEC have relatively the WEC are at least 680 trillion Green River Formation resource. conventional sources that have lost minor amounts. The WEC’s total cubic feet (TCF), primarily as tight their lighter oil fractions, leaving heavy oil reserves are estimated at gas and coal bed methane. This is Oil shale is rock containing 550 billion barrels [Table 4]. equivalent to more than 64 years of relatively high amounts of organic production, based on current pro- matter known as kerogen. When Natural Gas duction rates. Alberta, Wyoming, kerogen is heated, it can be con- and Colorado rank first through The WEC contains abundant verted to petroleum products that third in the WEC. Almost 98% WEC conventional natural gas resources can be upgraded and refined. The of Canada’s proven conventional 3,100 (70%) including more than 38% of the oil shale may be treated in place natural gas is located within the combined remaining reserves of (in-situ retort) or in a surface facil- WEC [Table 5]. Canada and the U.S. [Table 5]. In ity (ex-situ retort). Not all of this addition, the WEC has vast uncon- resource, however, is recoverable. Rest of World ventional gas resources including Estimates of the recoverable frac- 1,300 (30%) coalbed methane (CBM), shale tion range from 45-80% for mining gas, and tight gas. The relative im- operations. There are currently no portance of these reserves is clearly such estimates for in-situ methods Figure 5. illustrated by the U.S. Energy In- [9]. Assuming a recoverable factor In-place oil reserves from shale formation Administration’s (EIA’s) of 50% (near the lower end for (billion bbl of oil). estimates for increased unconven-

6 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

WEC natural gas production esti- make up almost two thirds of the In 2009, 57.4 billion cubic feet per the next 25 years due to enormous mated in 2009 was approximately WEC’s production, which ranks day (BCFD), or 85%, of natural North American quantities. 10.5 TCF per year, which is ap- third behind Russia and the U.S. gas consumed in the U.S. came proximately one third of the com- [Table 6]. from domestic sources. More than Coalbed Methane bined U.S. and Canadian produc- 10% came from Canada, and about Nearly 63% of the U.S. and Cana- tion, and almost 8% of the world 5% came from international sourc- da’s total CBM reserves are located production. Alberta and Wyoming es in the form of liquefied natural in the WEC. Approximately 44% gas. Nearly 59% of Canada’s of established U.S. reserves are production is exported to the U.S., located in Colorado and Wyoming, Natural gas production in the WEC is approximately 10.5 with Alberta alone exporting over while 64% of established Cana- TCF per year, which places it third behind Russia and the 71% of that (approximately 1.85 TCF) in 2009 [13]. Figure 8 shows

U.S. in world ranking the locations of these reserves. Colorado and Wyoming 54% British Columbia and Alberta 46% History 2009 Projections Conventional Natural Gas 30 Rest of WEC 10% Established conventional natural 25 gas reserves in the WEC exceed Total 127 TCF — nearly 40% of the re- Total 20 Shale gas maining established reserve totals 60 TCF for Canada and the U.S. [Table 5; 15 Figure 7]. 13 TCF Tight gas Trillion cubic [TCF] feet Trillion 10 Unconventional Natural Gas 57 TCF

Lower 48 onshore conventional 5 The growing amount of accessible Alaska Lower 48 o shore unconventional gas resources will Coalbed methane 0 increase natural gas production in 1990 2000 2009 2015 2025 2035 both the WEC and the rest of North America. Shale gas is expected to Figure 7. Figure 6. be the most significant contribu- Established (conventional) U.S. natural gas production by source, 1990–2035. [12] tor to domestic production during reserves: 127 TCF.

7 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

dian reserves are found in Alberta North Dakota have proven reserves and British Columbia [Table 7]. of 510 BCF. This value is less than Production of CBM in the WEC is 1% of the U.S. proven reserve of expected to grow in the future. shale gas [Table 8]. In 2009, shale gas production in these states was Tight Gas 33 BCF. Estimates of the amount Tight gas formations are distribut- of gas in place will almost certain- ed throughout the WEC. Estimates ly increase as previously neglected of tight gas sands for individual shale formations are evaluated. The states are not readily available, but amount of gas that ultimately will a recoverable U.S. reserve estimate be recovered may depend more on is ~379 TCF [14]. In-place resourc- improvements in extraction tech- es of tight gas in British Columbia nology, market prices, and govern- are greater than 300 TCF [15]. ment regulation than the amount of gas in place. At this stage, Shale Gas proven reserves are a conservative Shale gas is extracted from true estimate of the amount of gas that shales and mudstones, by far the can be recovered, and technically most common rocks in sedimenta- recoverable resource estimates are ry basins. The gas content in these speculative. rocks varies widely, but it is likely that important shale gas discover- ies will be made in the WEC. New assessments of the technically recoverable North American shale gas in the past few years have sub- stantially increased confidence that the domestic natural gas supply will be sufficient to meet growing demand for decades to come. For example, Colorado, Montana, and Figure 8. WEC natural gas reservoirs. [M3]

8 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

Canadian activity in shale gas is Coal The WEC’s vast coal resources Canada’s recoverable reserves are primarily focused on the Montney [Figure 11] range in grade from located in the WEC [Table 9]. and Horn River Basin plays of Coal supplies 45% of all U.S. lignite to anthracite. Recoverable northeast British Columbia, which electricity and less than 20% of reserves (from active mines) in the In 2009, the WEC produced ap- has recoverable reserves of 69 and Canada’s electricity [18]. More WEC include 15 billion short tons proximately 620 million short 132 TCF, respectively. The Horn than 30 states receive coal from (around 14 billion metric tons) tons (560 million metric tons) of River and Cordova Embayment Wyoming, and several midwestern [Figure 9], approximately 63% of coal, which is about 8.2% of world alone account for almost two thirds and southern states are highly or the total U.S. and Canadian recov- production and about 54% of the of currently defined shale gas in entirely dependent on Wyoming’s erable coal reserves. More than combined total production of the Canada. Another Canadian play, coal [19].Export of coking coal 54% of the recoverable U.S. coal U.S. and Canada [Table 10; Figure the Colorado Group in Alberta from WEC jurisdictions to Asia, reserves and approximately 84% of 10]. Of the WEC states, Wyoming and Saskatchewan, has 61 TCF of primarily for use in steel produc- recoverable reserves and may be tion, is increasing. Alberta and WEC Recoverable Coal Canada’s largest in-place reserve British Columbia comprise one Reserves at Active Mines at 408 TCF. Note that there is an of the largest metallurgical coal 15.6 billion short tons (Bst) estimated 43.4 TCF of natural gas suppliers in the world and export significant amounts of coal to Asia reserves in offshore British Colum- U.S. Demonstrated: 486 Bst Canada Demonstrated: NA [20]. Wyoming and Montana are U.S. Recoverable: 260 Bst U.S. WEC Canada Recoverable: NA bia; however, a federal moratorium 9.5 Bst U.S. Recoverable Active Mines: 17.5 Bst Canada Recoverable Active Mines: 7.2 Bst on drilling currently prevents any now exploring ways to access ship- WEC Recoverable Coal Reserves Canada WEC WEC Recoverable Coal Reserves production activity there [16,17]. ping terminals along the U.S. West 6.1 Bst Coast to do the same.

. Figure 9. The sum of recoverable U.S. and Canada coal resources.

9 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

maintains the greatest production than 42% of all coal mined in the at 431 million short tons (about U.S. Approximately 51% of U.S. 390 million metric tons) in 2009. coal production [21] and nearly all The Powder River Basin, most of Canadian coal production occurs in which lies in northeastern Wyo- WEC states and provinces [22]. ming, is the largest coal producing region in both the WEC and the An example of a novel approach U.S. The region accounts for more to coal-based electrical generation

For the next 3 to 4 decades, coal will continue to play a foundational role within North America, greatly contributing to the generation of relatively low-priced, base-load electricity.

World: 7,514 MMst U.S. and Canada: 1,144 MMst WEC: 620 MMst

Figure 11. Figure 10. Distribution of coal resources in Coal production. the WEC. [M4]

10 Western Energy Corridor

Fossil Energy Resources

within the WEC is found as part of the Swan Hills project in Alberta. The project will use an in-situ coal gasification (ISCG) process to ac- cess coal seams that are considered too deep to mine. The coal seams, located about 1,400 meters (4,593 feet) beneath the earth’s surface, will be accessed through wells that are similar to conventional oil and gas wells. The ISCG wells will be used to convert the coal under- ground in its original seam into syn- gas. The syngas will be piped to the Whitecourt area to fuel new high- efficiency, combined-cycle power generation for Alberta’s electricity market, providing about 300 MW More than 30 states receive coal from Wyoming, and several of generation capacity [23]. Midwestern and southern states are highly or entirely dependent on Wyoming’s coal supply

11 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

ignificant renewable energy Hydropower resources in the WEC in- clude energy derived from Extensive river systems in the Swater (including rivers and ocean WEC make hydropower a sig- nificant resource for electricity current/tidal/wave), wind, sun, generation. These systems consist geothermal, and biomass. Re- of several major North Ameri- newable energy sources generate can rivers [Figure 12], including electricity, provide heating, and the North Saskatchewan, Peace, produce transportation fuels, as Athabasca, Slave, Missouri, Co- well as provide feedstocks for a lumbia, Snake, Mackenzie, and host of other products from meth- Colorado rivers, whose head- ane to plastics. Renewable energy waters are contained within the sources can lessen dependence WEC. In the WEC, over 88,000 on imported and non renew- GWh of electricity was generated able resources, and many can from hydropower in 2009, which help reduce the environmental represents approximately 24% of impacts of overall energy gen- the WEC’s total electricity gen- eration. The Western Renewable eration that year from all sources. Energy Zones (WREZ) initia- This power was produced by 374 tive, a collaboration between the hydropower plants having a total Western Governors’ Association installed capacity of 21 GW. In and the U.S. DOE (along with British Columbia, the greatest other stakeholders) is designed to annual hydropower generation so facilitate development and deliv- far, 64,000 GWh occurred in 2007 ery of renewable energy within [24]. Hydropower generation in the Western Interconnect and has British Columbia, Idaho, and South a wealth of renewable energy information. Figure 12. Major waterways in the WEC. [M5]

12 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

Dakota produce large percentages two 500-MW generating units of total in-state/province electricity into existing dam infrastructure at generation [Table 11]. the Mica Generating Station [24]. According to a recent report [25], The WEC has approximately 60 major hydro projects in Alberta GW of untapped hydropower may be developed in the next 30 potential capacity, which is three years and could capture almost times the current installed capac- 20% of Alberta’s over 53,000 GWh ity and translates to a potential of hydropower potential per year. over 265,000 GWh of additional Also, 28% of proposed pumped annual electricity generation. The storage projects in the U.S. are majority of this potential lies in the sited in WEC states [26]. north side of the WEC. Although full hydropower potential may Wind never be realized, state/province generation potentials range from Wind energy is abundant through- 160% (Montana) to 3800% (Al- out the WEC [Figure 13] with a berta) above their 2009 generation total wind power potential of over [Table 11]. A significant portion of 3,700 GW. Within the Corridor, the additional hydropower resource Montana leads in wind energy pro- would come from small facilities duction potential at 944 GW, fol- and micro-hydro and would require lowed closely by South Dakota and new transmission to successfully North Dakota [Table 12]. North harvest the resource, especially in Dakota, Wyoming, and Colorado British Columbia. lead the WEC in installed wind generation. Although the WEC has Several planned projects — the very high wind power potential, majority in northern Canada — would increase the WEC’s hy- Figure 13. dropower capacity. For example, British Columbia plans to install Wind energy potential in the WEC. [M6]

13 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

the realized potential is relatively tops and the remote northwest of MW of wind power capacity is lumbia is working to advance the low. For example, despite Mon- British Columbia. For areas that from on-shore operations. province’s coastal wind energy po- tana’s high generation potential, in- could be reasonably developed, the tential with a project that, if built, stalled capacity was only 375 MW major constraint is transmission. will involve up to 110 turbines and as of 2009 [Table 12]; however, The low capacity factor results in a potential capacity of up to 1,750 MW [29].

Wind, geothermal, solar, and ocean/tidal continue to grow and offer a promising future, Recent increases in WEC wind even more so when used in combination with other energy forms – hybrid energy systems. power capacity have been strongly driven by energy pricing and regulations/policies, subsidies, significant increases in installed ca- Wind power generation is increas- and other incentives. For example, pacity in Alberta and Montana will ing at a rapid rate. Wind plants production tax credits and renew- be feasible with completion of the have a much shorter planning and able portfolio standards have new Montana Alberta Tie Limited building schedule than conven- boosted wind industry develop- transmission line. tional power technologies. Some ment [30]. As the scale of wind examples of planned or in-process power increases, the wind power The intermittent nature of wind WEC wind projects include a industry can no longer be confi- makes integration into the elec- 300–700 MW in Montana, 500– dent that current subsidies will trical grid challenging if trans- 700 MW in Idaho, and several hun- continue, which may slow growth mission, firming resources, and dred MW of wind farms planned in of wind power generating capac- distribution of wind resources are Wyoming and other northwestern ity. Wind resources tend to be insufficient or unavailable This and western states. In British Co- located in remote areas, requiring challenge becomes more severe lumbia, projects totaling over 710 a confluence of transmission and as wind capacity increases rela- a high capital cost per unit output, MW of wind capacity are planned, wind resources coupled to popula- tive to other power sources. The although the fuel (wind) is free. while in Alberta new transmission tion centers to effectively integrate major reason that realized wind The first off-shore project, with infrastructure that can accom- and serve the markets. A possible potential is low is that much of the a potential wind power capacity modate up to 2,700 MW of wind answer that deserves study is how wind resource is located in areas of 396 MW, just received federal generation in Southern Alberta is to cost-effectively fuel electricity that cannot be developed or are not approval in British Columbia [27], under construction [28]. NaiKun growth in the region using both easily accessible, such as mountain but the province’s existing 248 Wind Energy Group in British Co- wind and natural gas, both low

14 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

carbon sources. Separately, neither ergy (DOE) is funding a project in is ideal. But together, they offer Utah designed to facilitate at least increased reliability and generation 10 MW (or an additional 10,000 with low price volatility and low solar PV systems) of new solar PV overall carbon emissions. installations by 2015 [32].

