as an aspect of a pragmatist theory of A. Coetzee

January 1999. Department of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002. Tel: (011) 646-2605 (home) Tel: (011) 406-2184 (work)

Abstract interpreters of architecture should value region­ al and cultural differences. It is observed that the

In this essay an attempt is made to validate the beliefs and habits of life at a particular time and historicist theories that architectural practices place inform architects and that architecture change over time and that architecture can be could be interpreted as the products of regional interpreted as manifestations of the beliefs exist­ and temporal interests. Lastly the ideas are 4 ing in particular communities at a specific time. advanced that interpretations of architectural To support these theses comparisons are made practices vary according to the purposes of vari­ between the philosophy of Hegel and the archi­ ous communities and that the aims of architec­ tectural theories of Pugin and Ruskin. The aspect tural practitioners are' conditioned by the goals of Hegel's philosophy that is studied is his con­ of the communities that they work for. viction that arbitrary and contingent aspects of a particular historical existence influenced human beliefs. Pugin postulated that the beliefs and Abstrak customs of the communities that architectural designers worked for influenced their designs. In hierdie artikel word 'n poging aangewend om Ruskin also theorised that architecture was die historistiese teorie te ondersteun dat argitek­ informed by local beliefs of a particular time. The tuurpraktyke verander met tyd en dat argitektu­ results of the comparisons between the theories ur ge'lnterpreteer kan word as manifestasies van of Hegel, Pugin and Ruskin are used in the essay dit waarin bepaalde gemeenskappe glo op 'n to formulate guidelines for present-day architec­ sekere tyd. Om hierdie stellings te ondersteun tural practices and for interpretations of current word die filosofie van Hegel vergelyk met die architecture. It is suggested that designers and argitektuurteorie van Pugin en Ruskin. Die

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services bepaalde aspek van Hegel se filosofie wat Curriculum vitae of the author bestudeer word is sy oortuiging dat arbitrere en voorwaardelike aspekte van In spesifieke histo­ Anton Coetzee obtained a Bachelorls degree in riese bestaan menslike oortuiginge bernvloed. Architecture with distinction from the University Pugin het gepostuleer dat die oortuiginge en of Pretoria in 1981. In 1987 he obtained a gewoontes van die gemeenskappe waarvoor Bachelorls degree in Fine · from the University argitektuurpraktisyns werk In invloed uitoefen of South Africa. He obtained a Masterls Degree op hulle ontwerpe. Ruskin het ook geskryf dat in Architecture from the University of the plaaslike sienings wat bestaan gedurende In spe­ Witwatersrand in 1989. The title of his disserta­ sifieke tyd In invloed het op argitektuur. Die tion was Postmodern aesthetic theory with ref­ resultate van die vergelykings tussen die teorie erence to South African architecture. In 1998 he van Hegell Pugin en Ruskin word gebruik in die was awarded the degree Doctor of Philosophy artikel om riglyne te formuleer vir hedendaagse (in Architecture) by the Department of argitektuurpraktyke en vir interpretasies van Architecture and Landscape Architecturel 5 teenwoordige argitektuur. Die voorstel word University of Pretorial for the thesis A pragmatist gemaak dat ontwerpers en interpreteerders van theory of current architecture using Rortis per­ geboue die verskille wat bestaan tussen streke spective on Hegel. en kulture moet waardeer. Die opmerking word gemaak dat die menings en die lewensge­ woontes wat deel is van In spesifieke plek en tyd Historicism as an aspect of a argitektuurpraktisyns inlig en dat argitektuur pragmatist theory of architec­ gernterpreteer kan word as die produkte van ture belangstellings wat hoort by In streek en In tyd.

Die laaste idees wat voorgehou word in die The aim of writing this essay is to seek support artikel is dat interpretasies van argitektuurprak­ for the historicist theory that architectural prac­ tyke verskil na aanleiding van die doelwitte van tices are temporal and not timeless. Historicist verskillende gemeenskappe en dat die mikpunte theories are in contrast with theories in which van argitektuurpraktisyns bernvloed word deur immutable principles are sought for architecture. die oogmerke van die gemeenskappe vir wie This essay is part of an attempt to develop a hulle werk. pragmatist architectural theory in which archi-

