U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

J. Robert Flores, Administrator May 2005

Of fice of Justice Pr ograms • Par tnerships for Safer Communities • www.ojp.usdoj.gov Juvenile Firesetting: A Message From OJJDP A Research Overview In the hands of children, fire can be a destructive force. Each year, fires set by youth claim hundreds of lives and destroy millions of dollars’ worth of Charles T. Putnam and John T. Kirkpatrick property. By understanding how and why juve­ The consequences of juvenile firesetting following project goals. First, review the niles set fires, professionals and policy- can be tragic and costly. In a typical year, existing research literature on juvenile fire- makers can make informed decisions fires set by children and youth claim the setting behavior and offer a distillation of about how best to address this harmful lives of approximately 300 people and that literature. Second, convene a confer­ behavior. destroy more than $300 million worth of ence of researchers and fire, justice, and In 2002, the National Association of property. Children are the predominant clinical professionals to provide a forum State Fire Marshals (NASFM) began for constructive discussion about existing victims of these fires, accounting for 85 developing applied research initiatives of every 100 lives lost (U.S. Fire Adminis­ and future research. Third, deliver a report to help professionals curtail juvenile tration, 1997, 2004). to NASFM in April 2003 outlining pressing firesetting. The project included a areas of new research that would directly review of the research literature, a A thorough understanding of juvenile benefit the professional community. firesetting—including why children and conference of researchers and profes­ youth set fires—is key to curbing this A Justiceworks research team reviewed sionals involved in preventing juvenile firesetting, and a final report, upon destructive behavior. By examining re­ the existing social science literature to which this Bulletin is based. search literature on juvenile firesetting identify thematic elements of current fire- and making recommendations for further setting knowledge. In addition, research Drawing on information gathered by research, this Bulletin offers an overview and professional colleagues in the field the NASFM project, Juvenile Fireset­ of the terms and theoretical formulations were consulted to identify a wide range ting: A Research Overview outlines common to juvenile firesetting studies and of research. A compendium of the research existing research and theories related identifies ways to enhance future research. literature covering approximately the past to juvenile firesetting and identifies limi­ 30 years was assembled in a 2-month peri­ tations of the existing research. It also od. The project’s principal investigators recommends strategies for curbing Background reviewed the assembled literature, sorting juvenile firesetting, such as conducting In 2002, the National Association of State out its thematic elements, strengths, and a national juvenile firesetting survey, constructing a firesetting classification Fire Marshals (NASFM) contracted Justice- weaknesses from theoretical and applied system, and identifying and evaluating works at the University of New Hampshire perspectives. promising intervention and treatment to develop a research agenda that would A conference of 14 researchers and pro­ programs. advance an understanding of the mechan­ fessionals from the fire, justice, and clini­ ics and dynamics of child and adolescent Combating a problem as serious and cal communities was held in February firesetting behavior. NASFM expressed persistent as juvenile firesetting re­ 2003 at the University of New Hampshire particular interest in developing applied quires the aid of the research commu­ to promote a broad discussion of the research initiatives that would help work­ nity. Using sound research, the field existing research as it relates to the imme­ ing professionals address firesetting behav­ can better understand the dynamics of diate needs of the various professional ior. NASFM charged Justiceworks with the juvenile firesetting, determine the types of juveniles involved, and establish best practices to protect children and families from fires set by youth. Access OJJDP publications online at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ojjdp communities. Conference topics included The clear implication is that firesetting The concept of expressive and instrumen­ the link between juvenile firesetting be­ behavior is a greater threat to public safe­ tal behavior addresses motivations of fire- havior and aggression and the existing ty than fireplay. At the same time, more setting. Expressive firesetting behavior firesetting literature. Discussions focused juveniles may engage in fireplay than in suggests that the behavior is an expres­ on feedback from the fire, justice, and clin­ firesetting behavior. (The literature also sion of psychopathology or unresolved ical professionals. The final two sessions makes a distinction between “fire interest” trauma. In contrast, instrumental fire- of the conference were devoted to identi­ and “fire involvement.” Fire interest sug­ setting suggests that the fire was set to fying new research directions. Using a gests a generalized preoccupation with achieve an established goal. These terms group technique to ensure participation fire but an absence of direct participation are used more frequently in discussions by all conferees, a set of research ques­ with fire. In contrast, fire involvement sug­ of firesetting than fireplay because fire- tions was designated for consideration by gests fire activity that could include both play often involves lesser degrees of in­ NASFM. fireplay and firesetting.) tent and malice. The distinction between expressive and instrumental firesetting The literature also distinguishes between Finally, Justiceworks helped identify areas behaviors has implications for treatment child and adolescent firesetting. This is an in the field of juvenile firesetting in need of and intervention strategies and reflects important thematic element that defines additional research. The contributions of a general focus on the medical rather current thinking and responses to fireplay conference participants were analyzed and than the criminal models in the firesetting and firesetting behavior. Child firesetting is compared with existing gaps in the empiri­ literature. Most likely, considerable over­ restricted to children age 12 or younger. cal literature to identify those areas. lap exists between expressive and instru­ Adolescent firesetting includes those 13 mental behavior. The juvenile firesetting This Bulletin is the product of the work years old to the age of majority, which literature, however, tends to focus on ex­ conducted by NASFM and Justiceworks. varies by state. This distinction arises from pressive elements even in instrumental It provides a structure to frame existing the impact of development and maturation firesetting behavior. research and theoretical formulations of on behavior. As children mature, society juvenile firesetting behavior, identifies holds them increasingly responsible for Finally, the literature contains implicit gaps in current knowledge about juvenile their behavior. Responses to delinquent references to external and internal origins firesetting, and proposes a set of empirical behavior among the very young differ of firesetting behavior. External origins questions most crucial to the professional markedly from responses to offenses com­ include social and cultural influences that communities for researchers to address. mitted by those in their mid-teens. More­ promote the use of fire by juveniles. Cer­ over, adults receive different treatment in tain elements of a juvenile’s experiential Firesetting Literature: the criminal justice system than juveniles. world may encourage or otherwise abet Such developmentally based considera­ fire usage. These elements may involve Terms and Concepts tions may explain why firesetting research family dynamics, peer reinforcement, or Charting new directions in the firesetting is generally oriented toward treatment representations in the media of the use research requires establishing a baseline rather than punishment. Because of their and effects of fire. Such influences may of existing knowledge culled from empiri­ age, even the most hardened of juveniles encourage constructive and destructive cally based literature. Before doing so, it may be perceived as less culpable for their fire usage, as youth can be taught and en­ is helpful to define terms and concepts actions and more amenable to treatment couraged to use fire safely or recklessly. that commonly appear in the juvenile fire- than adults. These age-based distinctions Internal origins point to something within setting literature. are implicit in the terms “firesetter” and the firesetter, biochemically, neurological­ “arsonist.” ly, or psychologically, that compels him A review of the research reveals an ap­ or her to use fire. The table on page 3 parent distinction between fireplay and The literature suggests that the use of fire illustrates the salient thematic emphases firesetting behavior. Both behaviors may by juveniles may indicate that fire can be in the literature. produce varying degrees of damage and both an instrument of power and serve injury, but they differ in their levels of as a weapon, as opposed to merely be­ In many instances, these thematic empha­ intent and malice. Fireplay is often used ing a product of curiosity (Cox-Jones et ses overlap in the literature, providing a to convey a low level of intent to inflict al., 1990; Karchmer, 1982; Sakheim and matrix of possibilities to address juvenile harm and an absence of malice. Especially Osborn, 1986; Swaffer and Hollin, 1995). behavior involving fire. Fireplay, for exam­ among children and adolescents, fireplay Children’s status in society and their ple, can be a behavior engaged in by an involves elements of curiosity and fascina­ developmental maturity place them in adolescent out of curiosity to see if the tion. Fireplay damages are viewed as col­ less powerful positions than adults. For lighting of an improvised bonfire will lateral and not maliciously inspired. example, the ability to legally drink alco­ impress a prospective girlfriend, since he hol, use tobacco, drive a motor vehicle, had seen such a ruse work in a teen film Firesetting is decidedly different. Although and vote is determined by age. Although he recently saw. Similarly, an 8-year-old the degree of malice may vary in fireset­ access to firearms and other weapons victim of sexual abuse by a relative may ting behavior, the level of intent is higher is restricted, matches and lighters are intentionally set her own bed on fire as than in fireplay. Juvenile firesetters are relatively accessible to youth inclined to a catharsis, or call for help, and as an viewed as willful actors who consistently act in harmful ways. In the hands of an exercise of control over a situation in use fire as an instrument of purposeful errant, reckless, or careless youth, a pack which she feels powerless. action. Moreover, the literature suggests of matches can be a formidable weapon that firesetting may be more conducive used to act out expressive or instrumental to repetition and chronic behavior than behaviors. fireplay.