Solar Currently, the capital cost of pho- tovoltaic and solar thermal power The WEC has solar energy po- plants, relative to annual energy tential, especially in its southern production, is extremely high. extreme [Figure 14]. The amount New technologies in solar energy, of solar energy in some parts of such as concentrator photovoltaic Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming are (CPV) approaches, could reduce among the highest in the U.S., with the cost and increase the adoption 2 levels exceeding 6 kWh/m per rate [33]. Similarly, decreasing day. costs could increase the adoption at a household scale. Additional In 2009, the installed solar electric cost reductions could come from capacity in WEC was less than 40 improvements in production, MW, most of which comes from manufacturing, and installation residential installations. Colorado techniques. is the only jurisdiction with total grid connected photovoltaic (PV) installations exceeding 1 MW [Table 13]. Other efforts within the WEC are underway as well. For example, in Medicine Hat, Alberta, the first solar-powered steam gen- eration system in Canada will use parabolic dishes to focus sunlight Figure 14. to produce heat for a steam turbine Photovoltaic solar resources [31]. The U.S. Department of En- in the WEC. [M7]

15 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

Biomass ing uses. This is particularly true for grains, which are largely used Within the WEC, ample herba- for food and feed, and for straw, ceous and woody biomass resourc- which is in high demand for animal es exist [Figure 15] that are suit- bedding. Potential also exists for able as feedstock for production growing dedicated energy crops of electrical power, transportation that have no food value such as fuels, or heat. Biomass can be used poplar, miscanthus. in biochemical conversion process- es such as fermentation to produce Grain production is a major source ethanol, or in thermochemical of WEC biomass and generates conversion processes such as substantial agricultural residues direct combustion, gasification, or as a by-product. Grain is included pyrolysis. In addition, transesterifi- as a biomass potential, because cation, a chemical process in which technologies are already available oil seeds are used to produce diesel for conversion of corn and wheat fuel, contributes to transportation to ethanol. Lignocellulosic residues fuels. Potential bioenergy resourc- from food and feed grain crops can es in the WEC include grain and also be used to produce ethanol agricultural residues, forest bio- and other products, but there are, mass and woody residues, and mill as yet, no full scale commercial and urban wood waste, annually production facilities. Saskatch- generating over 170 million metric ewan, Alberta, South Dakota, and tons (~187 short tons) of material North Dakota are world-class grain [Table 14]. The Canadian prov- producers, and have a relatively inces in the WEC have much more higher volume of agricultural in total resources available than residues. A shift to integrated bio- the U.S., largely due to geographic differences. Furthermore, not all the materials discussed would be Figure 15. readily available for bioenergy pro- WEC biomass feedstock potential. duction, as there may be compet- [M8]

16 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

refining, rather than facilities The most effective conversion and favors the displacement of fos- for greater utilization of low-tem- producing a single product, may process depends on the nature of sil fuels with biofuels. Of note, the perature geoexchange for heating help optimize the co-production of the biomass resource. For example, Alberta Government as well as the and cooling applications. food, energy, and other bio-based high-ash agricultural residues may Canadian government have placed products. damage thermochemical conver- a large investment in development Essentially, all geothermal power sion process equipment; however, of Triticale, a hybrid of wheat and plants within the WEC are located The WEC also has significant certain woody biomass species rye, as an energy crop which can in areas having higher heat flows. forest resources with associated may have components that resist grow on marginal lands. These areas, combined with ad- quantities of residue — in particu- biological conversion processes equate ground water and available lar, large quantities exist in British used for ethanol production. Trends Geothermal transmission, offer an opportunity Columbia and Alberta. In 2010, towards energy crops, which take for producing reliable, available, British Columbia produced one advantage of marginal lands, may The WEC has significant geother- high-value, low-carbon electricity. million bone dry metric tons (BDt) shift the distribution of biomass mal potential. A 2011 report of But not all potential sources are of wood pellets, most of which resources in WEC. the U.S. geothermal capacity [37] available — some are difficult to was exported to Europe for power indicated that the five WEC states access or within protected areas production. A potential source of The U.S. has historically focused included in the study have at least such as a national park. The pres- forest residue is pine beetle dam- its biomass program on the pro- 1,409 MW of near-commercial ence of cooler water at shallow aged timber. Natural Resources duction of biofuels in an effort developments and 4,398 MW of depths can mask the geothermal Canada (2011) estimates that the to move away from foreign oil initiated projects [Table 15]. Simi- potential of some resources (the current rate of spread will kill dependency. However, recognizing lar estimates have not been made Cascades, for example) or compli- 80% of mature pine trees in Brit- the large potential for biopower for other jurisdictions, so there is cate geothermal characterization ish Columbia by 2013 — over 1 electricity or process heat, the U.S. no definitive estimate for the entire (such as the Snake River plain). billion m3 (35 billion ft3) of trees. Government is supporting more WEC. However, British Columbia The current beetle epidemic affects biopower development [36]. Can- alone has an estimated 3,000 MW Despite this, some geothermal more than 8 million hectares (20 ada has not had the same incentive of geothermal electricity potential; potential has been realized in the million acres) of forest in British to produce biofuels because it has Alberta and Saskatchewan have WEC. As of March 2011, in- Columbia [34,35] and may con- a smaller population and some of less potential. The greatest poten- stalled geothermal capacity in the tinue to affect Alberta’s northern the largest petroleum reserves in tial for WEC geothermal electricity WEC was 58 MW between Idaho, boreal forest. The infestation has the world. Canada does, however, production is in its western portion, Wyoming, and Utah [Table 15] as suggested in the heat flow map also hit Colorado, Montana, Idaho, support the reduction of CO2 emis- and geothermal projects are under and Wyoming. sions from fossil power generation shown in Figure 16. All jurisdic- development in Wyoming, Colo- tions in WEC have opportunities

17 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

rado, Utah, and Idaho. Of particu- sands mining operations [41]. The lar note, the estimated resource Massachusetts Institute of Technol- under development in Idaho alone ogy’s 2006 estimate indicated that is between 703 and 778 MW [37], potential power from the co-pro- illustrating the potential across the duced fluids could exceed 450 MW region. Although no geothermal within the WEC [42]. resources have been developed for power production in Canada, the Geothermal energy may be an South Meager project in British economically viable resource, Columbia is being evaluated and but it requires sufficient tempera- could support up to 100 MW [38]. ture, water, and permeability at Increasing interest in renewable economically retrievable depths. energy for non-electricity applica- Locating resources with these char- tions has led evaluation of several acteristics is the greatest challenge geothermal projects for develop- to developing geothermal energy. ment in British Columbia and Enhanced Geothermal Systems Alberta. (EGS) technologies — which aim to enable the use of geothermal Recent efforts have explored other energy when heat is present but innovative uses of geothermal water and/or permeability are not resources such as using the hot — could significantly expand geo- water co-produced with oil and thermal power in the WEC [41]. gas to generate electrical power. Several technical and economic Examples include a 250-kW issues must be resolved before this facility recently made operational potential can be realized. The U.S. in Wyoming [39], and a 1 MW DOE is developing goals to pro- project being proposed in Alberta vide significant amounts of EGS [40]. Another opportunity is the power by 2030 and 2040; however, potential for zones beneath the Ca- nadian oil sands to pre-heat water Figure 16. used to make steam for in-situ oil WEC geothermal potential. [M9]

18 Western Energy Corridor

Renewable Energy Resources

details (including timeline) for the The cost of tidal and ocean energy goals have not been finalized. is highly influenced by geography, distance to grid, and water condi- Tidal/Ocean Energy tions (i.e., speed and volume of the current) [45]. Although wave British Columbia is the only area energy resembles wind generation in the WEC that has ocean wave in its intermittent nature, it is easier and tidal energy resource potential. to forecast and has a uniform avail- For the British Columbia coast, ability. Specifically, ocean waves the total deep water annual wave propagate at a constant speed power potential is approximately with little attenuation, so they can 37,000 MW, and total tidal current be detected several hours before power potential is approximately reaching a generator. Tidal and 4,000 MW [43]. The best sites for ocean-current energy systems must capturing strong tidal currents are endure extreme weather conditions in the Strait of Georgia and John- and corrosion, and maintenance is stone Strait as shown in Figure expected to be expensive. 17, which offer the major benefit of proximity to the point of use. High-potential sites for ocean cur- rent may be farther away from land [44]. The number and capacity of potential tidal and ocean current sites could increase as improved technologies are developed.

High cost and limited site avail- ability have traditionally plagued tidal and other ocean-energy projects. Tidal energy requires a Figure 17. confined location with sufficiently Wave power and tidal current high tidal ranges or flow velocities. energy potential. [M10]

19 Western Energy Corridor

Uranium Resources

he WEC contains signifi- In 2010, the U.S., ranked 8th in cant quantities of uranium world uranium production, gen- [Figure 18], which is erating 1,830 short tons (1,660 Tused to generate electricity in metric tons) of uranium [46], much nuclear power plants. Canada’s of which came from mines in sole uranium-producing area Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and is in Saskatchewan and is sec- Wyoming, with the latter two states ond in world production only to dominating[48]. According to a Kazakhstan. In 2010, Saskatch- 2009 estimate, the U.S. has known recoverable resources of 228,000 ewan produced 10,784 short tons short tons (207,000 metric tons) of (9,783 metric tons) of uranium — uranium [47]. In 2008, Wyoming just over 18% of world produc- led the nation in total uranium tion. Saskatchewan’s McArthur reserves; together, Wyoming and River Mine, which is the largest New Mexico contain about two- producing uranium mine in the thirds of the country’s estimated world, produced 8,437 short tons reserves [49]. An important note (7,654 metric tons) of uranium, in relation to British Columbia is or approximately 14% of the that in April 2008 a news release world’s uranium output in 2010. indicated that the Province will not Known recoverable uranium support the exploration and devel- resources in Saskatchewan are opment of uranium. estimated at 466,000 short tons (423,000 metric tons) of uranium based on a 2007 estimate [46], 8% of the world’s known recov- erable resources [47].

Figure 18. Distribution of uranium resources in the WEC. [M11]

20 Western Energy Corridor

Uranium Resources

Half of the nuclear fuel cur- The WEC also contains significant energy in many countries includ- and abundant to meet current needs rently used in the U.S. is derived quantities of thorium, especially ing the U.S., Canada, Europe, [50]. Some countries (namely, from dismantled Russian nuclear in Idaho. Unlike uranium, thorium Japan, Russia, and India. Thorium India) may, however, favor tho- warheads. This program will be has not been used extensively has not been a major competitor rium over uranium as a fuel source, halted in 2013, which may result for nuclear energy production, with uranium for use as a nuclear depending upon local availability in increased demand for uranium although it has been successfully fuel because the world supply of and policy [47]. resources within the WEC. used to experimentally generate uranium is sufficiently inexpensive

The McArthur River Mine, located in Saskatchewan, is the largest producing mine in the world with over 7,600 metric tons of uranium produced in 2009, approximately 14% of the world’s uranium production.

21 Western Energy Corridor

Electricity Power Generation

n 2009, the WEC’s electric 15000 power generation capacity Pumped Storage was estimated at over 75,000 12500 Other MW; Colorado led with 13,045 I Other Renewables MW, followed by Alberta at 10000 Hydro 12,996 MW. Figure 19 and Table 7500 16 show the generating capacity Other gases by state/province and source. The 5000 Nat. Gas Figure 19. WEC electric power WEC generation capacity is dom- 2500 Petroleum installed capacity by state/ inated by coal-fired infrastructure Coal followed by hydropower and 0 province. Idaho Utah Alberta natural gas, as shown in Figure Colorado Montana N. Dakota S. Dakota Wyoming Saskatchewan 20. Over 60% of WEC generation British Columbia capacity is supplied by fossil en- ergy. Although renewable energy Figure X. Electric power totals by location (MW) production capacity is increas- 32500 ing, outside of hydropower, its 30000 Saskatchewan sources make up less than 10% of 27500 British Columbia the total capacity and are led by 25000 Alberta wind power investments [Table 22500 Wyoming 21]. No commercial nuclear 20000 17500 Utah power plants (NPPs) exist within 15000 S. Dakota the WEC, but there are emerg- 12500 N. Dakota ing interests in their inclusion. 10000 Montana 7500 Total electrical energy genera- Idaho 5000 tion within the WEC in 2009 was Colorado 2500 Figure 20. WEC electric power over 370 million MWh. Of this, 0 installed capacity by source. more than 70% came from fossil Coal Hydro Other energy plants (primarily from Nat. Gas Petroleum Other gases coal and natural gas), 24% from Other renewables Pumped storage Figure X. Electric power totals by source (MW)

22 Western Energy Corridor

Electricity Power Generation hydropower, and approximately Comanche (850 MW) and Wygen term within the WEC. New coal refined lignite, will produce nearly 4% from other renewable [Table II (110 MW) plants, located in plants are continuing to be intro- 100 MW during peak demands, 17]. The low capacity factor of Colorado and Wyoming, respec- duced, especially in Wyoming, and will provide steam to a nearby wind power plants results in a far tively [51]. North Dakota, and Alberta. An ex- malting plant [52]. However, smaller contribution to annual ample of a new plant construction Environmental Protection Agency electric generation than to gener- Coal is estimated to continue play- is the combined heat and coal-fired (EPA) and state regulations on air ating capacity. ing a foundational role by provid- power plant (Spiritwood Station) emissions, coal ash, and water are ing base load power in the long in North Dakota. It uses dried and expected to drive retirement of Coal-Fired Electric Power Generation Given the abundant natural gas, coal, and hydropower resources within the WEC, the region is In 2009, coal-fired plants were able to supply some of the most reliable and lowest priced electricity in North America. estimated to make up approxi- mately 40% of the electricity generation capacity within the certain existing coal-fired genera- region — approximately 30,500 tion plants. For example, Colorado MW. Alberta has the largest utilities are being directed to retire capacity (5,971MW) followed by or retrofit coal capacity and replace Wyoming and Colorado [Table it with natural gas or renewable 16]. Since 1999, the WEC’s overall energy resources to comply with capacity from coal-fired plants has new state Clean Air-Clean Jobs Act changed very little with the excep- [53]. Another trend is the pursuit of tion of Montana, which has lost higher efficiency in power produc- approximately 20% of its coal-fired tion while reducing environmen- electrical generation capacity over tal impact. Enabling clean coal the last 10 years. British Colum- technologies include CO2 capture bia generates no electricity from and sequestration, underground coal. It should be noted that 2010 gasification, integrated gasification actually represents the largest build combined cycle (IGCC), and oxy- of coal-fired plants since 1985 fuel combustion (coal gasification). within the U.S., which included the

23 Western Energy Corridor

Electricity Power Generation

Natural Gas Renewable Energy 63% came from British Columbia the fastest growing source of new, [Figure 21]. In 2009, the WEC pro- renewable electric power genera- In 2009, gas-turbine-based plants Hydropower makes up approxi- duced almost 90 million MWh from tion. Within the WEC, wind power within the WEC provided just mately 28% of WEC electric gener- hydroelectric energy [Table 17]. generation is led by Colorado, over 22% of the generation capac- ating capacity, with British Colum- followed by North Dakota and Al- ity, with Colorado and Alberta bia by far the highest at 11,000 MW, Electric power capacity from other berta; together they represent over leading at 5,357 MW and 5,201 just over 50% of the entire WEC hy- renewable sources is dominated 77% of the WEC’s wind genera- MW, respectively [Table 16]. The dropower capacity [Table 16]. Hy- by wind, which provides approxi- tion. Total WEC generation from last ten years has seen significant dropower contributed approximately mately 90% of the WEC’s non- wind in 2009 was just under 10 investment in gas-fired generation, 24% of total WEC electric energy hydro renewable capacity [Table million MWh [12]. The growth with notable examples in Colo- generation in 2009, and more than 21; Figure 22]. Wind power is also in U.S. wind farm generation is rado, which grew in capacity from 691 MW in 1999 to almost Saskatchewan (853) 4% Colorado (666) 3% Saskatchewan (3) 3% Colorado (2) 2% 8 times that amount in 2009 Idaho (2,346) 11% Idaho (9.5) 11% [54,55]. During this same period, Alberta doubled its Electricity generation by type (MWh) own capacity in natural-gas- Montana (9.1) 10% fired electricity generation. Hydro 24% Montana (2,660) 13% The attractiveness of natural North Dakota Fossil 72% (1.5) 2% gas is growing due to low South Dakota North Dakota (4.3) 5% natural gas prices and the (486) 2% Utah (0.7) 1% fact that it is the cleanest- South Dakota Wyoming (0.8) 1% (1,463) 7% Other Renewables Alberta (1.4) 2% burning fossil fuel and has (mostly wind) 4% Utah (256) 1% relatively low capital con- Wyoming (304) 2% struction costs. Concerns, Alberta (900) 4% however, remain relative to British Columbia (11,000) 53% British Columbia the long-term position of gas (56.5) 63% given the historic volatility of gas prices. Figure 21. Figure 22. Hydropower generating capacity (MW) . Hydropower generation (million MWh).