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services tecture is conceived of as constituted through that such processes are governed by laws. Those human concepts that are developed historically subscribing to this belief think that history is and within a particular social context. immune from human agency and choice. Such a historicist view is sometimes ascribed to Hegel The pragmatist theme for this essay has been (Rorty 1980: 391 n.29), because he believed that provided by the opposition sketched by Rorty history developed out of necessity towards the (1991: 55-6) between a realist view of science - fulfilment of the destiny of Spirit. Hegel's deter­ as theoretical convictions guided by how things ministic views are suppressed by pragmatists. really are - and a pragmatist view of science - as Interpretations of human beliefs as temporal are an account of how beliefs and desires succeed­ also found in Hegel, and this aspect is empha­ ed one another and interacted in the course of sised by pragmatists. Rorty (1982: xli), for time. In Rorty's pragmatist view scientific expla­ instance, is interested in Hegel primarily because nations depend more on intellectual history than of his "temporalization of rationality", in the 6 on "non perspectival", objective terms. sense that he showed how conceptual frame­ works became outdated and were replaced by The term" historicism" is problematic because it other new "vocabularies" as time went by (see seems to have diametrically opposite meanings. also Hall 1994: 120). The sense in which it is used by pragmatist archi­ tectural theorists is the view that phenomena The contents of this essay are narrated according such as architecture are manifestations of the to a historicist method, in which comparisons beliefs of a particular community at a specific are made between theories of historical figures. time. The aim of the comparisons between historical theories is not to describe some inevitable or The term" historicism" refers to the theory that necessary historical progress of ideas. It is to social phenomena such as architecture are inter­ compare past theories in a playful and experi­ preted against the background of local beliefs mental way, thereby acknowledging the trans­ and customs. parency of the reconstructed historical narrative. A function of the process is to select aspects of Another sense of "historicism" is the belief in theories that are useful to formulate a pragma­ the necessity of historical processes, or the belief tist theory of architecture. Hegel has been cho-

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services sen as a character for the essay because Rorty cussion of historical truths in his "Preface: on sci­ (1980: 136-209) uses him in his description of entific cognition" in Phenomenology of Spirit. historical changes in philosophy. The aim of According to him, historical truths were con­ Rorty's historicist narrative is to show how ideas cerned with contingent and arbitrary aspects of about theoretical foundations for philosophy a particular existence . Such truths were not sta­ have been undermined in various historical tic, but were interpretations derived from com­ examples. In this essay Hegel's philosophy will be parisons between histories of different historical compared with the architectural theories of communities. Pugin and Ruskin to substantiate the thesis that architecture is not based on some essential prin­ The activities of particular individuals were part­ ciples, but that architectural theories and prac­ ly determined by the "skill and customary prac­ tices are historically determined. tice" of "a particular people or nation", accord­ ing to Hegel ([1807] 1977: 213). His theory was that communal customs were particularised in 7

1. Spirit of the age: Hegel individual actions and consciousne~s . One aspect of social actions was architectural practices, The idea that will be investigated in this section which Hegel ([1835] 1975, 2: 640) believed is found in Rorty's (1991: 120) philosophy, could not be based on a priori principles, namely that human beliefs and desires are tem­ because they were derived from accidental and poral, instead of being based on permanent contingent "actual historical views of life and principles. An aspect of this historicist thesis is religious pictorial ideas ". found in Hegel's philosophy, namely that differ­ ent historical cultures - such as Greeks and According to Hegel ([1835] 1975, 1: 30, 603-5) Christians - have different beliefs and aspirations was informed by artists' positions in frame­ that should be interpreted according to their works of ideas, and their artistic practices were particular objectives . based on thei r understanding of humanity's place in "the scheme of things" (see also The historicist conception of architectural prac­ Crowther 1990: 66). His thesis was that there tices that pragmatist theorists of architecture was a framework of ideas accepted by people have, is similar to Hegel's ([ 1807] 1977: 23) dis- making up a historical culture or epoch, and that

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services such a framework depended on the conception gious interests of whole epochs and peoples II that those people had about the Divine. This (Hegel ([1835] 1975, 1: 30). For an artist to be framework of ideas possessed by an epoch or able to express the spirit of his or her age in art,

culture was called the II substantial spirit of peo­ he or she had to identify with the prevailing ples and ages ll by Hegel ([1835] 1975, 1: 603; world-view and be in close contact with it, see also Gelernter 1995: 200). according to Hegel. He was critical of the art of his time, because he did not observe any con­ It was recommended by Hegel ([1835] 1975, 1: nection between it and the prevailing spirit of 14) that scholars of art researched the historical the time, a phenomenon that Hegel ([1835] context in which a particular was 1975, 1: 605) ascribed to the alienation of artists placed. He believed that lIevery work of art from their world-view. He thought that contem­ belongs to its own time, its own people, its own porary artists were indifferent to the content of environment, and depends on particular histori­ their art, and that they acted on a whim in their

ll 8 cal and other ideas and purposes • Hence he did art making. not think that there was a single, universal, and unchanging ideal in art. An example of artistic practices that Hegel ([1835] 1975, 1: 597-9) approved of was Dutch In the chapter on the dissolution of the genre , because it was influenced by the Romantic form of art in his , Hegel nationality, circumstances, locality, and activities ([1835] 1975, 1: 603) expressed his thesis of a of the artists. He thought that the depiction of

