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Digital Soil Map of the World Could Lead to More Refi Ned Mapping and Pedro A POLICYFORUM ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Increased demand and advanced techniques Digital Soil Map of the World could lead to more refi ned mapping and Pedro A. Sanchez, 1 * Sonya Ahamed, 1 Florence Carré, 2 Alfred E. Hartemink, 3 Jonathan Hempel, 4 management of soils. Jeroen Huising, 5 Philippe Lagacherie, 6 Alex B. McBratney, 7 Neil J. McKenzie, 8 Maria de Lourdes Mendonça-Santos, 9 Budiman Minasny, 7 Luca Montanarella, 2 Peter Okoth, 5 Cheryl A. Palm, 1 Jeffrey D. Sachs, 1 Keith D. Shepherd, 10 Tor-Gunnar Vågen, 10 Bernard Vanlauwe, 5 Markus G. Walsh, 1 Leigh A. Winowiecki, 1 Gan-Lin Zhang 1 1 oils are increasingly recognized as major the degree of soil degradation ( 4). At present, dations, and serving the end users—all of contributors to ecosystem services such 109 countries have conventional soil maps at them backed by a robust cyberinfrastructure. Sas food production and climate regula- a scale of 1:1 million or fi ner, but they cover [See fig. S1, expanded from ( 7).] Specific tion ( 1, 2), and demand for up-to-date and rel- only 31% of the Earth’s ice-free land surface, countries may add their own modifi cations. evant soil information is soaring. But commu- leaving the remaining countries reliant on nicating such information among diverse audi- the FAO-UNESCO map ( 5). [See supporting Digital Soil Mapping ences remains challenging because of incon- online material (SOM) for more history.] Digital soil mapping began in the 1970s ( 8) sistent use of technical jargon, and outdated, To address these many shortcomings, and accelerated significantly in the 1980s imprecise methods. Also, spatial resolutions soil scientists should produce a fi ne-resolu- because of advances in information and of soil maps for most parts of the world are too tion, three-dimensional grid of the functional remote-sensing technologies, computing, sta- low to help with practical land management. properties of soils relevant to users. We call tistics and modeling, spatial information and While other earth sciences (e.g., climatol- for development of a freely accessible, Web- global positioning systems, measurement sys- ogy, geology) have become more quantitative based digital soil map of the world that will tems (such as infrared spectroscopy), and in and have taken advantage of the digi- tal revolution, conventional soil map- ping delineates space mostly according Maps can provide soil inputs (e.g., texture, organic on September 11, 2009 to qualitative criteria and renders maps using a series of polygons, which lim- carbon, and soil-depth parameters) to models its resolution. These maps do not ade- quately express the complexity of soils predicting land-cover changes in response to global across a landscape in an easily under- standable way. climatic and human disturbances. The Food and Agriculture Orga- nization (FAO) of the United Nations www.sciencemag.org (UN) and the UN Educational, Scientifi c and make georeferenced soil information read- more recent times, online access to informa- Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published ily available for land-users, scientists, and tion. Experimentation with these technologies the fi rst world soil map in 1981, using a sin- policy-makers. A foundation for such an is leading toward consensus ( 7, 9– 12), and gle soil classifi cation terminology ( 3). The effort is being laid by the GlobalSoilMap.net operational systems are being implemented. map has been utilized in many global stud- (GSM) project. This effort originated in 2006 A digital soil map is essentially a spatial ies on climate change, food production, and ( 6) in response to policy-makers’ frustrations database of soil properties, based on a statis- land degradation. But its low resolution (1:5 at being unable to get quantitative answers tical sample of landscapes. Field sampling is million scale) is not suitable for land manage- to questions such as: How much carbon is used to determine spatial distribution of soil Downloaded from ment decisions at fi eld or catchment scales. sequestered or emitted by soils in a particular properties, which are mostly measured in the One of the most-cited soil degradation stud- region? What is its impact on biomass pro- laboratory. These data are then used to predict ies, the Global Assessment of Human Induced duction and human health? How do such esti- soil properties in areas not sampled. Digital Soil Degradation, is based on expert judgment mates change over time? soil maps describe the uncertainties associ- by a few individuals, has very low resolution The GSM consortium’s overall approach ated with such predictions and, when based (1:50 million scale), and lacks quantitative consists of three main components: digital on time-series data, provide information on information on soil properties that indicate soil mapping, soil management recommen- dynamic soil properties. They also differ from conventional, polygon-based maps, in 1Earth Institute at Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY 10964, USA. 2Joint Research Centre, European that they are pixel-based and can be more eas- Commission, 21020 Ispra, VA, Italy. 