24 Western Energy Corridor

Electricity Power Generation

tricity to some areas of the WEC but milling. The province is moving to In 2009, 90 million MWh of electricity was generated from is not included in this report. drive nuclear-related research and hydropower in the WEC which represents approximately development (R&D) and is explor- Saskatchewan is interested in ing other opportunities associated 24% of the WEC’s total electricity generation that year. increasing the value of its uranium- with power generation, reposito- based products and has conducted ries, and enrichment [59]. a feasibility study addressing the driven primarily by state renewable Commission (USNRC). In 2012, nuclear energy cycle beyond its portfolio standard (RPS) require- the USNRC is anticipating license current activities in mining and ments and federal tax credits. The applications for two new nuclear remainder of renewable energy power plants near Green River, sources includes biomass, geother- Utah. British Columbia has a mal, and solar [Table 20]. moratorium in place that prohibits Nuclear Energy nuclear power [57].

The WEC has no operating com- Relative to other nuclear energy mercial nuclear reactors, but there infrastructure, AREVA plans to has been recent interest in building develop a uranium-enrichment them within the region. In 2008, plant 20 miles west of Idaho Falls, Bruce Power applied for a license Idaho. The license approval process to prepare a site for the future is almost complete, and construc- construction and operation of a tion is expected to start soon after. new reactor complex (4,000 MW) The facility’s capacity will fuel 25 on the Peace River in northern reactors producing 1,000 MW each, Alberta. The company has since with the possibility of doubling that withdrawn the application [56]. capacity if market conditions are fa- Alternate Energy Holdings, Inc. is vorable [58]. Also near Idaho Falls, pursuing preliminary local approv- INL operates a 250-MW (thermal) als to develop the “Idaho Energy Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) for Complex” in Payette County, materials and nuclear fuel testing. In Idaho, in advance of an applica- eastern Washington, a commercial tion to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory nuclear power plant provides elec-

25 Western Energy Corridor

Liquid Fuels Production

n addition to conventional capacity. For perspective, in 2010, petroleum refineries located the U.S. had 16 million barrels per within the WEC, several large day of operable capacity [Table Iexisting and future investments 18]. are being made in infrastructure associated with bitumen and Alberta and Saskatchewan contain heavy oil upgrading. Interests are six upgraders with a 2009 collec- also emerging in non-traditional tive operable capacity of 1.2 mil- fuels production infrastructure lion barrels per day. Their primary focus is upgrading bitumen from associated with liquefied natural oil sands and heavy oil to pro- gas (LNG) and coal-to-liquids duce synthetic crude oil. Three (CTL) production within the re- new upgrader projects and three gion. In parallel, a liquid biofuels expansions are either approved or industry is emerging around vast under application in Alberta. They quantities of biomass, including could collectively bring additional forest residue, corn, wheat, and upgrading capacity of nearly 1.0 oil seed. million barrels per day of bitumen [60]. Petroleum Refineries and Upgraders Liquid Natural Gas Facilities Twenty-seven crude oil refineries An LNG plant and shipping termi- are located throughout the WEC nal is being planned for Kitimat, with a total of 1.3 million barrels British Columbia, with a capacity per day operable capacity [Figure of 5 million metric tons (5.5 short 23]. Alberta’s three refineries com- tons) per annum and the potential prising over 30% of the WEC’s to double processing capacity in a

Figure 23. Fuel processing plants. [M12]

26 Western Energy Corridor

Liquid Fuels Production

Phase 2 expansion; the target date 22,000 barrels per day [62]. There In the U.S., five of the seven states is 2015 for the first LNG shipment. is also a proposed pilot plant in in the WEC have some biodiesel An application for a second plant Kanab, Utah, that would use a capacity; the highest single produc- and terminal at Kitimat has been hydrogasification process to con- er is in Casselton, North Dakota, submitted to the National Energy vert feedstocks such as coal and producing 153 million gallons per Board for a Canadian Federal biomass into synthetic gas suitable year (581 million bbl/yr) [Table Export License [61]. The facilities for processing to liquid fuel or to 19]. Although over 380 million would tap British Columbia and substitute natural gas. gallons (9 million bbl/yr) of annual Alberta natural gas resources and biofuels capacity is under construc- target Asian markets to comple- Biofuels tion in the U.S., none of it is in the ment the existing U.S. market. At WEC [63]. One ethanol plant that There are currently 39 operating least two additional LNG projects will use municipal waste as feed- ethanol plants and 13 operating are being studied with one project stock and has a planned annual ca- biodiesel plants within the WEC. exploring construction of an export pacity of 36 million gallons (0.86 These facilities have an annual terminal in Prince Rupert [16]. million bbl/yr) is under construc- operating capacity of approxi- tion in Edmonton, Alberta. Coal-to-Liquids mately 2,000 million gallons per year (7,600 million bbl/yr). South The WEC has a total of 68 biodiesel An emerging trend within the Dakota has the greatest capacity of fueling stations with all provinces WEC over the past few years is the WEC, at approximately 1,000 and states represented [64,65]. Col- assessing the feasibility of coal- million gallons per year (3,800 orado stands out with 23 biodiesel to-liquids (CTL) facilities, which million bbl/yr), followed by North stations, followed by Wyoming could help develop the vast coal Dakota and Saskatchewan. All eth- with 15 as of 2009. There are some resources in Alberta, Montana, anol plants in the WEC use grain incentives for biofuels infrastruc- and Wyoming. One CTL facility such as corn and wheat as a feed- ture development in the WEC. For development project has emerged stock, with the exception of a 1.5 example, qualified biofuel fueling in Medicine Bow, Wyoming. The million gallon per year (100 bbl/d) infrastructure in Idaho is eligible for project, which is expected to start pilot plant in Upton, Wyoming, up to 6% tax credit. Biofuels plants in 2014, will use Carbon Basin which uses lignocellulosic biomass in North Dakota receive up to $1.6 coal to produce refined hydrocar- (wood waste) as a feedstock. million/year and $10 million over bon liquid products with an initial the life of the plant. [64] commercial operation of up to

27 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

he processing, use, and for a few small connection points export of WEC energy east of the Rocky Mountains. resources depend heavily Québec These points have limited power Interconnection Ton a strong underlying energy transfer capabilities or require that infrastructure. This section con- power be converted from AC to cerns bulk movements of energy DC to AC. resources or products, focusing on electricity transmission, oil In short, the WEC has access to and gas pipeline, and rail. CO two major electric-power energy 2 NPCC markets. They consist of a sophis- pipeline has been included, as ticated network, involving inter- CO delivery is becoming im- 2 MRO connected power plants and power portant throughout the region lines that operate at many different for enhancing oil recovery and Eastern WECC Interconnection voltages. Figure 25 shows existing sequestration, and it will increas- major transmission lines within the SPCC ingly become integrated with WEC. other energy infrastructure. SERC Investment in WEC transmission Electricity Transmission FRCC infrastructure began to increase Western The WEC spans two of four major Interconnection several years ago in response to various needs, including reliabil- transmission reliability organiza- TRE tions in North America and lies Ercot ity and generator interconnection. Interconnection within the balancing authorities The proposed transmission build- of the Western Electricity Coordi- out aims partly to better capture nating Council (WECC) and the Figure 24. and integrate renewable energy Midwest Reliability Organization Transmission interconnection resources, such as wind, to meet (MRO), both part of North Ameri- grids. state or provincial renewable can Electric Reliability Corpora- energy requirements. Increased tion [Figure 24]. From both market transmission investment in the and control perspectives, these in- U.S. is also due, in part, to several terconnections are isolated except landmark developments in U.S.

28 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

federal and state policies affecting ticular relevance is the Regional transmission infrastructure (e.g., Transmission Expansion Project. It the Energy Policy Act 2005), state is funded by the U.S. DOE, being renewable power standards (RPS), executed by the Western Gov- federal transmission pricing policy ernors Association and Western (e.g., Federal Energy Regulatory Electricity Coordinating Council. Commission), and federal initia- The project is designed to analyze tives promoting transmission transmission requirements under a Smart Grid development under the broad range of alternative energy American Recovery and Reinvest- futures and to develop long-term, ment Act (ARRA). interconnection-wide transmission expansion plans [68]. Although the environmental permitting process for transmis- Natural Gas Pipelines sion line construction was slow from 2001 to 2009, utilities that The North American natural gas are members of the Edison Electric market relies heavily on natural Institute (EEI) invested over $55 gas delivery from the WEC. It is billion USD in transmission infra- underlain by a substantial natural structure improvements to meet gas pipeline infrastructure for ex- these various needs. Another $61 port to various markets, accompa- billion USD in future transmission nied by infrastructure components system investments is expected such as storage facilities and com- from 2010 through 2021 [67]. In pression stations. In addition, there Western Canada, the increased are longer-term plans to convey demand on natural resources, natural gas from the Alaska North particularly unconventional crude Slope and the Mackenzie Delta oil and hydropower potential, will burden existing infrastructure and eventually require added genera- Figure 25. tion and transmission. Of par- Transmission lines within the WEC. [M13]

29 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

area to markets in North America Significant investment in new pipe- via the proposed Alaska and McK- line and associated infrastructure enzie pipelines, which would pass will be required to support this through the WEC and could add growth. another 15% load to the existing pipeline network. Figure 26 shows Recently, natural gas shipments both existing and proposed gas from the Canadian portion of the pipeline within the WEC. WEC to the East Coast have been declining, due to (a) growing shale Some WEC-produced natural gas gas production in the U.S., (b) is consumed within the region, increased use of natural gas for but most is exported to other parts the extraction and processing of of North America (Canada is the crude bitumen within the Alberta number one natural gas supplier to oil sands, and (c) increased com- the U.S.). Interregional flow pat- petition from newly constructed terns for 2008 show large move- natural gas pipelines in the U.S ments of natural gas out of the [70]. As a result of this decreased WEC to major consuming regions demand and lower market prices in the U.S. Midwest and East for Canadian gas [Figure 27], pro- Coast, and to a lesser extent, to the ducers are exploring other potential West Coast and Florida. By 2030, markets including Asia. The price interregional flows are projected of LNG is much higher than North to increase to meet demand pre- American gas prices and is espe- dominantly by accessing growing cially so in Asia [71]. unconventional production in the midcontinent and Northern Rock- ies, natural gas from the Arctic projects such as along the Alaska North Slope and McKenzie Delta [69], and supplying LNG exports Figure 26. that would target Asian markets. Natural gas pipelines within the WEC. [M14]

30 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

When oil is produced from the proposed to extend south from the Oil Pipelines lines to transport diluted bitumen Bakken formation, there is also Bakken Shale to connect with the and synthetic crude to downstream significant natural gas liquids Overland Pass Pipeline [72]. The WEC contains established facilities in the Edmonton area for (and gas) produced. Much of that and growing pipeline infrastruc- refining outside of Alberta (72% natural gas is flared, resulting in ture [Figure 28] that transports is currently transported). Products substantial lost revenue. Because crude oil or refined product from from Alberta and Saskatchewan infrastructure is needed to gather oil-producing areas of the WEC are primarily delivered to the Mid- natural gas, a pipeline (ONEOK to refineries in the WEC and the west, British Columbia, Ontario, Bakken NGL Pipeline) has been rest of North America. The U.S. is California, and Washington; how- the primary destination for these ever, there are plans to target other resources, as it is the largest oil markets as well [73]. 16 market in the world with a refin- 14 ing capacity of approximately 16 TransCanada’s Keystone XL million barrels per day (bbl/d). 12 Pipeline, combined with an exist- Western Canada is the largest ing pipeline, would bring more 10 source of petroleum imports to the than 1.1 million bbl/d to the U.S. 8 U.S., providing nearly 2 million and could deliver oil as far as Port US$/MMBtu 6 bbl/d of crude oil (~2.5 million Arthur and Houston, Texas [66]. bbl/d total petroleum), which ac- 4 In addition, a number of potential September 2009 counts for more than 20% of U.S. was the lowest price projects are proposed to transport 2 since August 2002 imports [73]. AECO (Canada) NYMEX (U.S.) oil to the British Columbia coast 0 (Kitimat) with the primary purpose ‘05 ‘06 ‘06 ‘07 ‘07 ‘08 ‘08 ‘09 ‘09 ‘10 ‘05 In Western Canada production ul ul ul ul ul of meeting the growing Asian de- J J J J J Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan Jan is expected to increase from 2.9 mand. Two pipelines are proposed million bbl/d in 2009 to about 4.2 for this purpose: the Kinder Mor- Figure 17. million bbl/d by 2025 (according gan TMX Northern Leg and the Canadian and U.S. natural gas prices. [16] to the Canadian Association of Northern Gateway pipelines, with Petroleum Producers, 3.5 million initial capacities of 400,000 bbl/d bbl/d of this will be oil-sands-de- and 525,000 bbl/d, respectively rived hydrocarbon). This increased [74,75]. It should be noted that the production will require new pipe- TMX Northern Leg is in the early