spirit of the times clearly: II every man is a child prosaic aspects of everyday life was linked to the

of his time in every activity, whether political, artists' Protestantism: they displayed a II pride in

ll religious, or scientific II • He believed that each a cheerful daily life (Hegel [1835] 1975, 1:

age had its own II necessary form II and II essen­ 598). tial content ll in art, and that it was the vocation of artists to express them. Therefore he did not Specific recommendations were made by Hegel believe that artistic form and content were to architects. These guidelines are taken serious­ based on caprice, but that art had an essential ly by pragmatist architects, who desire to design nature and higher purpose: it was IIbound up buildings that are particular to their context and with the most universal views of life and the reli- climate:

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services The good sense and genius of the architect has Hegel's idea that human experience grows to show itself in the complete fulfilment of a through interaction with the "historical con­ general task, namely to make his building fit the tents" of one's culture, but he rejects the circumstances, to have regard to climate, posi­ Hegelian thought that this process follows a nec­ tion, the environing natural landscape, and, essary course determined by the Absolute Spirit's while attending to all these points and keeping striving for self-consciousness. the purpose of the building in view, to produce at the same time a freely co-ordinated and uni­ fied whole (Hegel [1835] 1975, 2: 661). 2. Architecture is a manifesta­ tion of existing opinions and Hegel ([1835] 1975, 1: 76-81, 300-611) divided circumstances: Pugin the into three epochs, namely the Symbolic, the Classical, and the Romantic, and There are correspondences between Hegelian these different historical cultures were regarded ideas regarding a "spirit of the age" and Pugin's 9 as embodiments of the development of Spirit by An Apology for the Revival of Christian him (see also Taylor 1979: 96). He thought that Architecture in England (1843). "The history of there were different forms of art corresponding architecture is the history of the world" was a to these three stages. The development of art statement by Pugin (1843: 4) similar to the was linked with the sequence of spiritual con­ Hegelian idea that philosophy is its time grasped ceptions of the world by Hegel ([1835] 1975, 1: in thought. Pugin (1843: 45) believed that archi­ 72). As such he considered history as a move­ tects' designs were shaped by the manners, ment towards some necessary purpose. beliefs, religion and customs of the community in which they lived or for whom they designed, Current philosophers, such as Rorty (1989: 16, as well as by climatic conditions in the region 29), no longer believe that philosophical devel­ where the building was located. He wrote that opments or scientific advancements are getting was "the only correct closer to some intrinsic nature of things; they expression of the faith, wants, and climate of often regard present-day culture as the result of our country" and that Gothic" edifices embody historical contingencies. Crowther (1990: 70), the principles and worship of their builders" another present-day philosopher, agrees with (Pugin 1843: 4).

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services For Pugin (1843: 5) the architecture of his time and ahistorical architectural essences. He was was a "confused jumble of styles and symbols concerned that architecture should be suited to borrowed from all nations and periods"; it did a particular place and its architectural character not indicate "the system under which it was (Pugin [1841] 1973: 76). According to him archi­ erected"; and it was not "the expression of tectural character was largely determined by the existing opinions and circumstances". In con­ customs, climatic conditions, and available build­ trast "the works of our great ancestors" - name­ ing materials of a particular place (Pugin 1843: ly the builders of Gothic architecture - were 4, 37; Pugin [1836] 1973: 2; see also Clark deemed more appropriate to modern English [1928] 1974: 141-2). In his suggestions for the values and hence he promoted its revival (Pugin improvement of architectural education Pugin 1843: 5). (1843: 20-1) wrote that students should study local architecture rather than measuring ancient For architectural theorists the idea that principles Greek and Roman buildings, and that much 10 and conceptual frameworks are relative to a could be learnt from native vernacular architec­ place and time indicates a denial of the possibil­ ture. ity or desirability of an "international ". The idea that architecture can be the same allover the world derives from a belief in some ahistori­ 3. Architecture is a manifesta­ cal architectural essence. Such a doctrine is tion of its time in stone: Ruskin sometimes ascribed to architectural theory of the Enlightenment tradition. Laugier ([1753] Ruskin's theories contained much the same kind 1977: 11), for example, believed that architec­ of nominalist ideas as those found in Pug in's ture was based on simple, natural principles, thinking. In The Stones of Venice he postulated which he thought were found in a primitive state that architecture was informed by people's of culture. He did not distinguish between dif­ beliefs at a particular time. Ruskin ([1851-3] ferent cultural origins, and he did not think that 1921, 1: 13) wrote that" Roman Christian archi­ the basic principles of architecture changed over tecture" (more commonly known as Early time. Christian architecture) was an "exact expression of the Christianity of the time". This statement Pugin was opposed to such notions of universal indicates that he subscribed to historicist ideas -