2 Typologies Dichotomous Thematic Emphases Classification schemes, or typologies, are Thematic Emphasis Dichotomy used to aggregate common elements of shared behavior patterns, event charac­ Intent Fireplay/firesetting teristics, or psychological profiles. All Age Child/adolescent of these typologies appear in some form in the juvenile firesetting literature. Vehicle Curiosity/power (weapon) Because most existing research comes Motivation Expressive/instrumental from the clinical and psychological sci­ Origin Environmental/individualistic ences, a clear emphasis on psycholog­ ical and individual-level classification schemes exists. Literature Review: characteristics for an entire population. Some research has produced typologies For example, if detained firesetters are that speak to common elements in fireset­ Research and Theory selected as a sample of the total firesetter ting behaviors and event characteristics, Juvenile firesetting literature can be classi­ population, other types of firesetters, such but that research is quite limited. The fire- fied under four broad headings: measure­ as those not caught or detained, are ex­ setting behavior typologies have been ment, typologies, etiology, and interven­ cluded. Notable exceptions to this meth­ created based on co-occurring behaviors tion, control, and treatment. Any effort odological problem exist, and their findings such as aggression, antisocial behavior, to impose a structure on the scientific can be viewed with greater confidence.1 delinquency, and substance abuse (Heath literature presents certain challenges. et al., 1985; Kazdin, 1986; Sakheim and Useful applications of convenience samples Other strategies for structuring informa­ Osborn, 1999; Slavkin, 2000). Research in the existing literature typically involve tion exist, and categories of research are studies attempt to identify the correlates within-group comparisons. By noting a not mutually exclusive of one another. of firesetting behavior and to isolate the sample’s limitations, comparisons can be A single piece of research is apt to fall risk factors that may promote it. Age, gen­ made based on differences in event or indi­ under more than one heading. Neverthe­ der, marital status of parent or guardian, vidual characteristics. Some studies (Kolko less, offering a framework that incorpo­ fire involvement history, and smoking and Kazdin, 1986; Sakheim and Osborn, rates broad and prevailing thematic behavior are among these correlates. 1986, 1999), for example, parse out differ­ elements can help order wide-ranging Typologies of event characteristics may ences in personality traits among certain research efforts. include differentiation by severity of types of firesetters. Other studies make damage, frequency, environment, and the comparisons of sample subjects by age number of juveniles involved (Showers Measurement of onset or recurrence (Kolko and Kazdin, and Pickrell, 1987; Bradford and Dimock, Most firesetting research strategies in­ 1986; Kolko, 1992; Bradford and Dimock, 1986; Raines and Foy, 1994). Importantly, volve convenience samples, i.e., they use 1986; Cox-Jones et al., 1990). Still others these studies point to the environmental study subjects that are readily available may differentiate by firesetting event char­ origins of firesetting behavior. or easily identifiable. In the case of juve­ acteristics (Bumpass, Fagelman, and Brix, nile firesetters, many studies involve sam­ 1983; Karchmer, 1982; Swaffer and Hollin, Classification of psychological profiles ples drawn from known firesetters who 1995). All of these methods are useful in among juvenile firesetters is a common have been identified through official agen­ identifying salient differences within a emphasis in research efforts. These ty­ cies, such as the fire, law enforcement, or convenience sample. pologies reflect individualistic origins of clinical communities, as having engaged firesetting. They also reflect greater partici­ Finally, some minor attempts have been in fire-related behavior. Although studies pation of psychologists and clinicians in made to assess the prevalence and inci­ using convenience samples can produce firesetting research than of sociologists dence of juvenile firesetting behavior useful knowledge, study findings may not and anthropologists. Perhaps the most per­ (Webb et al., 1990; Franklin et al., 2002; accurately capture and reflect the charac­ vasive psychological typology is a classifi­ Raines and Foy, 1994; Kazdin, 1986; Slavkin, teristics of all firesetting behavior or the cation scheme built from clinical assess­ 2001). In most instances, these studies are traits of the entire population of firesetters. ments of known firesetters (Kolko, 2002). For example, one should not draw general­ confined to local rather than national esti­ ized conclusions about juvenile delinquen­ mates. Importantly, some studies indicate This psychological typology identifies cy from studies that use only juveniles in that perhaps only 40 percent of juvenile four subtypes of firesetter: curious, patho­ custody at a detention facility as significant firesetting behavior is reported. Of course, logical, expressive, and delinquent. These delinquent behavior may be committed the true incidence and prevalence of fire- subtypes involve differences mostly in by juveniles who are never committed or play behavior among juveniles is unmeas­ motivation but often implicate other in­ detained. Similarly, a significant representa­ ured. (“Incidence” refers to the number dividual and environmental characteristics tion of juvenile firesetting behavior may be of new cases occurring during a given time related to firesetting. The curious fireset­ unmeasured in studies that rely on conven­ period. “Prevalence” refers to the number ter uses fire out of fascination, the patho­ ience samples only, thereby compromising of cases present in the population at any logical out of deep-seated individual dys­ the comprehensiveness and reliability of given time.) function, the expressive as a cry for help, their findings. Moreover, convenience sam­ and the delinquent as a means to antisocial ples are not large enough to ensure stable or destructive ends. Importantly, these cat­ 1 Stickle and Blechman, 2002. egories are not always mutually exclusive.