31 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

planning stages and will go ahead In the longer term, if the large only if demand warrants it and quantities of oil shale in the basins after completion of planned expan- of Colorado’s Piceance, Utah’s sions to the existing Trans Moun- Uinta, and Wyoming’s Green River tain line’s Westridge Terminal in and Washakie are developed, they Burnaby, British Columbia. There will also require suitable pipeline are also two proposals that would infrastructure. utilize rail to transport Alberta oil to the west coast. CO2 Pipelines Currently, seven CO pipelines are Development of other oil reser- 2 voirs has been constrained by a operating or are nearing comple- lack of refineries, pipelines, and tion in the WEC. In addition to rail facilities. For example, ad- these seven major lines, there are at ditional pipeline is planned for least five spur lines feeding small the Bakken field, which spans oil fields close to the main pipeline parts of Saskatchewan, Montana, route [Figure 29]. These pipelines and North Dakota and is one of make up approximately 1,350 km the fastest growing oil production (~840 miles), just over 23% of the commercial CO pipelines cur- areas in North America. To address 2 this, TransCanada is planning pipe- rently operating in the U.S. They transport CO from a combination line (65,000 bbl/d) to connect these 2 resources to the TransCanada’s of natural and industrial sources Keystone XL Pipeline, while En- to aging western oilfields for bridge will build another pipeline enhanced oil recovery [76], which connection (145,000 bbl/d) to the helps tap more than 90 billion Enbridge Pipelines Inc. mainline. barrels of trapped recoverable oil. Both lines are intended to transport These pipelines are not part of an crude oil to refinery markets in North America. Figure 28. Oil pipelines within the WEC. [M15]

32 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

integrated network. In fact, they north-south, 242-km (~150 miles) have arisen in an ad hoc fashion Alberta Carbon Trunk Line, which determined by the economics of a will gather CO2 from various given oil play, and the availability operations and transport it to oil of government incentives. The fields to the south to enhance oil major CO2 pipelines include the recovery. Wyoming will add CO2 McElmo Dome Pipeline, which is pipeline to capture emissions from over 800 km (500 miles) long and the Lost Cabin Gas Plant in Fre- carries 1.1 billion cubic feet per mont County, injecting it into oil day (BCFD) of CO2 to the Permian wells in Encore’s Bell Creek Field Basin and 60 million cubic feet per and eventually the Cedar Creek day (MMCFD) to McElmo Creek Anticline in southeastern Montana, Utah; and the Greencore pipeline, with the aim of increasing oil pro- which will go into production in duction from those fields. late 2011, moving 720 MMCFD 370 km (~230 miles) from Wyo- Pipelines in the U.S. currently ming to Southeast Montana. transport the CO2 needed to pro- duce 237,000 barrels of oil per day

New CO2 pipeline development domestically [77], with an addi- projects are planned or underway tional 18,000–20,000 barrels per in the WEC to increase CO2 use day produced by CO2-enhanced for enhanced oil recovery and to oil recovery (EOR) operations a lesser degree, to reduce CO2 in southern Saskatchewan (most emissions [Figure 29]. These of which is sold to U.S. markets) projects are driven by a variety of [78]. With oil prices expected to objectives, including commercial, be high for the foreseeable fu- legislative, research, and regula- ture, and the U.S. EPA regulating tory interests. Alberta has initiated a $2B CAN [76] effort to realize Figure 29. four major CO2 management proj- ects. One project is the proposed CO2 pipelines within the WEC. [M16]

33 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

carbon emissions, the need for CO2 Coal is the single largest com- pipelines will continue to grow. modity moved by rail, a signifi- Although it has taken nearly four cant portion of which is moved decades to bring the first 1,300 within the WEC. Crude oil and km (~810 miles) of pipelines into refined petroleum products such existence, economic and regula- as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel tory (emissions) drivers are likely are transported by rail to markets to bring the next 1,300 km online where pipelines are not available. much more quickly. Asphalt and fertilizer are typically transported by rail. With the ex- Rail pansion of the bioenergy industry, biomass transportation by rail is Railway transportation provides likely to increase. Distributed col- bulk movement of commodities lection points for biomass products such as coal, potash, agriculture typically require a combination products, and petrochemicals of trucking and rail and are most throughout WEC. This rail system attractive for rail applications for provides either direct access or in- long-distance markets. terconnecting rail to most of North America, and key connections to Coal transport is driving rail ports allow direct access to foreign expansion within the WEC. The markets. The WEC is serviced by 103-mile (~165-km) Powder River five major railway companies, with Basin “Joint Line” is a dedicated Canadian Pacific Railway Com- coal railway, and it is one of the pany and Union Pacific Railroad heaviest used rail systems in the acting as the primary providers. world. Expansion is also being dis- The three other major rail compa- cussed to increase the movement nies are Burlington Northern Santa of bitumen to markets (refineries Fe, Canadian National Railway, and Utah Railway Company. Figure 30. Railway lines. [M17]

34 Western Energy Corridor

WEC Energy Delivery

and terminals) where pipelines may not yet be available. Moving bitumen from the oil sands to vari- ous markets is an old practice with a new push for the rail industry to analyze whether it can offer a competitive alternative. Rail trans-

Expanding and maintaining a healthy energy infrastructure in the WEC is critically important to realize its energy and economic potential. portation of LNG is being inves- tigated by liquefaction companies as a means of moving energy to areas where pipeline infrastructure is not available. Although liquefy- ing natural gas increases its energy density to the point at which large quantities of gas may be trans- ported by rail, the overall econom- ics of this process will ultimately determine the delivery method’s viability. Similarly, development of the Bakken formation is driving evaluation of rail to transport oil to the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes areas.

35 Western Energy Corridor

Energy and Environment

nergy development and concern is winter ozone formation the environment are in high elevation basins believed to inextricably linked in the be associated with volatile organic EWestern Energy Corridor, and compounds (VOCs) being released like all other human activity, en- from gas fields. Along with GHGs, ergy development can affect the impaired visibility from engine environment in numerous ways. emissions, suspension of dust from Those energy-environment inter- unpaved roads,surface mining op- actions need to be managed ap- erations, and coal cars are among the potential air-related impacts propriately to ensure sustainable of energy production, especially energy production. The WEC’s given that the WEC contains parks rich energy resources will be fully and monuments that are protected unlocked only when environmen- by stringent visibility standards. tal impacts are properly addressed [Figure 31]. The following Water section provides an overview of some of these impacts. Water is used extensively in energy development, and energy develop- Air ment can affect water supply and quality [79]. Depending on the Air quality concerns associated energy technologies employed, with energy production often significant quantities of water may focus on combustion by-products be used in upstream processes (e.g., from coal-fired plants, including mining, pumping and processing the emission of greenhouse gases fuels), the fuel combustion/energy ([GHGs]; carbon dioxide, nitrous generation process, and down- oxide), criteria pollutants (nitrous stream processes (e.g., carbon cap- oxides, particulate matter less than 10 µm, and carbon monoxide), and toxic air pollutants such as Figure 31. sulfur oxides and mercury. Another Ecoregions within the WEC. [M18]

36 Western Energy Corridor

Energy and Environment

ture and sequestration) [80]. These encompasses a diverse range of of anthropogenic GHG emissions energy efficiency, improving energy concerns are especially important in landscapes, from high alpine parks and potential contributor to climate generation processes, and assessing the more arid portions of the WEC and peaks to lowland playas and change. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is carbon capture and sequestration where water supplies are already canyon lands and from wilder- the primary GHG; however, other alternatives. fully or over-subscribed. Water ness to large cities [81]. Energy emissions such as methane and quality concerns include emerging development within the WEC can nitrous oxide, though produced in Concerns have caused increased issues such as the potential for con- have significant impacts on this quantitatively smaller volumes, are consideration of lower GHG- taminating drinking water aquifer landscape, critical to sustaining actually more potent GHGs. The emitting energy production options, systems using hydraulic fracture or ecological zones, and fragmenta- primary sources of GHG emissions such as renewable and nuclear en- in-situ heating of oil sands or oil tion of such landscapes can have a in the WEC are the generation of ergy and lower carbon fossil energy shale. In addition, there are grow- negative impact on wildlife habitat electricity and the combustion of resources like natural gas. Natural ing concerns about the potential and can disturb migration corridors transportation fuels [83]. gas produces fewer CO2 emissions contamination of land and water [82]. Cumulative impacts from en- per equivalent energy unit than oil resources by large tailings ponds ergy development along with other Relative to energy, coal-fired plants or coal. However, methane, the and coal ash piles. Other concerns human activities (e.g., ranching and in the WEC are the largest CO2 main component in natural gas, is include potential pipeline releases agriculture) on landscapes need producers; however, there has been a much more powerful GHG than that could cause oil spills into riv- to be planned and managed. It is a significant amount of debate rela- CO2. If natural gas is to become the ers and streams , pollution of the important to take the long view be- tive to the impact of GHG emissions preferred fuel for electric power marine environment by increased cause these ecological systems can associated with oil sands develop- generation, transportation, and oil tanker traffic off the British be disturbed easily and take years ment, which is estimated to contrib- industrial applications, leakage Columbia coastline that would be to rehabilitate. Some examples of ute 6% of Canada’s GHG emissions during production, transport, and associated with the potential export energy-landscape interactions in [84]. An example of a potential consumption will likely need to be of synthetic crude oil to Asia. the WEC include energy produc- regional concern is the projected hy- addressed. Cogeneration, the copro- tion facilities, roads, drilling, trans- dropower impact of climate change duction of heat and electricity, can Landscapes and Wildlife mission lines, pipelines, and dams. on snow accumulation and runoff improve the efficiency of natural [85]. To address this and related gas generation, helping to reduce The WEC has some of the greatest Climate Change concerns, the federal governments GHG emissions through lower fuel expanses of undeveloped lands, in- and numerous WEC members have source consumption. Between 2001 cluding some of the finest national Another environmental concern is been pursuing the development of and 2010, 2,349 MW of installed parks and monuments in North the potential impact of energy de- relevant climate change mitigation cogen capacity has been added to America along with a significant velopment on the earth’s climate. and adaptation policies, addressing Alberta’s grid [86,87]. population of wildlife. The WEC Fossil fuel combustion is a source

37 Western Energy Corridor

Energy-Resource Nexus

he WEC is host to sig- type of interdependence are of- capita caloric intake in emerging the effects of future energy price nificant natural resources, fered below. markets [90]. A significant factor in volatility or sustained increase. many of which are not the rising costs of producing these Tused for energy but have econom- Agriculture commodities is both “direct” and Other interdependencies that have ic value to the region, and require “indirect” energy use [91]. emerged between energy and agri- The WEC produces many agricul- energy for their development. culture include the use of agricul- tural commodities, with wheat and The availability of reliable energy Direct energy consumption in- tural lands for energy production, corn dominating both acreage and at competitive prices becomes cludes actual on-farm energy con- i.e., for the biofuels market, rather revenues [88,89]. General trends a driving factor in investment sumption such as running pumps than for food production. Relation- in all WEC crops are increasing or farm machinery or powering ships developing between ranchers decisions to develop non-energy commodity prices and farm in- food-processing plants. Indirect en- and wind energy developers can natural resources native to the come, driven by both rising world ergy consumption includes energy optimize the land use. WEC. A few examples of this population and increasing per consumed to deliver farm products to market as well as energy con- Fertilizer Production sumed in off-farm production and delivery of goods consumed on the The WEC produces significant farm, such as producing fertilizers quantities of the major plant fertil- and pesticides. Increases in both izer nutrients, e.g., nitrogen, phos- direct and indirect energy uses in- phate, and potash [92]. Of these crease production costs. However, nutrients, nitrogen is used in the indirect consumption costs may be greatest quantity and accounted for more volatile and have a greater 56% of the U.S. usage of chemical impact on agricultural production fertilizers in 2005 [93]. The value costs, depending on factors such as of these nutrients and the compa- nutrient needs of the crops being nies that produce them has risen produced and input costs such as dramatically recently in response fertilizer and pesticide production. to rising demand for food, particu- A critical evaluation of energy use larly as wheat and corn produc- in agriculture could reveal ways to tion have increased [90]. Several improve efficiencies that would in- forms of energy are consumed by crease farm incomes and/or offset the fertilizer industry, including

38 Western Energy Corridor

Energy-Resource Nexus natural gas for plant operations commonly used to cool thermal Fossil Energy Development oil sands and oil shale. Nuclear (e.g., producing process heat) and power plants, so it is important to energy could also produce oxy- the consumption of petroleum for ensure an adequate water sup- Fossil energy development may gen for coal gasification and coal product delivery. However, natural ply exists prior to construction of require substantial external energy combustion. There are significant gas is the key ingredient used to power plants, whether nuclear, inputs derived from other energy opportunities for further exploring produce hydrogen and provide fossil, or solar thermal. Air cool- sources. Examples include, in-situ the application of integrated en- energy for ammonia production, ing is becoming more common, which is in turn the key ingredient but it is more expensive and plant It takes energy to make energy in nitrogenous fertilizer produc- efficiency is generally lower. tion. Natural gas amounts to more than half of the input costs Another example of water use is in coal gasification where part of ergy systems, built upon regionally (in some cases 75 to 90%) for the steam-assisted gravity drainage the coal is oxidized to provide available energy resources that nitrogenous fertilizer production (SAGD) process, in which steam is heat. Large-scale production of would potentially result in greater and delivery. Understanding how injected through horizontal wells to oil from oil shale using in-situ efficiencies and better stewardship the costs of fertilizer production, help recover viscous bitumen from electric heating to recover kero- of WEC resources. especially the energy costs, can be the oil sands. Of course, water also gen would require a significant reduced would help assure WEC plays a direct role in the generation quantity of electricity. Currently, competitiveness in the agricultural of hydroelectricity, and it is critical large quantities of natural gas industry and could open markets in many areas for the irrigation and are burned to generate heat for around the world for improved processing of bioenergy crops [94]. thermal bitumen recovery from WEC fertilizer technology. Characterizing the value of water oil sands, and upgrading of the in these applications, and under- produced oil depends on the use of Water Resources standing what alternative processes natural gas for heat and hydrogen. could reduce the use of water, are As a final example, recent studies WEC water resources are critical first steps towards reducing risks have been conducted [95] on the for energy development, as well as associated with long term energy use of nuclear energy to provide for other regional resource devel- investments. not just electricity, but also heat opment mentioned in this section. for the production of oil from oil Water is used to fracture tight shale, steam for the production of geologic formations (e.g., shale) oil from oil sands, and hydrogen to recover oil and gas. It is also to upgrade the oil produced from