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services similar to those of Hegel and Pugin - that archi­ Ruskin ([ 1851-3] 1921, 2: 186) believed that the tecture was a manifestation of its time in stone. "feelings and habits" of medieval workers and In The Seven Lamps of Architecture Ruskin stat­ craftsmen had an influence on the appearance ed that the value of architecture was as histori­ of Gothic architecture. An example of this rela­ cal record, which should be conserved: it is well tionship used by him was that northern medieval to have, not only what men have thought and workers (including Englishmen, Frenchmen, felt, but what their hands have handled, and Danes, and Germans) worked hard and rapidly their strength wrought, and their eyes beheld, all because of the coldness of the climate (and the the days of their life (Ruskin [1849] 1963: 182). short summer building period), as opposed to the "languor of the Southern tribes" (Ruskin Ruskin assumed that there were links between [1851-3] 1921,2: 186-7). architecture, religion, and morality during a his­ torical epoch. This is evident in the following Ruskin ([1851-3] 1921, 2: 187-8) interpreted extract where he discussed the : architecture as products of human practices and 11 This corruption of all architecture, especially aspirations. He saw a correlation between the ecclesiastical, corresponded with, and marked "rigid lines, vigorous and various masses, and the state of religion over all Europe, - the pecu­ daringly projecting and independent structure of liar degradation of the Romanist superstition, the Northern Gothic ornament" on the one and of public morality in consequence, which hand, and a supposed northerly medieval per­ brought about the Reformation (Ruskin [1851-3] sonality characterised by a strong will, indepen­ 1921,1:21). dent character, sense of purpose, and the ten­ dency to set individual reason against authority He thought that architecture was a material real­ on the other hand. He also tried to interpret isation of a nation's political system, life, history, architectural forms as physical manifestations of and religious faith (Ruskin [1849] 1963: 203). He the religious faith of historical communities. A also wrote that "good architecture should be possible criticism against Ruskin's theory is that expressive of some great truths commonly the products of human practices cannot be lim­ belonging to the whole race" (Ruskin [1851-3] ited to one form, such as Gothic architecture. 1921,2: 165). Both Greek revival and Gothic architecture can be interpreted as products of a particular human

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services practice, for example the practice of setting indi­ contingent on time and chance. vidual reason against authority and convention. Greek revival architecture can be interpreted as Hegel, Pugin and Ruskin were critical of contem­ an attempt to overcome the authority of porary cultural practices. They thought that Renaissance conventions by using the supposed­ artists and architects had to take local conditions ly correct and authentic data generated byarchi­ and customs into account, instead of trying to tectural archaeologists working in Greece since discover universal and ahistorical essences. To the eighteenth century. reinvigorate cultural practices they recommend­ ed that artists and architects should study tradi­ When he discussed the use of vegetative forms tional art and architecture in order to meet local in Gothic architecture Ruskin ([1851-3] 1921,2: human needs and aspirations. 183) assumed explicit links between the social conditions in which architects worked and the Up to this point of the essay the activity of inves­ 12 forms they produced. For example he thought tigating a historicist theory of architecture was that plant forms indicated that architects lived in limited to discussions of historicist theories that an agrarian society with its typically "rural and existed during the first half of the nineteenth thoughtful life": century. In Rorty's (1998: 257) terminology, com­ parisons were made between great dead theo­ The affectionate observation of the grace and rists in order to persuade the reader that a his­ outward character of vegetation is the sure sign toricist theory of architecture is plausible. of a more tranquil and gentle existence, sus­ tained by the gifts, and gladdened by the splen­ In the next part of the essay the theories of dour, of the earth (Ruskin [1851-3] 1921, 2: Hegel, Pugin and Ruskin will be used to address 183). present-day architectural problems in South Africa. Such a procedure is described by Rorty Ruskin's ([1851-3] 1921, 2: 183) observation (1998: 254, 261) as an anachronistic theoretical that "the new direction of mental interests inquiry in which current interests and concerns marks an infinite change in the means and the are used to select aspects and to guide interpre­ habits of life" was similar to Hegel's temporal tations of great dead theorists' work. The aspect and regional understanding of social practices as of the Romantic views of Hegel, Pugin, and