3 A firesetter, for example, may use fire for of firesetting behavior can be gleaned from caveat, the theories of firesetting etiology expressive and delinquent reasons simulta­ the existing literature. (see sidebar) represent a range of theoret­ neously. In any case, references to psycho­ ical approaches for explaining juvenile Etiology refers to causes and origins. logical typology, or slight variations on it, firesetting. appear widely in the literature. Identifying possible causes of behavior is worthwhile because some causes sug­ At times, these theoretical elements are It is difficult to know how widely typology gest certain remedies and not others. If, embedded unnoticeably in the assump­ is used to describe juvenile firesetting in for example, we knew that certain materi­ tions about juvenile behavior patterns. the professional community, how useful als caused unwanted combustion, then we At other times, they are overtly stated it is to those professionals, or its precise could develop strategies to minimize the and tested by research studies. Whether implications for intervention, control, and possibility of their combustion. Similarly, explicitly identified or not, these theories treatment programs. understanding how certain characteristics of the etiology of juvenile firesetting repre­ or circumstances influence juvenile fire- sent current thinking within the field. Etiology setting may lead to targeted efforts that can address those characteristics and Most theory in behavioral and social sci­ Intervention, Control, prevent firesetting behavior. ence seeks to explain and predict behavior. and Treatment Research, then, is designed to test a theo- Distinguishing between correlation and Remedial efforts to address problematic ry’s explanative and predictive powers. cause, however, can be difficult. Correla­ behavior usually are based on a notion At present, assessing the strengths of theo­ tion involves a relationship between two about why the behavior occurs. For exam­ retical formulations of juvenile firesetting variables that simply appear and fluctu­ ple, prevention programs that emphasize behavior is difficult because a comprehen­ ate together in some way. Cause, on the community outreach, in-school instruction, sive national research strategy has yet to other hand, involves a direct cause-and- and media campaigns will most likely sup­ be designed and implemented. For the effect relationship, clearly indicating that pose that firesetting is a learned behavior. moment, several theoretical formulations one variable causes another. Given this If a youth learns to be a firesetter, then he