39 Western Energy Corridor

Influences on WEC Energy Development

nergy development and 2009 to 4,908 billion in 2035 [96]. Energy Supply generation needs for the long-term; use in the WEC is influ- In addition, continued demand for however, the use of natural gas enced by a number of transportation fuels will require The WEC contains rich, diverse, for electric power generation is Eregional, North American, and in- continued U.S. import of millions and sustainable supplies of world- expected to increase relative to class energy resources strategic to ternational driving forces. These of barrels of oil, despite efforts to coal [97]. The WEC is also well North America’s electricity and are complex, hard to predict with reduce imports by making vehicles positioned to supply significant fuels needs, as well as the grow- any reliability (especially over lighter and more efficient, substi- amounts of renewable energy (if ing needs in Asia. Unconventional the decades-long time scales of tuting biofuels for fossil fuels, and accompanied by integrating infra- oil and gas resources in the WEC energy projects), and difficult using electric vehicles [97]. Also, structure), especially from hydro energy-intensive industries within are large enough to meet many and wind power. Uranium will to reconcile. Nonetheless, these the WEC, such as oil sands recov- of North America’s needs for continue to meet North American driving forces will be part of ery and processing, will require the foreseeable future as produc- and international demand, and the broad environment in which more natural gas to meet produc- tion from conventional oil and additional development within energy projects must operate. tion goals. Demand is growing in gas supplies decline. The WEC’s the WEC is anticipated, given Selected factors are discussed Asia as well — China in particu- vast coal reserves will continue to the 2013 cessation of the United below. lar, is projected to be a dominant supply North American electricity- States using nuclear fuel derived energy consumer in 2035. This Demand will drive demand for certain WEC Demand for energy resources from resources, such as oil, natural gas, 2,500 the WEC — for reliable power, coal and uranium. Figure 32 shows heat, and transportation — will these projections for electricity 2,000 generation in the U.S. 2007 expand with North America’s 2009 2035 population and economic growth. 1,500 As demand grows, consumption efficiency will increase as well as 1,000 the need for more electricity capac- ity within North America. For ex- ample, the U.S. electricity demand Figure 32. 500 is anticipated to grow by 31% (an U.S. Electricity generation by fuel average of 1% per year), from type, for 2007, 2009, and 2035 0 Coal Natural Nuclear Renewables Petroleum 3,745 billion kilowatt-hours in (billion kilowatt-hours). [13] Gas Figure X. Electricity generation by fuel, 2007, 2009, and 2035 (billion kilowatthours)

40 Western Energy Corridor

Influences on WEC Energy Development from dismantled Russian nuclear Existing and Emerging export of coal, diluted bitumen, Investment warheads. Export Markets synthetic crude oil, and natural gas to Asia. Because of the massive scale of en- Energy & Environment The WEC will continue to grow its ergy production, transportation and energy exports to both traditional Price use, and the benefits of “economies WEC energy resource development and nontraditional U.S., Canadian, of scale,” energy infrastructure is and use are increasingly influenced and Asian markets. As an example, The price of energy has significant large and expensive – new proj- by policy that leads to regulating Alberta is fast becoming the larg- impact on energy development ect costs tend to be measured in impacts on the environment. For est provider of oil to the U.S., investments. High oil prices and billions or even tens of billions of example, existing or proposed CO2 relative to countries outside North low volatility, for example, encour- dollars. Direct foreign investment emissions standards drive invest- America, because of its increas- age unconventional and high-risk in WEC fossil energy resources ment decisions related to electric ing production from oil sands. commercial developments, as well by Asia-Pacific countries has been power generation, particularly the Canadian natural gas exports to as R&D investments aimed at increasing through cross-border investment in, or decommission- the U.S. may be impacted by the improving exploration success and mergers and acquisitions [99]. ing of coal-fired power plants. need to supply oil sands processing increased recovery. Another ex- Governments also have provided Relative to Alberta oil sands, the activities, deliver exports to Asia, ample is the impact on natural gas incentives for energy investment. Government of Alberta recognizes and respond to the growing shale prices of the recent boom in un- For example, Alberta invested part the great importance of balancing gas boom in the U.S. [98]. Another conventional shale gas, which has of its income from royalties in environmental sustainability and emerging export opportunity is to resulted in certain WEC provincial energy innovation, which enabled economic development. One last provide electricity from renewable partners to seek alternative markets the subsurface extraction of oil example is concern about 1) the energy sources to markets in the in Asia, and associated investment from oil sands. Another type of impacts of exporting oil or coal west and southwest U.S., help- in building LNG processing facili- investment includes subsidies. To to China, which has generated re- ing meet their renewable energy ties and export terminals in British encourage investment in renewable newed scrutiny of oil tanker traffic mandates. Electricity export will Columbia. The current low price of energy, subsidies have become an off the coast of British Columbia, also help international north-south natural gas, along with the rela- increasingly important form of and 2) the U. S. export of coal to trade, especially with the signifi- tively low capital cost of building government intervention. Asia from Washington and Oregon cant hydropower potential in the natural gas power plants, currently terminals. northern portion of the WEC. Cur- enhances the attractiveness of gas rent market conditions and policy for electricity generation. settings are driving WEC states and provinces to explore greater

41 Western Energy Corridor

Influences on WEC Energy Development Research Assets

Infrastructure would be economically competi- developed to lessen environmental he WEC has significant tive and publicly acceptable. impact. The deployment of new research capabilities in The availability of infrastructure technology carries risk, and pro- areas relevant to the tech- to process and deliver energy and Technological Innovation totype demonstrations are needed Tnical, environmental, and social to increase system reliability and to reduce the risk for industry and issues surrounding energy produc- efficiency is critical to unlock- Technological innovation has been investors while gaining regulatory tion. Figure 33 shows the 43 major ing WEC energy resources and a key driver in developing energy and public acceptance. Given the institutions with such capabilities. inter-jurisdictional trade. Lack resources within the WEC, such resource wealth and associated Each WEC state and province of infrastructure has driven cer- as the application of SAGD to the technological challenges within the has at least two such institutions, tain development decisions. For extraction of oil sands and hydrau- WEC, there is an opportunity for which include U.S. universities example, because of insufficient lic fracturing technology applied the WEC to lead internationally in classified by the Carnegie Foun- refining capacity in Alberta, much to unconventional gas extraction. technology development, demon- dation for the Advancement of of the synthetic crude oil pro- This constant improvement in stration, and deployment. duced there will be sent to U.S technology will be required to Teaching as “Doctoral Research Gulf States for refining. Another further develop energy resources Universities” or “Research Uni- example is the need for natural within the WEC, especially as versities with High or Very High gas, diluted bitumen, and synthetic conventional energy resources are Research Activity.” The Canadian crude oil pipelines to export ter- depleted. Technological innovation institutions shown are those with at minals along the British Columbia is also critical to mitigate environ- least one Canada Research Chair. coastline to support diversification mental consequences associated Schools with Canada Research to Asian markets. One last example with energy development. Chairs awarded by either the Natu- is the lack of suitable electrical ral Science and Engineering or the transmission and storage needed Of note is Alberta’s considerable Social Sciences and Humanities to better integrate and deliver vast, investment in energy technol- programs were included as having but highly variable, wind power in ogy innovation, beginning with programs relevant to energy devel- oil sands development technol- the area, as well as support cross- opment issues. These criteria iden- ogy, CO management, and water border movement of electricity. In 2 tified 34 universities with research treatment associated with oil sands this case, substantial advances in strength. All are public except storage and transmission technolo- tailings ponds. Another example three: Brigham Young University, gies are needed before large-scale is the number of innovative in-situ Colorado Technical University, and deployment throughout the WEC oil shale retort processes being University of Denver.

42 Western Energy Corridor

Research Assets

In addition to the 34 academic typically has government agencies establishments, the region has ten dedicated to researching various major non-academic institutions energy resources and generation. with missions relevant to energy resources: four U.S. government These institutions can play a sig- laboratories, one Canadian govern- nificant role in increasing produc-

Industry relies on an educational system with strong and active research and development talent. The WEC has a unique set of top research institutions to leverage in its energy development endeavors. ment laboratory, three independent tivity and improving the economics research organizations, and two of further developing the WEC’s provincial organizations in Canada. vast energy resources. Collabora- All ten are oriented towards ap- tions between these institutions, plied research and the development industry, and the private sector of commercial applications. This could yield long-term academic list of research organizations does programs in highly specialized not include any corporate research energy topics. facilities dedicated to the problems of one company. Neither does it include the many focused research programs or centers that operate within individual universities or that are partnered with universi- ties and corporate research groups. Each state and province also Figure 33. Research institutions.

43 Western Energy Corridor

Summary

nergy Resources. The collectively estimated at approxi- portions of the WEC, where continue to play a foundational WEC is a source of enor- mately 175 billion barrels, placing shale gas, tight gas and coal bed role within North America, greatly mous quantities of fossil, the WEC third in world ranking. methane are plentiful. The current contributing to the generation of Erenewable, and nuclear energy- These reserves are dominated by abundance and low market price relatively low-priced, base-load related resources that will well unconventional oil resources, such of natural gas and its associated electricity. For coal seams too serve the energy security needs of as the Canadian oil sands in Al- lower CO2 emissions, has led to deep to mine, in-situ coal gasifica- the region and North America for berta and Saskatchewan, which are its current favor as a feedstock for tion is being introduced in Alberta, the foreseeable future. It is not projected to experience significant fossil electricity plants. The result- which converts coal to a syngas just the vastness of these resourc- growth in production and comprise ing natural gas market conditions used to fuel combined cycle gas a greater proportion of imports in are encouraging British Columbia turbines to generate electric- es that is important, but also their the U.S. The oil sands production and Alberta to invest in convey- ity. The current combination of collective diversity and projected is supplemented by significant ing natural gas to the British available low-priced natural gas longevity. Increasingly, there will production from the emerging Columbia coastline where it can and existing or proposed envi- be greater dependency on these Bakken formation development in be converted to LNG and shipped ronmental policies is influencing resources for electricity and fuels the Williston Basin. In the longer to Asia, where market prices are investment decisions relative to throughout this century. Given term, there is tremendous poten- higher. The gas production boom building new coal plants; however, this platform of energy resources tial associated with vast oil shale has also inspired renewed interest in the long term, coal will remain and other natural resources, there resources located in Utah, Colo- in natural gas as a transportation a crucial component of the North is great potential to create value- rado and Wyoming. Reliance on fuel; however, this path has not American energy mix. added industrial enterprises. This WEC crude oil supplies will only yet been fully developed. setting will also be necessarily increase and they can potentially Renewable Energy. The headwaters influenced by emerging overseas lessen dependence on oil imports Coal. The WEC contains excellent of some of North America’s great- energy demand, in particular from economically and politically coal reserves upon which much of est rivers are located within the from Asia. unstable countries. North America is currently heavily WEC, and produce a significant dependent for electricity produc- amount of hydropower both within Crude Oil. WEC oil resources cur- Natural Gas. Natural gas produc- tion. WEC coal production in and outside the WEC. In 2009, 90 rently play a significant role in tion in the WEC places it third 2009 approximated about 8.2 % of million MWh of electricity — ap- meeting both U.S. and Canadian behind Russia and the U.S. in world production and about 54% proximately 24% of the WEC’s demand, primarily associated with world ranking. The current North of the combined U.S. and Canada total electricity generation that year transportation fuels. WEC crude American natural gas produc- production. Demand projections — was generated from hydropower oil proven reserves in 2009 are tion boom is exemplified within through 2030 suggest coal will in the WEC. Much of this resource

44 Western Energy Corridor

Summary

potential has already been tapped reserves), and in 2009 the Sas- tion, about 70% came from fossil The WEC is also part of the emerg- within the WEC, in particular south katchewan produced 18% of the fuel plants, (primarily from coal ing biofuels industry, which could of the U.S.-Canadian border. How- world’s uranium. The McArthur and natural gas), 24% from hydro- help lessen selected imports of oil ever, there is significant potential River Mine, located in Saskatche- power, and approximately 4% from to the U.S. In 2009, the collective for additional power, such as low- wan, is the largest uranium produc- other renewables, with the latter operating capacity was approxi- head hydro and larger scale dam ing mine in the world with 7,654 expected to increase. The WEC mately 2,000 million gallons (50 projects, with the latter opportunity metric tons of uranium produced does not currently host any oper- million barrels) per year. Coal-to- more likely to occur in the northern in 2009, approximately 14% of the ating commercial nuclear power liquids is another potential trans- portion of the WEC. world’s uranium production. De- plants (NPPs), but there have been portation fuel source to be intro- mand for uranium within the WEC emerging interests to add NPPs to duced in the WEC with a newly The WEC also hosts some of the may increase, given that half of the energy portfolios of certain states planned operation in Wyoming highest wind potential regions nuclear fuel currently used in the and provinces. and another proposed in Utah. In in the North America, which U.S. is derived from dismantled the longer term, oil shale can also are increasingly being used for Russian nuclear warheads, and this Liquid Fuels Generation. The WEC contribute to the production of un- electricity generation. In addition, program will be halted in 2013. hosts energy resources that can conventional liquid fuels. Finally, the WEC includes some of the Other nuclear energy related assets contribute to development of there is renewed interest in using most productive croplands and are emerging in the area, such as conventional and unconventional natural gas as a transportation fuel, forestlands, which are potential a uranium enrichment plant to be liquid fuels. As of 2009, nearly but it is yet uncertain how this op- feedstock sources for biofuels. located in Idaho. 30 crude oil refineries with a 1.3 portunity will emerge. Minor enterprises associated with million barrel per day total oper- geothermal, solar, and ocean/tidal Electric Generation. Abundant able capacity are located within the Energy Delivery. Expanding and energy potential also operate in gas, coal, and hydropower re- WEC. The WEC also has several maintaining a healthy energy infra- the WEC. sources within the WEC enable oil sands and heavy oil upgrad- structure in the WEC is critically the region to supply some of the ers in Alberta and Saskatchewan important in realizing its energy Uranium. The WEC hosts substan- lowest priced electricity in North with a total operable capacity to and economic potential. A large tial amounts of uranium, much of America. In 2009, the WEC’s produce 1.2 million barrel per day number of infrastructure projects it of high grade, which is used to electric power generation capacity of synthetic crude oil. A recent are currently being pursued, some fuel North American and inter- was estimated at over 76,000 MW, “game changer” is the proposed of which have already been men- national nuclear power plants. and total electrical power genera- LNG production to facilitate export tioned, but are included below for Saskatchewan deposits dominate tion within the WEC in 2009 was of British Columbia and Alberta completeness: the WEC (and North American 370 million MWh. Of this genera- natural gas to Asia.