3ISRIC–World Soil Information, 6700 AJ, Wageningen, Netherlands. 4National ily displayed at higher resolutions currently Soil Survey Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Lincoln, NE 68508, USA. used by other earth and social sciences. 5Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Post Offi ce Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya. 6Laboratoire d’Étude des Interactions Sols-Agrosystèmes-Hydrosystèmes, L’Institut National pour There are three main steps in digital soil la Recherche Agronomique, Institut de Recherche pour Développement, SupAgro, 34060 Montpellier 1, France. mapping. Step 1, data input, starts with the 7Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.8Commonwealth production of base maps, assembling and cal- Scientifi c and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) Land and Water, Government Post Offi ce Box 1666, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia. 9EMBRAPA–Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, The National Center of Soil Research, Rua Jardim ibrating spatially contiguous covariates from Botânico, 1024, 22.460-000, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 10World Agroforestry Centre, Post Offi ce Box 30677–00100, Nairobi available data [e.g., the 90- × 90-m resolution 00100, Kenya. 11State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science of the Chinese Academy digital terrain models from Shuttle Radar of Sciences, Nanjing, China. Topography Mission (SRTM v.3)]. Covari- *Author for correspondence. E-mail: [email protected] ates, refl ecting state factors of soil forma- 680 7 AUGUST 2009 VOL 325 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org Published by AAAS POLICYFORUM tion ( 13– 15), include climate information supply networks, as well as crop models, such variety of end users ( 20). Digital soil informa- (e.g., temperature, rainfall, evaporation); as those being assembled by HarvestChoice tion is likely to be welcomed by such groups. land cover (e.g., Normalized Difference Veg- ( 19). These social covariates address additional For example, GSM will focus on providing etation Index); a range of digital terrain vari- state factors of soil formation: organisms (other soil inputs (e.g., texture, organic carbon, and ables; and geological variables relating to soil than vegetation), time, and human activities soil-depth parameters) to Soil-Vegetation- parent materials (e.g., airborne gamma radio- ( 13, 14). Legacy data from fi eld trials are used Atmosphere Transfer models that are used metric spectroscopy). to develop models and transfer functions for to predict land-cover changes in response to In developed countries, there may be suf- specifi c soil management recommendations. anticipated climatic and human disturbances fi cient point soil observations to allow putting (See SOM for further information.) across the globe. a fraction aside to subsequently test and cross- A new generation of soil scientists must validate the map for “ground truth.” In Africa, Serving the End Users be trained in this approach. The resultant new ground-truthing has been built into the sys- Step 5 is to develop evidence-based soil man- maps and management recommendations tem. Over the next 4 years, experimental sites agement recommendations. This relies on will help address some of the main challenges will be established in 60 sentinel landscapes, analysis of soil functions of step 3 and the of our time: food security, climate change, which have been randomized across an 18.1 legacy data, social covariates, and new experi- environmental degradation, water scarcity, million km2 of sub-Saharan Africa. mental data obtained in step 4. Resulting maps and threatened biodiversity. Collection of legacy soils data (preexist- and management recommendations form a References and Notes ing, georeferenced fi eld or laboratory mea- baseline against which changes can be moni- 1. C. A. Palm, P. A. Sanchez, S. Ahamed, A. Awiti, Annu. Rev. surements) is an important part of step 1. tored and evaluated over time. Principal user Environ. Resour. 32, 99 (2007). 2. Millennium Ecosystems Assessment, Ecosystems and Major investment in new soil measurement groups are typically agricultural extension Human Well-Being (Island Press, Washington, DC, 2005). will be required in countries having sparse workers and policy-makers whose main task 3. FAO-UNESCO, “Soil map of the world: Revised legend soil legacy data. is to reverse soil degradation, to preserve and (with corrections and updates)” (World Soil Resources Step 2 involves estimation of soil proper- maintain soil health, and to improve food secu- Report 60, FAO, Rome, 1988). 4. L. R. Oldeman, R. T. A. Hakkeling, W. G. Sombroek, World ties, expressed as probabilities of occurrence rity and household livelihoods. Other users Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation: ( 16). They are derived by using quantitative include research and modeling communities, Explanatory Note (ISRIC–UN Environment Programme, relations between point soil measurements farmer associations, environmental extension Wageningen, 1991). on September 11, 2009 5.
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