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services Ruskin that pragmatists are interested in is the 4.1 Regional architectural identities idea that philosophy and architecture are prod­ ucts of their times. In contrast with a conception of an "interna­ tional style" in architecture, attempts by Hegel, Pugin, and Ruskin have been described in this 4. The historicism of a pragma­ essay to promote cultural activities that were tist theory of architecture true to their time and that took national differ­ ences into account. They recognised that archi­ To conclude this essay pragmatist rules of action tecture was influenced by the beliefs, customs, for architectural practitioners and guidelines for and climates of specific cultures and regions, architectural interpretations will be sought from and advocated that local vernacular and tradi­ the theories of Hegel, Pugin, and Ruskin. Three tional forms of architecture should be studied. tenets have been derived from the inquiries con­ ducted in the first three parts of this essay. Pragmatist theorists promote a similar regional­ 13 Below the interpretation of the theories of ism in architecture. In South Africa there have Hegel, Pug in, and Ruskin will be elaborated by recently been discussions about local architec­ using current debates on similar topics. Rorty's tural identities. It is feasible to approach the theories will be used for this purpose as well as question of a national identity by encouraging the work of other authors who are sympathetic an appreciation for differences between South to a pragmatist stance. The tenets that will be African cultures and between South Africa and discussed are: the cultures of other nations. These differences, and the cultural diversity in South Africa, make 4.1 that regional identities are desired for this country unique, and give it a recognisable current ; identity. 4.2 that architectural practices are interpreted in temporal and regional contexts; and An appreciation of differences requires a cultiva­ 4.3 that architectural needs are specific to tion of cultural tolerance. Guidelines are found particular communities. in the writings of Rorty about how the apprecia­ tion of differences may promote tolerance and sympathy for others. In his essay" Postmodernist

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services bourgeois liberalism ll Rorty (1991: 197-202) metres. The architect recognised that the exter­ denies the existence of a IIsupercommunityll nal spaces of the houses would often be used that all humans have to identify with. His theory for living and social activities, because the rooms is that human dignity is a derivative of some spe­ inside were so small. In rural settlements outside cific community. According to Rorty, the inter­ areas are often surrounded by built-in seats pretation of human identity as the interests of a along the courtyard walls and along the walls of historically conditioned community has been the houses. The temperate and sunny climate of derived from Hegel, and he explains that a sense South Africa allows for such outdoor living. In of identity is something that is constantly chang­ sympathy with this cultural practice, Noero

ing, adapting, and II reweaving II itself. One iden­ designed seating built into the house walls fac­ tifies with a group for political and moral pur­ ing the external spaces, so that the occupants poses, and Rorty describes identity as the dis­ could live there in a dignified way. tinctive feature of a social group that is defined 14 in contrast with other groups. A sense of identi­ In liOn ethnocentrism: A reply to Clifford ty is achieved by comparing one's own commu­ Geertz ll Rorty (1991: 203-10) holds that toler­ nity with others, and the practices and institu­ ance for diversity is a virtue of liberal democrat­ tions of a group are justified by the historical ic societies. He points out that modernist beliefs narratives that members of the group have of in a common human nature and human rights how their practices and institutions have devel­ were a Western cultural bias, and that the belief oped. Rorty writes about the challenge of plural­ in human equality is a Western eccentricity. istic societies, in which greater tensions exist Therefore the promotion of liberal tolerance by

between groups, and greater tolerance is pragmatists is also II case specific II and biased, required. South Africa is such a pluralistic society and no rational criteria exist to defend it. Yet that comprises of many different cultural groups. Rorty justifies liberal tolerance from his own eth­ nocentric position as a contingent strategy, and Jo Noero's (1988: 11-3) Alexandra Township he allows that such strategies change continu­ Community Housing project is an example of an ously to suit changing circumstances and pur­ architecture in which cultural differences were poses. appreciated. The areas of the houses ranged from a mere 17,2 square metres to 61,7 square Pragmatists declare their affiliations with

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services sociopolitical groups and strategies to be contin­ theatres, art galleries, restaurants, bars, and mar­ gent and 1/ spatiotemporal". Even ideals such as ket draw people to the area, which is centrally procedural justice and human equality are local placed in the metropolis. Yet on the fringes of and culture-bound. Therefore Rorty recognises the precinct there are culturally specific places that pragmatists cannot recommend a philo­ such as muti shops and the prestigious 11 sophical outlook to other cultures. They can Diagonal Street, a corporate headquarters build­ merely point out the advantages for different ing designed by Murphy Jahn in association with individuals and cultures to get along with each Louis Karol Architects (1986). other.