45 Western Energy Corridor

Summary

• Large investments are being for export to refinery Energy and Environment. Significant Energy – Resource Nexus. The made in association with the infrastructure. concerns on a number of levels WEC contains a variety of natural planned expansion of oil sands relate to the potential impacts of resources important to the regional production. This will require • Large investments continue to energy development on the envi- economy and interdependent with substantial increases in the be made within the WEC to ronment within the WEC. Areas regional energy resources. These

amount of oil recovered via both convey CO2 to various depleted of concern include impacts on air, include agriculture, water, fertil- mining and subsurface recovery, oil fields, where it can enhance water, landscape and wildlife, fish- izer, and other minerals. Develop- increased use of natural gas to oil recovery processes, and eries, and climate change. Environ- ment and/or use of these resources produce hydrogen and steam, sequester carbon. mental regulations are increasingly requires energy input in various increased upgrading capacity imposed on energy development forms (electricity, heat, fuels) and via new construction and expan- • Developing new electrical trans- and use, but at the same time, new intensity levels. Energy resource sion of existing capacity, and mission infrastructure is criti- technology and innovation are development is itself energy inten- new pipeline to export synthetic cal to capturing the enormous enabling energy companies to pro- sive, especially recovery of fossil crude oil to refineries and new potential associated with WEC duce energy more efficiently and fuels from unconventional re- markets, including Asia. renewable energy resources lo- with less environmental impact. As sources. Energy development may cated in more remote areas, and a result, environmental concerns also require use of other natural • Also associated with the Asian to better integrate and balance are increasingly addressed as part resources as well, including water, market is the current drive to electrical supply and demand of the energy development life agricultural feedstock, etc. Opti- build a natural gas pipeline to between different areas and cycle. Striking the right balance mal integration of WEC resources export LNG by tapping Alberta from different types of electric- between protecting the environ- may provide opportunities leading and British Columbia’s uncon- ity generation. ment and producing enough energy to efficient production of greater ventional natural gas fields and at a competitive price will be economic value. transferring natural gas to the • Sufficient infrastructure will be critical for the economic and social British Columbia coastline. paramount for more integrated development of the WEC. For ex- Influencing Factors.A number of

and efficient resource develop- ample, Saskatchewan has led CO2 factors influence energy develop- • Associated with the oil produc- ment and use, at various scales, management research and Alberta ment and use within the WEC, tion boom in the Bakken forma- i.e., at plant, community, and recently invested in building the including supply and demand, tion, efforts are underway to regional scales. largest carbon capture project in export schemes, energy pricing, supply new pipeline to connect the world. investment, technology innovation, the oil resources to major oil environment, and infrastructure. pipeline and rail in the vicinity Understanding these factors and

46 Western Energy Corridor

Summary

their interactions can help WEC tory facilities found within regional stakeholders develop a frame- universities, government labora- work attractive to investors who tories, and independent research can finance energy development organizations. And the significant projects. Of particular note is the contribution from corporate-spon- growing Asian demand for WEC sored research can be expected to resources such as oil, natural grow rapidly as more hydrocarbon gas, coal, uranium, and fertilizer. is produced from unconventional This demand is expected to have sources in the WEC. a major bearing on WEC export strategy and on direct Asian invest- ment in certain WEC resources and associated infrastructure.

Research Assets. Technological in- novation has been a major game changer within the WEC — for example technology innovation, sustained over many years has resulted in competitive technolo- gies for extracting oil from sands and gas from shales and mudstones on very large scales. Technologi- cal innovation will continue to be a key factor in developing WEC energy resources. Significant re- search assets that can contribute to addressing the various energy de- velopment challenges in the region are located within the WEC. These assets include expertise and labora-

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www.theodora.com/pipelines/ http://www.spectraenergy.com/ [M15] Figure 20: Oil Pipelines transcanada.com/cushing.html, north_america_oil_gas_and_ Operations/New-Projects/, [1] EIA, n.d., “About U.S. Natural updated March 2, 2011, accessed products_pipelines.html, updated accessed May 2011. Gas Pipelines – Transporting May 2011. May 6, 2008, accessed May 2011. [8] Ruby Pipeline LLC, 2010, Natural Gas,” http://www.eia. [7] Enbridge, 2011, “Enbridge [2] Centre for Energy, n.d., “Energy “Ruby Location Map,” http:// gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/ Expansion: Southern Access,” Facts & Statistics, Maps: North www.rubypipeline.com/docs/ analysis_publications/ngpipeline/ http://www.transcanada.com/ America,” Canadian Centre for RubyOverviewMap.pdf, ngpipeline_maps.html, accessed cushing.html, accessed May 2011. Energy Information, http://www. published June 18, 2010, accessed May 2011. [8] Plains Midstream Canada, n.d., centreforenergy.com/FactsStats/ May 2011. [2] Centre for Energy, n.d., “Energy “Rainbow Pipeline II Project,” MapsNorthAmerica/, accessed [9] Ruby Pipeline LLC, n.d., “Ruby Facts & Statistics, Maps: North http://plainsmidstream.com/assets/ May 2011. Map,” http://www.rubypipeline. America,” Canadian Centre for files/Rainbow%20PipelineII_ [3] Alaska Pipeline Project, n.d., com/docs/Ruby_Map.pdf, Energy Information, http://www. ProjectMap.pdf, accessed May “Proposed Pipeline Route,” http:// accessed May 2011. centreforenergy.com/FactsStats/ 2011. www.thealaskapipelineproject. MapsNorthAmerica/, accessed [10] TransCanada, 2010, “Bison [9] CEPA, 2007, “Maps,” Canadian com/docs/alaska_pipeline_ May 2011. Pipeline,” Bison Pipeline LLC, Energy Pipeline Association, project_map.pdf, accessed May http://bisonpipelinellc.com/, [3] TransCanada, 2011, “Keystone http://plainsmidstream.com/assets/ 2011. published November 2010, Pipeline Project,” TransCanada files/Rainbow%20PipelineII_ [4] MacKenzie Gas Project, n.d., accessed May 2011. PipeLines Limited, http://www. ProjectMap.pdf, accessed May “Main Map,” http://www. transcanada.com/keystone.html, 2011. [11] Kern River Gas Transmission mackenziegasproject.com/ updated May 31, 2011, accessed Company, 2011, “Expansion [10] Pembina, 2007, “Growth theProject/overview/mainMap. June 2011. Projects: Apex Expansion,” Projects: Branching Out,” http:// html, accessed May 2011. http://www.kernrivergas.com/ [4] TransCanada, 2011, “Bakken plainsmidstream.com/assets/ [5] TransCanada, n.d., “Horn River InternetPortal/Desktop.aspx, Marketlink Project,” TransCanada files/Rainbow%20PipelineII_ Map,” http://www.transcanada. accessed May 2011. PipeLines Limited, http://www. ProjectMap.pdf, accessed May com/docs/Media_Centre/Horn_ transcanada.com/keystone.html, 2011. [12] Colorado Interstate Gas, 2009, River_Map.pdf, accessed May updated March 2, 2011, accessed “High Plains Expansion Project,” [11] Enbridge, 2011, “Southern 2011. May 2011. El Paso, http://www.elpaso.com/ Lights,” http://www.enbridge- [6] Pacific Northern Gas Ltd, n.d., highplains/default.shtm, accessed [5] Ziola, A., and D. Harrison, 2011, expansion.com/expansion/main. “Systems Map,” http://www.png. May 2011. Bakken Shale Overview and Field aspx?id=1216&tmi=491&tmt=4, ca/company_map.cfm, accessed Trip, Oneok Partners, June 6–7, accessed May 2011. [13] Wyoming Interstate, 2006, May 2011. 2011. “Kanda Lateral and Mainline [12] Enbridge, 2011, “Alberta [7] Spectra Energy Corp., 2011, Expansion,” El Paso, http://www. [6] TranCanada, 2011, “Cushing Clipper,” http://www.enbridge- “New Projects: We’re Meeting elpaso.com/kanda/default.shtm, Marketlink Project,” TransCanada expansion.com/expansion/main. the Needs for Natural Gas Use,” accessed May 2011. PipeLines Limited, http://www.

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aspx?id=1218&tmi=292&tmt=4, http://www.dakotagas.com/Gas_ [7] Enhance Energy Inc., “Alberta [M17] Figure 22: Railways accessed May 2011. Pipeline/CO2_Pipeline/index. Carbon Trunk Line,” http://www. [1] NRCAN, 2008, “The Atlas of html, accessed May 2011. enhanceenergy.com/co2_pipeline/ [13] Enbridge, 2011, “North Dakota Canada,” Natural Resources index.html, accessed May 2011. System Expansion Phase [2] EMFI, n.d., “ChevronTexaco’s Canada, http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/ 6,” http://www.enbridge- Rangley Oil Field Operations,” [8] Shell, n.d., “About Quest – Quest site/english/maps/economic/ expansion.com/expansion/main. Energy and Minerals Field Carbon Capture and Storage,” transportation/pm_r, updated aspx?id=6576&tmi=408&tmt=4, Institute, http://emfi.mines.edu/ http://www.shell.ca/home/content/ February 19, 2008, accessed May accessed May 2011. emfi2005/ChevronTexaco.pdf, can-en/aboutshell/our_business/ 2011. accessed May 2011. business_in_canada/upstream/ [14] Enbridge, 2011, “Project [2] U.S. DOI, “May Layer Info: oil_sands/quest/, accessed May Info,” Enbridge Northern [3] Kinder Morgan, 2011, “Sheep Railroads of the United States,” 2011. Gateway Pipelines, http://www. Mountain Pipeline,” http://www. U.S. Department of the Interior, northerngateway.ca/project-info/ kindermorgan.com/business/CO2/ [9] Shell, 2010, “Quest CCS Project,” http://www.nationalatlas.gov/mld/ route-map, accessed May 2011. transport_sheepmtn.cfm, accessed http://www.shell.ca/home/content/ railrdl.html, updated January 27, May 2011. can-en/aboutshell/our_business/ 2011, accessed May 2011. [15] Kinder Morgan, 2011, “Kinder business_in_canada/upstream/oil_ Morgan – Canada: Projects,” [4] Kinder Morgan, 2011, “Kinder [M18] Figure 23: Eco-regions sands/quest/, published January http://www.kindermorgan.com/ Morgan CO2 – McElmo Dome,” 2010, accessed May 2011. [1] EPA, 2011, “Ecoregions of North business/canada/projects.cfm, http://www.kindermorgan.com/ America,” U.S. Environmental accessed May 2011. business/co2/supply_mcelmo.cfm, [10] Swan Hills Synfuels, 2009, Protection Agency, Western accessed May 2011. “Projects – Swan Hills ISCG/ [16] Kinder Morgan, 2008, “Trans Ecology Division, http://www. Sagitawah Power Project,” http:// Mountain Expansion Proposal,” [5] Denbury Resources Inc., epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/ www.shell.ca/home/content/ http://www.kindermorgan. 2010, “Branching Out,” WY na_eco.htm, updated April 20, can-en/aboutshell/our_business/ com/business/canada/TMX_ Pipeline Authority, http://www. 2011, accessed May 2011. business_in_canada/upstream/ Documentation/brochure_single_ wyopipeline.com/information/ oil_sands/quest/, accessed May page.pdf, published Summer presentations/2010/October/ 2011. 2008, accessed May 2011. Denbury_CO2update.pdf, published October 26, 2010, [11] Project Pioneer, n.d., “Project [17] UNEV, 2007, “UNEV Pipeline, accessed May 2011. Pioneer Proposed Pipeline LLC (home page),” http://www. Route,” http://projectpioneer.ca/ unevpipeline.com/default.htm, [6] Enhanced Oil Resources, 2007, sites/default/files/Project-Pioneer- accessed May 2011. “Company Goals and Objectives,” Proposed-Pipeline-Route.jpeg, http://www.enhancedoilres.com/ [M16] Figure 21: CO Pipelines accessed May 2011. 2 goals.htm, accessed May 2011. [1] Dakota Gasification Company, n.d., “CO2 Pipeline,” Basin Electric Power Cooperative,

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Appendix B Tables

Table 1. Crude oil and oil sands production data for 2009. Table 2. Conventional crude oil reserve estimates. Total Production Total Production Remaining Established Reserves State/Province Thousands of Barrels/Day of Oil Sands State/Province Millions Barrels Year of Estimate Colorado 78 0 Colorado 279 2009 Montana 76 0 Montana 343 2009 North Dakota 218* 0 North Dakota 1,046 2009 South Dakota 5 0 Utah 398 2009 Utah 63 0 Wyoming 583 2009 Wyoming 141 0 Alberta 1,437 2008 Alberta 1,650 1,490 British Columbia 104 2008 British Columbia 45 0 Saskatchewan 1,229 2008 Saskatchewan 57 0 WEC Total 5,419 WEC Total 2,333 1,490 U.S. Total 20,682 2009 U.S. Total 5,361 Canada Total 5,380 2008 Canada Total 2,722 1,490 EIA, 2010, “Petroleum and Other Liquids – Crude Oil Reserves, Reserves Changes, and Production,” Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_crd_pres_a_EPC0_R01_ * The production of oil in North Dakota is rapidly increasing. In 2010 North Dakota produced an mmbbl_a.htm, published December 30, 2010, accessed May 2011. average of nearly 310,000 barrels per day. https://www.dmr.nd.gov/oilgas/stats/2010monthlystats.pdf UGS, n.d., “Proved Reserves of Crude Oil and Natural Gas Liquids in Utah, 1945–2009,” Utah EIA, 2010, “Petroleum and Other Liquids – Crude Oil Production,” U.S. Energy Information Geological Survey, http://geology.utah.gov/emp/energydata/statistics/petroleum3.0/pdf/T3.2%20&%20 Administration, http://www.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_crd_crpdn_adc_mbblpd_a.htm, published July F3.1%20&%20F3.2.pdf, accessed May 2011. 29, 2010, accessed May 2010. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/ EIA, n.d., “International Energy Statistics – Petroleum – Production,” U.S. Energy Information Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf Administration, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=5&pid=57&aid=1&cid =regions&syid=2006&eyid=2010&unit=TBPD, accessed May 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/ Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf

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Table 3. Green River Formation oil shale reserves. Table 5. Natural gas estimated remaining established reserves for 2009. Resource in Place State/Province Billions Cubic Feet Basin/State Trillions BOE Colorado 23,058 Colorado (Piceance Basin) 1.53 Montana 976 Utah (Uinta Basin) 1.32 North Dakota 1,079 Wyoming (Washakie Basin) 0.30 Utah 7,257 Green River Formation Total 3.15 Wyoming 35,283 Fraction of world resource in 69.896 Alberta 37,862 Green River British Columbia 18,866 USGS, 2010, “Fact Sheet 2010–2030: Assessment of In-Place Oil Shale Resources of the Green River Saskatchewan 2,861 Formation, Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado,” United States Geological Survey, http://pubs.usgs.gov/ fs/2010/3010/, posted May 7, 2010, accessed May 2011. WEC Total 127,242 USGS, 2010, “In-Place Oil Shale Resources Underlying Federal Lands in the Piceance Basin, Western U.S. Total 272,509 Colorado,” United States Geological Survey, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3041/pdf/FS10-3041.pdf, published June 2010, accessed May 2011. Canada Total 61,005 EIA, 2010, “Natural Gas – Natural Gas Reserves Summary as of Dec. 31,” Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_enr_sum_a_EPG0_R11_BCF_a.htm, published Table 4. Heavy oils. December 30, 2010, accessed May 2011. Remaining Oil in Place AGA, 2009, “Natural Gas Reserves, Producing Gas Wells,” American Gas Association, http://www. aga.org/Kc/analyses-and-statistics/statistics/annualstats/reserves/Documents/Table2-3-2-4.pdf, State/Province Millions Barrels (U.S.) Year of Estimate accessed May 2011. Colorado 17 2004 Montana 52 2004 Utah 55 2004 Wyoming 1,124 2004 Alberta + Saskatchewan 549,400 2004 WEC Total 550,648 Utah Heavy Oil Program, Institute for Clean and Secure Energy, and the University of Utah, 2007, A Technical, Economic, and Legal Assessment of North American Heavy Oil, Oil Sands, and Oil Shale Resources, Prepared for the Department of Energy, http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/oilgas/ publications/oilshale/HeavyOilLowRes.pdf, published September 2007, accessed May 2011

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Table 6. Annual natural gas production. Table 7. Coal bed methane estimated remaining established reserves. State/Province Millions Cubic Feet Year of Production State/Province Billions Cubic Feet Year of Estimate Colorado 1,511,654 2009 Colorado 7,348 2009 Montana 105,251 2009 Montana 37 2009 North Dakota 92,489 2009 Utah 725 2009 South Dakota 12,927 2009 Wyoming 2,328 2009 Utah 449,511 2009 Alberta 2,260 2009 Wyoming 2,536,336 2009 British Columbia 90,000 2007 Alberta 4,400,000 2009 Saskatchewan 1,600 Not available British Columbia 1,100,000 2008 WEC Total 104,298 2009 Saskatchewan 269,553 2009 U.S. Total 21,875 WEC Total 10,477,721 Canada Total 143,860

U.S. Total 26,013,115 2009 EIA, 2010, “Coalbed Methane,” Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ Canada Total 5,633,000 2009 ng_enr_coalbed_a_EPG0_R51_Bcf_a.htm, published December 30, 2010, accessed May 2011. EPA, 2010, Coal Mine Methane Country Profiles, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, http://www. World Total 134,307,000 2009 globalmethane.org/documents/toolsres_coal_overview_ch6.pdf, published December 2010, accessed May 2011. EIA, 2010, “International Energy Statistics – Natural Gas – Production,” Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=3&pid=26&aid=1, Government of Saskatchewan, 2010, “Our Oil & Gas Resources, Natural Gas in Coal,” http://www. accessed May 2011. ir.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=5108,3384,2936,Documents#sect1d, accessed June 2011. Government of Alberta, 2011, “Energy – Natural Gas Statistics,” http://www.energy.alberta.ca/ Cohen, D. M., n.d., “Coalbed methane activity cools off,” World Oil Online, http://www.worldoil.com/ NaturalGas/727.asp, updated June 1, 2011, accessed June 2011. Article.aspx?id=38424, accessed June 2011. Saskatchewan Ministry of Energy and Resources, 2008, “Natural Gas in Saskatchewan Fact Sheet,” http://www.er.gov.sk.ca/adx/aspx/adxGetMedia.aspx?DocID=6552,3384,5460,2936,Documents&Med iaID=20543&Filename=Fact+Sheet+-+Gas+in+Sask+(Sept+8+2008).pdf, published September 8, 2008, accessed May 2011. British Columbia – Canada’s Pacific Gateway, 2010, British Columbia Natural Gas and Petroleum: Yours to Explore 2010, http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/OG/oilandgas/royalties/infdevcredit/Documents/ YourstoExplore18Mar2010web.pdf, published March 18, 2010, accessed May 2011.

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Table 8. Shale gas estimated remaining established reserves. State/Province Billions Cubic Feet Year of Estimate Colorado 4 2009 Montana 137 2009 North Dakota 368 Not available Alberta 40,000 2009 British Columbia 23,000 2009 Saskatchewan 10,600 2008 WEC Total 74,109

EIA, 2010, “Table 14. Shale Gas Proved Reserves, Reserves Changes, and Production, Wet after Lease Separation, 2009,” http://www.eia.gov/pub/oil_gas/natural_gas/data_publications/crude_oil_natural_ gas_reserves/current/pdf/table14.pdf, accessed May 2011. Government of Alberta, 2011, “Shale Gas,” http://www.energy.alberta.ca/NaturalGas/944.asp, updated June 1, 2011. National Energy Board, 2008, Saskatchewan’s Ultimate Potential for Conventional Natural Gas, Saskatchewan Ministry of Energy and Resources, http://www.neb.gc.ca/clf-nsi/rnrgynfmtn/nrgyrprt/ ntrlgs/ssktchwnltmtptntl2008/ssktchwnltmtptntl2008-eng.html#smmr, published November 2008, accessed May 2011.

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Appendix B Tables

Table 9. Coal reserve estimates. Recoverable at Active/ Producing Mines Coal Recoverable Coal Demonstrated Reserve Reserves Reserves Base State/Province Million Short Tons Million Short Ton Million Short Ton Year of Estimate Colorado 314 9,634 15,981 2009 Idaho 0 2 4 2009 Montana 855 74,770 119,017 2009 North Dakota 1,208 6,792 8,903 2009 South Dakota 0 277 366 2009 Utah 201 2,631 5,203 2009 Wyoming 6,917 38,743 61,563 2009 Alberta 1,221 Not available Not available 2009 British Columbia 3,437 Not available Not available 2008 Saskatchewan 1,433 Not available Not available Not available WEC Total 15,586 Not available Not available U.S. Total 17,474 260,551 486,102 Canada Total 7,251 Not available Not available EIA, 2010, “Table 15. Recoverable Coal Reserves at Producing Mines, Estimated Recoverable Reserves, and Demonstrated Reserve Base by Mining Method, 2009 (Million Short Tons),” Recoverable Coal Reserves at Producing Mines, Estimated Recoverable Reserves, and Demonstrated Reserve Base by Mining Method, Energy Information Administration, DOE/EIA-0584, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table15.html, published October 1, 2010, accessed May 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2011, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2010 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2011-2010. http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/ STs/st98_current.pdf. Ryan, B., 2002, “Coal in British Columbia,” Ministry of Energy and Mines, http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Geoscience/Coal/CoalBC/Pages/default.aspx, accessed May 2011.

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Table 10. Coal production. Produced Coal State/Province Million Short Tons/Year Year of Estimate Colorado 28.3 2009 Montana 39.5 2009 North Dakota 29.9 2009 Utah 21.7 2009 Wyoming 431.1 2009 Alberta 34.3 2009 British Columbia 23.2 2009 Saskatchewan 11.6 2009 WEC Total 619.6 2009 U.S. Total 1,074.9 2009 Canada Total 69.3 2009 World Total 7514.7 2009

EIA, 2010, Annual Coal Report, Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/ coal/page/acr/acr_sum.html, updated February 3, 2011, accessed May 2011. Natural Resources Canada, n.d., “Coal Production by Type and Province,” http://coal.ca/content/ attachments/article/62/Coal%20Production%20by%20Type%20and%20Province.pdf, accessed May 2011.

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Appendix B Tables

Table 11. Installed hydropower capacity generation and hydropower potential. Current Installed Hydropower Capacity Generation Hydropower Potential Feasible 2009 Annual 2009 Total Feasible Additional Hydropower Installed Hydropower Annual Hydropower % Additional Annual Potential Generation Number of Capacity Generation Generation* of Total Annual Capacity Generation Compared to 2009 State/Province Plants (MW) (GWh) (GWh) Generation (MW) (GWh) Generation Colorado 57 666 2,058 50,738 4% 1,782 7,805 379% Idaho 127 2,346 9,057 12,172 78% 4,244 18,589 196% Montana 38 2,660 9,142 26,348 35% 3,338 14,620 160% North Dakota 1 486 1,475 34,196 4% 80 350 24% South Dakota 6 1,463 4,319 8,083 53% 238 1,042 24% Utah 67 256 697 43,404 2% 802 3,513 504% Wyoming 20 304 853 45,916 2% 1,014 4,441 521% Alberta 21 900 1,385 69,262 2% 11,775 53,000 3827% British Columbia 30 11,000 56,447 63,210 89% 33,137 145,140 257% Saskatchewan 7 853 3,000 17,900 17% 3,955 17,323 577% WEC Total 374 20,934 88,883 371,229 24% 60,365 265,823 299% * From all electricity sources. Canadian Hydropower Association, 2008, Hydropower in Canada: Past Present and Future, http://www.canhydropower.org/hydro_e/pdf/hydropower_past_present_future_en.pdf, accessed June 2011. BChydro Regeneration. 2010. Our Facilities. http://www.bchydro.com/about/our_system/generation/our_facilities.html. accessed June 2011. Statistics Canada, 2011, Report on Energy Supply and Demand in Canada: 2009 Preliminary, Minister of Industry, Catalogue no. 57-003-X, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/57-003-x/57-003-x2009000-eng.pdf, published May 2011, accessed June 2011. EIA, 2011, “Table 1.13.B. Net Generation from Hydroelectric (Conventional) Power by State by Sector, Year-to-Date through December 2010 and 2009,” Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/cneaf/ electricity/epm/table1_13_b.html, published April 14, 2011, accessed May 2011. EIA, 2011, “Table 1.6.A. Net Generation by State by Sector, December 2010 and 2009,” http://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/table1_6_a.html, Energy Information Administration, published April 14, 2011, accessed May 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf, accessed June 2011.

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Table 12. Wind power capacity. Table 13. Grid-connected solar power capacity. Potential Capacity Installed Capacity Installed Solar Capacity State/Province (MW) (MW) State/Province (MW) Colorado 387,219 1,244 Colorado 35.7 Idaho 18,075 146 Idaho 0.1 Montana 944,004 375 Montana 0.7 North Dakota 770,195 1,203 North Dakota <0.1 South Dakota 882,412 313 South Dakota <0.1 Utah 13,104 223 Utah 0.2 Wyoming 552,773 1,099 Wyoming 0.1 Alberta 64,000 591 Alberta <1.0 British Columbia 72,000 198 British Columbia <1.0 Saskatchewan 42,500 171 Saskatchewan <1.0 WEC Total 3,746,282 5,563 WEC Total 39.9

AWEA, 2011, “Installed Wind Capacity by State,” American Wind Energy Association, http://www. CanSIA, 2010, Solar Vision 2025: Beyond Market Competitiveness, Canadian Solar Industries windpoweringamerica.gov/docs/installed_wind_capacity_by_state.xls, Accessed April 29, 2011. Association, http://www.cansia.ca/sites/default/files/pdf/solar_vision_2025.pdf, published December 2010, accessed May 2011. Green River Opportunities, n.d., “Wind Power Part 3,” http://www.greentech-opportunities.com/ Sector%20Overview/WindPart3, accessed June 2011. Doris, E., J. McLaren, V. Healey, and S. Hockett, 2009, State of the States 2009: Renewable Energy Development and the Role of Policy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Pembina, n.d., “Greening the Grid: Powering Alberta’s Future with Renewable Energy,” The Pembina NREL/TP-6A2-46667, http://www.nrel.gov/applying_technologies/state_local_activities/pdfs/tap_ Institute, http://pubs.pembina.org/reports/greeningthegrid-fs.pdf, accessed June 2011. webinar_20091118_46667.pdf, published October 2009. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/ Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf

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Table 14. Biomass resources. Forest Residues Mill and Urban Wood Waste Agricultural Residues Grain Production State/Providence (BDt/yr) (BDt/yr) (BDt/yr) Green metric tonnes per year (t/yr) Colorado 45,300 605,700 1,997,400 5,518,600 Idaho 743,500 2,373,200 2,139,000 4,123,200 Montana 717,200 1,655,800 2,130,200 5,448,300 North Dakota 29,200 74,400 7,338,300 21,238,600 South Dakota 133,900 271,400 7,213,100 24,145,800 Utah 19,000 287,400 88,100 302,700 Wyoming 62,900 282,180 112,300 452,600 Alberta 4,600,000 724,000 14,500,000 30,098,900 British Columbia 11,940,000 1,815,000 143,900 2,167,100 Saskatchewan 579,500 2,174,600 17,453,000 46,164,000 WEC Total 18,870,500 10,263,700 53,115,300 139,659,800 Government of Alberta, 2010, “Alberta 2009 Crop Season in Review,” Government of Alberta, Agriculture and Rural Development, http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/sdd13100?opendocument, published April 27, 2010, accessed March 2011. Knowledge Development Framework, https://bioenergykdf.net/, accessed March 2011. Welling, H. H., and T. J. Shaw, 2007, Energy From Wood Biomass Combustion In Rural Alberta Applications, The Agricultural Policy Framework (APF), A Federal-Provincial-Territorial Initiative, sponsored by the Government of Canada and the Government of Alberta, http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/apa11648/$file/alberta_wood_biomass_report.pdf?OpenElement, accessed March 2011. Biocap Canada, 2008, An Information Guide on Pursuing Biomass Energy Opportunities and Technologies in British Columbia for First Nations, Small Communities, Municipalities and Industry, Produced for BC Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, BC Ministry of Forests and Range, http://www.energyplan.gov.bc.ca/bioenergy/PDF/BioenergyInfoGuide.pdf, accessed March 2011. Government of Saskatchewan, 2007, Report on Saskatchewan’s Provincial Forests, http://www.er.gov.sk.ca/adx/aspx/adxGetMedia.aspx?DocID=10408,5460,2936,Documents&MediaID=26483&Filename=Report+o n+Saskatchewan’s+Forests+March+2007.pdf, accessed March 2011. Government of Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture, “Agricultural Statistics Crops- Grains and Oilseeds,” http://www.agriculture.gov.sk.ca/agriculture_statistics/HBV5_Crop1.asp, accessed March 2011. Natural Resources Canada, “About Uranium,” http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/eneene/sources/uranuc/uranium/aboapr-eng.php, updated July 6, 2009, accessed March 2011.

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Appendix B Tables

Table 15. Geothermal power capacity: current and under development. U.S. Canada WEC Current Existing 3,087 0 58 Capacity (MW) 2010 Annual 14,254 × 103 0 337 × 103 Generation (MW-hr) Projects Under Development Near 1,409 0 198 Commercial Developments (MW) Initiated 4,398 3 1,097 Projects (MW) Jennejohn, D., 2010, US Geothermal Power Production and Development Update, Geothermal Energy Association, http://www.geo-energy.org/pdf/reports/April_2010_US_Geothermal_Industry_Update_ Final.pdf, published April 2010, accessed May 2011. EIA, 2011, Electric Power Monthly: February 2011, Energy Information Administration, DOE/EIA- 0226 (201102). http://www.eia.gov/ftproot/electricity/epm/02261102.pdf, published February 2011, accessed May 2011.