For the purpose of dealing with cultural diversity 4.2 Architectural practices interpreted in Rorty thinks that it is necessary to cultivate toler­ temporal and regional context ance for a multiplicity of doctrines and a plurality of conflicting conceptual frameworks. Rorty's Pragmatists hold the theory that architectural 15 metaphor for an ideal world-order is a bazaar practices are not based on some immutable and surrounded by private clubs, where the bazaar is universal principle, but that they change over the mingling place of different cultures, and the time and from place to place. Therefore they clubs are the private retreats where different cul­ agree with the stipulations of Hegel, Pugin, and tural groups can practise their cultural traditions. Ruskin that architects should take local sociopo­ Yet both the bazaar and the private club may litical circumstances, climate, beliefs, and geogra­ have unique identities, either in its diversity, or in phy into account when designlng buildings. its exclusivity. Above it has been discussed that Ruskin and A concrete architectural example of Rorty's Hegel interpreted social practices in their tempo­ metaphor of the bazaar surrounded by private ral and regional contexts. Using the idea of a clubs is the Market Theatre precinct in the city "spirit of the age" Pugin and Ruskin conceived of centre of Johannesburg. The area is used by a architecture as a product of existing opinions and lively cosmopolitan mix of cultures, and has his­ social circumstances. They believed that archi­ torically been a place where people from differ­ tects were informed by the beliefs and habits of ent areas in and around Johannesburg meet. The life at a particular time and in a specific place.

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services For Rorty (1982: xl-xli, 173-4; 1989: 55) the con­ ability of a single ruling discourse and the plau­ cept of a "spirit of the age" indicates a belief he sibility of a uniform society - such as Ruskin's shares with Hegel that "philosophy is its time ([1851-3] 1921, 2: 165) advancement of a grasped in thought". He uses the term "lonely "great truth" applicable to "the whole race" - provincialism" to denote the" admission that we are questioned. Bove (1986: 9) and Vattimo are just the historical moment that we are, not (1990: 76), for example, conceptualise "commu­ the representatives of something ahistorical" nity" and "society" to be discontinuous and to (Rorty 1991: 30). consist of various competing groups. Carrier (1991: 197-8) also questions the Hegelian idea The pragmatist thesis of the temporality of archi­ that a historical culture must possess a unity; he tectural practices is derived from the premise thinks that a culture at a given time, or a work that different historical cultures have different of art, can be "temporally polysemous", which beliefs and aspirations. Yet, as Hall (1994: 48-51) means that it can have several meanings at one 16 points out, it is a daunting task in the twentieth time. century to encompass the complexity of culture in a single narrative. Because no consensus can A belief in a spirit of the age means that knowl­ be reached on an interpretation of present-day edge is determined relative to a particular com­ cultures, Hall thinks that Rorty's mosaicist munity at a specific historical time, and that approach to interpreting his time is justified. knowledge is presumed to be temporal and not Rorty does not claim that his historicist narrative ahistorical. In Rorty's (1991: 211) vocabulary, is unified, which is an acknowledgement of the intellectual tools remain useful only in certain pluralistic character of present-day cultures. He sociocultural environments, and when those cir­ thinks that any description of a local culture has cumstances change, the usefulness of the con­ a limited time span, and that it is relative to a ceptual instruments lapses. historically conditioned situation (Rorty 1989: 103). Hall interprets Rorty's nominalism and crit­ What is learnt from Rorty's pragmatist theory, icism of consensus as an acceptance of cultural according to Prado (1987: 153-4), is that philos­ fragmentation. ophy cannot be free of time and history, and that all philosophical problems are embedded in In present-day theories the possibility or desir- history. There is no such thing as objective neu-

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services trality in philosophy, and pragmatists' theories conservative, because they are derived from are products of local cultural and historical con­ existing public opinion, which prevents changes ditions. According to Rorty (1985: 6-7) truth and to improve existing practices. Shusterman (1992: knowledge do not have intrinsic natures; he 61) allays fears that a pragmatist theory is regards philosophical inquiry as a "sociohistori­ imprisoned by the horizon of human practices cal account of how various people have tried to and that it is devoid of the capacity to transform reach agreement on what to believe". Rorty practices, because it is conceived in relation to (1980: 362-3) thinks that if the notion of the existing practices of a particular historical "essence" is given up philosophies are relative to community. Although theories are constrained time periods, traditions, and historical accidents. by existing practices, changing circumstances and comparisons with practices of other com­ Shusterman's (1992: 61) pragmatist aesthetics is munities can provide stimulation for other, new historicist because he does not accept that theo­ practices and theories. ry is an attempt to find necessary principles and 17 final justifications for practices; instead he sees For architectural theorists conventional theoreti­ "our practices (and our theories) as contingent cal problems include what the origins of archi­ products whose encounter with changing situa­ tectural forms are, and whether there are tions has necessitated continual adjustment, unchanging principles for architecture. clarification, justification, and improvement". Shusterman (1992: ix, 61) describes pragmatist Pragmatist architectural theorists find such ques­ aesthetics as an endeavour in which theorists do tions relatively uninteresting, because answers not confine themselves to traditional academic to them seem to be of limited use to those problems, but concern themselves with present designing buildings at present. They are more cultural issues and new aesthetic forms, which interested in the concept that architecture is a makes his theory temporal and regional. reflection of its age, which they restate as the According to him, pragmatist aestheticians take ambition of architects to be fully of their time. A into account the" conflictual variety" of human consequence of their historicism is that they practices. anticipate that architectural theories and princi­ ples will change continuously, because of Pragmatist theories can be charged with being changes in the circumstances in which buildings