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Table 16. Electric power net capacity by primary energy source in megawatts for 2009. Other Pumped State/Province Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Other Gasa Hydro Renewablesb Otherc Storage Total Colorado 5,010 178 5,357 0 666 1,271.0 0 563 13,045.0 Idaho 17 5 812 0 2,346 219.0 15 0 3,414.0 Montana 2,442 57 200 2 2,660 386.0 0 0 5,747.0 North Dakota 4,148 71 15 8 486 1,212.0 0 0 5,940.0 South Dakota 497 230 722 0 1,463 320.0 0 0 3,232.0 Utah 4,871 25 2,002 0 256 265.0 0 0 7,419.0 Wyoming 5,929 7 120 92 304 1,104.0 12 0 7,568.0 Alberta 5,971 10 5,201 0 900 914.0 0 0 12,996.0 British Columbia 0 0 1,163 0 11,000 290.0 0 0 12,453.0 Saskatchewan 1,664 0 1,029 0 8,53 171.2 0 0 3,717.2 WEC Total 30,549 583 16,621 102 20,934 6,152.2 27 563 75,531.2 a. For U.S. other gas includes blast furnace gas, propane gas, and other manufactured and waste gases derived from fossil fuels. b. For U.S. other Renewables includes wood, black liqour, other wood waste, municipal solid waste, landfill gas, sludge waste, agriculture byproducts, other biomass, geothermal, solar thermal, photovoltaic energy, and wind. c. For U.S. other includes batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch, purchased steam, sulfur, tire-derived fuels and miscellaneous technologies.EIA, 2011, State Electricity Profiles, U.S. Energy Information Administration, DOE/EIA-0348(01)/2, http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML1113/ML111361080.pdf, released April 15, 2011, accessed May 2011. Statistics Canada, 2011, Report on Energy Supply and Demand in Canada: 2009 Preliminary, Minister of Industry, Catalogue no. 57-003-X, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/57-003-x/57-003-x2009000-eng.pdf, published May 2011, accessed June 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf BChydro Regeneration. 2010. Our Facilties. http://www.bchydro.com/about/our_system/generation/our_facilities.html. accessed June 2011. MOVE: the a/b/c footnotes above the reference list.

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Appendix B Tables

Table 17. Electricity generation in megawatt-hours for 2009. Total Fossil Other Pumped State/Province Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Other Gasa Fuel* Hydropower Renewablesb Storage Otherc Total** Colorado 31,636,023 13,453 13,840,025 0 45,489,501 2,058,215 3,245,973 -108,658 53,411 50,738,442 Idaho 82,565 41 1,643,595 0 1,726,201 9,506,510 867,316 0 72,371 12,172,398 Montana 15,611,279 490,433 77,762 1,447 16,180,921 9,141,899 915,566 0 110,308 26,348,694 North Dakota 29,606,966 45,016 16,606 43,526 29,712,114 1,475,251 3,009,102 0 0 34,196,467 South Dakota 3,217,353 8,320 80,334 0 3,306,007 4,319,205 426,756 0 31,318 8,083,286 Utah 35,526,126 36,057 6,444,042 27,933 42,034,158 696,991 486,536 0 186,994 43,404,679 Wyoming 41,954,266 50,181 488,014 284,361 42,776,822 853,609 2,226,205 0 59,613 45,916,249 Alberta 41,557,210 Not available Not available Not available 64,147,500 1,385,000 3,463,100 0 266,400 69,262,000 British Columbia Not available Not available Not available Not available 6,764,000 56,446,600 0 0 0 63,210,600 Saskatchewan Not available Not available Not available Not available 14,900,000 3,000,000 0 0 0 17,900,000 WEC Total 267,037,224 88,883,280 14,640,554 (108,658) 780,415 371,232,815 a. For U.S. other gas include blast furnace gas, propane gas, and other manufactured and waste gases derived from fossil fuels. b. For U.S. other renewables includes wood, black liqour, other wood waste, municipal solid waste, landfill gas, sludge waste, agriculture byproducts, other biomass, geothermal, solar thermal, photovoltaic energy, and wind. c. For U.S. other includes non-biogenic municipal waste, batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch, purchased steam, sulfur, tire-derived fuels and miscellaneous technologies. * The Fossil Fuel column is the total of Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas and Other gases added together. ** The Total column is comprised of Fossil Fuel, Hydropower, Other Renewables, Pumped Storage, and Other. EIA, 2011, State Electricity Profiles, U.S. Energy Information Administration, DOE/EIA-0348(01)/2, http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML1113/ML111361080.pdf, released April 15, 2011, accessed May 2011. Statistics Canada, 2011, Report on Energy Supply and Demand in Canada: 2009 Preliminary, Minister of Industry, Catalogue no. 57-003-X, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/57-003-x/57-003-x2009000-eng.pdf, published May 2011, accessed June 2011. Statistics Canada, 2011, Energy Statistics Handbook: Fourth Quarter 2010, Minister of Industry, Catalogue no. 57-601-X, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/57-601-x/57-601-x2010004-eng.pdf, published May 2011, accessed June 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf, accessed June 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, ST98:Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/Demand Outlook. http://www.ercb.ca/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_240_2547145_0_0_18/. accessed June 2011. BChydro Regeneration. 2010. Our Facilties. http://www.bchydro.com/about/our_system/generation/our_facilities.html. accessed June 2011.

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Appendix B Tables

Table 18. Petroleum refineries and upgraders capacity as of Sept. 2010. Table 19. Biofuels production capacity. Barrels per Biofuels State/Province Number of Sites Calendar Day State/Province (U.S. million gal. per year) Colorado 2 102,000 Colorado 148 Montana 4 187,600 Idaho 67 North Dakota* 1 58,000 Montana 0 Utah 5 167,700 North Dakota 497 Wyoming 8 204,600 South Dakota 1,003 Alberta 3 432,200 Wyoming 13 British Columbia 2 64,000 Alberta 225 Saskatchewan 2 128,000 British Columbia 6 Upgraders Saskatchewan 90 Alberta 5 1,209,000 WEC Total 2,049 Saskatchewan 1 75,000 Knowledge Development Framework, https://bioenergykdf.net/, accessed March 2011. WEC Refining Total 1,344,100 DOE-EERE, n.d., “Biomass Energy Data Book,” Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/biopower.shtml, updated 2010, accessed May 2011. WEC Upgrading Total 1,284,000 Ethanol Producer, 2011, “Canada Plants,” Ethanol Producer Magazine, BBI International, http:// www.ethanolproducer.com/plants/listplants/Canada, updated June 9, 2011, accessed June 2011. * This facility will expand to 58,000 barrels per day capacity in 2012. EIA, 2010, “Ranking of U.S. Refineries: U.S. Refineries Operable Capacity,” Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/neic/rankings/refineries.htm, updated September 2010, accessed May 2011. Government of Alberta, 2010, “Talk About Upgrading and Refining,” Oil Sands Publications, Videos & Maps, “Talk About” Fact Sheets, http://www.energy.alberta.ca/Oil/pdfs/FSRefiningUpgrading.pdf, published October 2010, accessed May 2011. CPPI, 2011, “About the Industry – Refinery Operations,” Canadian Petroleum Products Institute, http://www.cppi.ca/index_e.php?p=65, accessed May 2011.

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Appendix B Tables

Table 20. Electricity generation in megawatt-hours for renewables 2009. Biomass and State/Province Wind Waste Geothermal Solar Thermal Total Nonhydro* Hydro Total** Colorado 2,942,133 50,528 0 17 2,992,678 2,058,215 5,050,893 Idaho 227,028 477,948 10,707 0 715,683 9,506,510 10,222,193 Montana 810,815 100,425 0 0 911,240 9,141,899 10,053,139 North Dakota 2,756,289 8,453 0 0 2,764,742 1,475,251 4,239,993 South Dakota 392,308 5,775 0 0 398,083 4,319,205 4,717,288 Utah 64,497 0 279,121 0 343,618 696,991 1,040,609 Wyoming 221,382 0 0 0 221,382 853,609 1,074,991 Alberta 1,557,900 1,905,200 0 0 3,463,100 1,385,000 4,848,100 British Columbia 0 0 0 0 0 56,446,600 56,446,600 Saskatchewan 500,000 0 0 0 500,000 3,000,000 3,500,000 WEC Total 9,472,352 2,548,329 289,828 17 12,310,526 88,883,280 101,193,806 * Nonhydro is the sum of wind, biomass and waste, geothermal, and solar thermal columns. ** The total column is Hydro and Nonhydro only. EIA, 2011, State Electricity Profiles, U.S. Energy Information Administration, DOE/EIA-0348(01)/2, http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML1113/ML111361080.pdf, released April 15, 2011, accessed May 2011. Statistics Canada, 2011, Report on Energy Supply and Demand in Canada: 2009 Preliminary, Minister of Industry, Catalogue no. 57-003-X, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/57-003-x/57-003-x2009000-eng.pdf, published May 2011, accessed June 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, ST98:Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/Demand Outlook. http://www.ercb.ca/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_240_2547145_0_0_18/. accessed June 2011.

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Table 21. Electricity generation capacity in megawatts for renewables 2009. Biomass and State/Province Wind Waste Geothermal Solar Thermal Total Nonhydro* Hydro Total** Colorado 1,244 13 0 14 1,271.0 666 1,937.0 Idaho 146 63 10 0 219.0 2,346 2,565.0 Montana 375 17 28 0 386.0 2,660 3,046.0 North Dakota 1,203 10 0 0 1,212.0 486 1,698.0 South Dakota 313 0 0 0 320.0 1,463 1,783.0 Utah 223 9 34 0 265.0 256 521.0 Wyoming 1,099 0 0 0 1,104.0 304 1,408.0 Alberta 591 193 0 0 914.0 900 1,814.0 British Columbia 248 190 0 0 290.0 11,000 11,290.0 Saskatchewan 171 0 0 0 171.2 853 1,024.2 WEC Total 5,613 495 72 14 6152.2 20,934 27086.2 * Nonhydro is the sum of wind, biomass and waste, geothermal, and solar thermal columns. ** The total column is Hydro and Nonhydro only. EIA, 2011, State Electricity Profiles, U.S. Energy Information Administration, DOE/EIA-0348(01)/2, http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML1113/ML111361080.pdf, released April 15, 2011, accessed May 2011. Statistics Canada, 2011, Report on Energy Supply and Demand in Canada: 2009 Preliminary, Minister of Industry, Catalogue no. 57-003-X, http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/57-003-x/57-003-x2009000-eng.pdf, published May 2011, accessed June 2011. Energy Resources Conservation Board, June 2010, Alberta’s Energy Reserves 2009 and Supply/Demand Outlook 2010-2019, ST98-2010, http://www.ercb.ca/docs/products/STs/st98_2010.pdf BChydro Regeneration. 2010. Our Facilities. http://www.bchydro.com/about/our_system/generation/our_facilities.html. accessed June 2011. AWEA, 2011, “Installed Wind Capacity by State,” American Wind Energy Association, http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/docs/installed_wind_capacity_by_state.xls, accessed April 29, 2011.

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Western Energy Corridor

Glossary

Conventional resources: Hydrocarbon Electricity generation: The process of pro- Kilowatt (kW): One thousand watts. Short ton: A unit of weight equal to resources that can be exploited us- ducing electric energy or the amount of 2,000 pounds. Kilowatthour (kWh): A measure of ing traditional oil and gas extraction electric energy produced by transform- electricity defined as a unit of work or Small-hydro: Refers to upper limit techniques. ing other forms of energy, commonly energy, measured as 1 kilowatt (1,000 capacities of between 20 and 30 MW, expressed in kilowatthours(kWh) or Barrel: A unit of volume equal to 42 watts) of power expended for 1 hour. however, a value of up to 10 MW megawatthours (MWh). U.S. gallons, 35 imperial gallons, or One kWh is equivalent to 3,412 Btu. total capacities is becoming generally 159 liters. Energy source: Any substance or natural accepted. Small hydro can be further Megawatt (MW): One million watts of phenomenon that can be consumed or subdivided into mini hydro (usually Barrels per calendar day: Measurement electricity. transformed to supply heat or power. defined as <500kW and micro hydro used to describe the amount of crude Megawatthour (MWh): One thousand (<100kW). oil (measured in barrels) produced or Established reserves: Reserves recover- kilowatthours or 1 million watt-hours. consumed by an entity in one day. able under current technology and Technically recoverable reserves: Resources present and anticipated economic con- Metric ton or tonne: A unit of weight which can be produced using currently Billion: For this document a billion is ditions specifically proved by drilling, equal to 2,204.6 pounds. available technology. defined as 109 or ‘giga’. testing, or production, plus the portion Micro-hydro: Usually defined as Ultimate recoverable reserves: The total Biofuels: Liquid fuels and blending of contiguous recoverable reserves <100kW (see Small-hydro). expected recoverable volume from components produced from biomass that are interpreted to exist from Potential Capacity: The possible in- a well, lease, or field under present feedstocks, used primarily for trans- geological, geophysical, or similar stalled capacity that could potentially economic and engineering conditions; portation. information with reasonable certainty. be achieved based on a hydropower synonymous with total recovery. Biomass: Organic nonfossil material of Generation: Process of producing resource assessment. Unconventional resources: Refers to a biological origin constituting a renew- electric energy by transforming other Proven reserves: Quantities, by analysis group of hydrocarbons that require able energy source. forms of energy; also, the amount of of geological and engineering data, stimulation for the extraction of com- Barrel of oil equivalent (BOE): Unit of electric energy produced, expressed in can be estimated with reasonable mercial volumes. energy based on the approximate kilowatthours. certainty to be commercially recover- energy released by burning one barrel Gigawatt (GW): One billion watts or one able, from a given date forward, from (42 US gallons, 35 imperial gallons, or thousand megawatts. known reservoirs and under current 158.9873 litres) of crude oil. Installed Capacity: The maximum power economic conditions, operating meth- Capacity Factor: Measure of the perfor- output rating of a power plant (usually ods, and government regulations. mance of a power source over time as in MW) measured on an instantaneous Reserve: That portion of the demon- a percentage of its full power potential. basis. strated reserve base that is estimated to Coal bed: A bed or stratum of coal. Also In-place reserves: Total amount without be recoverable at the time of determi- called a coal seam. regard to the cost or technology neces- nation (based on current knowledge, sary to get at it. technology, and economics).

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