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services are built. Useful architectural examples of this "good" for one particular community is not nec­ phenomenon are provided by the campuses of essarily good for another. Rand Afrikaans University, Pretoria University, and the University of the Witwatersrand: the Le Corbusier, in his design of housing in variety of building styles found on them is evi­ Chandigarh (1950-6), the capital of the Punjab dence of the changes of interests, aspirations, in India, failed to take cultural differences into and technological skills during the histories of account (Brolin 1976: 100-1). He designed con­ the building processes. ventional Western kitchens, for example, instead of taking into consideration that the occupants cooked on the floor and not on counter tops. He 4.3 Local and culture-bound purposes also provided generous windows for light and ventilation, which were papered over by the In this section the consequences of the historicist inhabitants because of their culturally condi­ 18 thesis, that architectural practices are specific to tioned need for privacy. Jo Noero's (1988: 11-3) particular communities, will be explored further. design of outdoor built-in seating in his The specific theses that will be investigated are Alexandra Township Community Housing pro­ that the interpretation of architectural practices ject, discussed above, is an example of a project varies according to perceived objectives of vari­ in which cultural differences were recognised. ous communities, and that the aims of architec­ tural practitioners are conditioned by the goals Pragmatists such as Rorty (1989: 177) are ironic of those communities. about their own conceptual frameworks, because they do not believe that there is a com­ Hegel's historicist notions imply that alternative mon human nature. In the essay "Solidarity" conceptual frameworks exist, and that there are Rorty (1989: 189-98) rejects the belief in a com­ people living in different ages or places who mon, essential humanity, or common human shape their in different ways and essence, in favour of the stance that beliefs are may thus be conscious of different "worlds" caused by contingent historical and cultural cir­ (Rorty 1982: 3, 149). People approve of different cumstances. Pragmatists believe that human things relative to their different worlds, places, beliefs and desires are results of socialisation and or communities; hence, what is perceived to be historical contingencies. They are curious about

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services other people's conceptual frameworks, and they Hegel ([1807] 1977: 455-6) wrote about the exchange beliefs and desires with other people consequences of historicism and nominalism, and cultural groups in attempts to improve their namely that the art of cultures and periods other own ways of life. than one's own became inaccessible for reliable interpretations, because of the incommensura­ This pragmatist attitude of cultural curiosity is bility of one's own conceptual framework and confirmed by the architectural practices of the others. How serious one perceives this prob­ Pancho Guedes (Ostler 1982: 16-7). He first lem to be, depends on one's purposes. Those practised in Mozambique, and then in South who want to determine the truth about the art Africa. European influences played a role in his of other cultures have problems when trying to designs, namely the Renaissance, , translate the meaning of art works from a for­ and . Twentieth-century architects eign conceptual framework to their own. who influenced him were Le Corbusier, Gaudi, Pragmatists such as Rorty (1991: 191), however, Wright, Goff, and Kahn. Because of their inter­ avoid such problems of intertranslatability by 19 est in local and regional architectures, pragma­ suppressing the desire for universal agreement, tists value Guedes's use of colonial architecture and by their commitment to the free exchange as inspiration. He was fascinated by inaccurate of views. In the pragmatist view people do not attempts by colonialists to evoke memories of have a common ahistorical nature, and their their places of origin in their architecture. opinions have been determined by their particu­ Guedes was also interested in local African archi­ lar historical circumstances. People coming from tecture, for example Swazi and Zimbabwean different sociohistoric circumstances may have architecture and Ndebele wall of the little in common. Rorty (1991: 193-6) thinks that Transvaal. All of these influences were used in because of such differences, and because of the his architecture, and he varied his building styles pluralism of the present-day world, tolerance according to location, function, and his own and has become an important virtue. Such tolerance his clients' preferences. He is an example of an consists of the ability to leave other people architect who exchanged ideas with other peo­ alone, but Rorty also insists on the freedom to ple and cultural groups in an attempt to improve work out the salvation of one's own community. his own practices and the ways of life of his He thinks that the balance between freedom clients. and tolerance will be worked out through exper-

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services iments in co-operation. tic) community to improve both their lives and the lives of other communities with different Pragmatist theorists do not aim for correct inter­ beliefs. Pragmatists do not try to adopt the ideas pretations of art works and architecture, of other cultures in a wholesale fashion, but, fol­ although they value the cultural productions of lowing Noero, Guedes, and Rorty (1991: 38), other cultures. Cultural differences are appreci­ they test the ideas of other cultures by weaving ated by pragmatists, but they cannot see the them together with their own existing ideas by point of trying to understand the art of people trial and error. from other cultures and places in the same way as those people understand it themselves, if When they have to design buildings for other indeed any community can have such secure cultural groups, pragmatist architects cannot knowledge of their own cultural products. escape the horizons of their own cultural beliefs, Pragmatists, such as Rorty (1991: 212-3), do not but they can solicit the participation of those 20 believe that it is possible to "leap outside our "others" for whom they design, and they can try Western social democratic skins when we to empower them to design and build for them­ encounter another culture, and we should not selves. Architects are required to share their try. All we should try to do is to get inside the power and responsibilities with the people they inhabitants of that culture long enough to get work for in order to facilitate the achievement of some idea of how we look at them, and whether communal aspirations and to fulfil communal they have any ideas we can use". A method needs. This requirement was spelled out by used by pragmatists, for example Noero, IS.hmael Mkhabela, acting coordinator for the Guedes, and Rorty (1982: xl-xli), is to compare Witwatersrand Network for the Homeless and their own cultural practices with those of other director of the Urban Community Organisations cultures or historical periods. They do this to Division, when asked in an interview what the enlarge the range of possibilities to choose from, involvement of architects could be in low-cost and with a greater number of choices the oppor­ housing: tunities increase to improve the lives of people in their own communities. Rorty (1991: 208) calls We value people with know-how, and we want himself "ethnocentric", and he works from to continue to draw on the expertise of any pro­ within his own (North American liberal democra- fessionals. But people also need to understand

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services that we don't want solutions that are simply meant to profit from their actions. Their actions technocratic, or that are imposed on us without cannot serve the whole of humanity, because consultation. We want to keep our power and human needs are derived from specific commu­ influence, too, in the relationship, and we think nities. it is very important that we don't become guests in our own house. We think there is a danger This essay is an example of how historical theo­ that we could end up, by default, surrendering ries are utilised by pragmatists to formulate these issues that are important to us, over to guidelines for their actions. In this case the the­ other constituencies and other groups. We seek ories of Hegel, Pugin, and Ruskin were used in to work participatively with experts and with the an attempt to validate the pragmatist stance homeless, in consultation together (G. Noero that architecture can be interpreted as a mani­ 1988: 20). festation of the skills and customary practices of particular historical cultures. Support was also Pragmatists do not believe that it is possible to sought for the pragmatist theory that architec­ 21 know the beliefs or conceptual frameworks of tural practices are influenced by the beliefs and those they serve entirely, according to Rorty aspirations of a particular community at a spe­

(1991: 204-7), but they cultivate sympathy with cific time 4. the suffering of others, and they are guardians of diversity. Yet even the belief in liberal toler­ I claim to be a member of a group called ance is a contingent cultural bias that is specific "pragmatist theorists of architecture". This to "postmodern bourgeois liberals" (Rorty 1991: group is largely my invention, similar to 208), and there is no rational justification for Nietzsche's ([ 1878] 1984: 5) fabrication of such a stance. Rorty (1991: 213) acknowledges the "free spirit" to create the illusion of kin that "this expectation of tolerant reciprocity is a ship and shared values. Theorists invent such provincially Western one" with no universal and kinships in attempts to claim authority for neutral necessity. According to Rorty (1991: 197) their preferred views. pragmatists can only feel responsible for their own communities, or for the communities they 2 Many authors belonging to different disciplines are serving, and the merits of their services are are currently writing about concepts that can relative to the various communities that are be related to pragmatist theories. These con-

Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services cepts include historicist ideas, theories about Carrier, David. 1991. Principles of Writing. the social construction of meaning, and ideas University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University about the constantly changing and adapting Press. nature of phenomena. I cannot address the theories of all these authors. The authors Clark, Kenneth. [1928]1974. The Gothic Revival: An Essay in used in this essay are some of those who are the History of . 3rd ed. Great Britain: John Murray. writing about Hegel and pragmatism in ways

that can be reconciled with Rorty's concerns. Crowther, Paul. 1990. Art, Architecture and Self­

Consciousness: An Exploration of Hegel's Aesthetic. In

3 My understanding of the term "culture" is Philosophy & Architecture, edited by Andrew Benjamin.

that it is a form of life peculiar to a specific London: Academy Editions. human community existing at a particular

time. I acknowledge that such communities Gelernter, Mark. 1995. Sources of architectural form: a criti­

22 comprise of competing groups with conflicting cal history of Western design theory. Manchester and New

values, needs and desires. York: Manchester University Press.

4 I am grateful to Roger Fisher, Johan Snyman Hall, David L. 1994. Richard Rorty: Prophet and Poet of the

and an anonymous referee for their guidance New Pragmatism. Albany: State University of New York Press. and comments.

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