Theories of Firesetting Origins

Theory Motive Origin Etiological Theme Opportunity theory Expressive and External Firesetting is a product of the open and relatively instrumental unrestricted access to fire as an instrument and/or weapon (Cohen and Felson, 1979). Learning theory Expressive and External Firesetting is a behavior learned through association instrumental with family, peers, and subcultural forces that wittingly or unwittingly abet inappropriate fire use (Kolko and Kazdin, 1986). Expressive trauma Expressive Internal Firesetting is a manifestation of preexisting childhood theory trauma and is used to vent frustration with victimization or other life circumstances (Lowenstein, 1989). Stress theory Expressive and External and Firesetting is a behavior that releases accumulating instrumental internal stress or seeks stress or danger in an uneventful life. It is often closely related to vandalism, shoplifting, and graffiti among juveniles (Lyng, 1990). Power association Instrumental External and Firesetting is a means for juveniles who are otherwise theory internal disempowered to attain power over people and/or the environment (Sakheim and Osborn, 1986). Social acceptance Expressive and External and Firesetting is motivated by the desire to gain acceptance theory instrumental internal by a peer or a peer group (Swaffer and Hollin, 1995). Societal reaction Instrumental External and Firesetting is behavior produced in large part by the theory internal firesetter’s knowledge that it will produce a substantial reaction or response from the wider society, such as the arrival of police and fire departments (Macht and Mack, 1968). Risk assessment Expressive and External and Firesetting is a behavior that develops as a juvenile theory instrumental internal matures and either co-occurs with or is produced by other individualistic and/or environmental circumstances (Kolko and Kazdin, 1986).

4 or she can be taught about or persuaded a juvenile engages in inappropriate fire no single profile of the juvenile firesetter of the dangers of firesetting. On the other usage. Although systematic evaluations nor is there a single cause of firesetting hand, psychological counseling and treat­ of intervention strategies are rare, the behavior. The research literature reveals ment programs generally assume that fire- literature suggests that the more suc­ that fireplay and firesetting are two dif­ setting is a manifestation of a personality cessful local efforts involve a multisys­ ferent behavior sets, although a develop­ or behavioral disorder, wherein fire usage temic response from the fire, school, mental relationship may exist between is an expression of inner turmoil. Fire, jus­ law enforcement, and mental health com­ the two. In some cases, firesetting may be tice, and clinical professionals engaged in munities. Comparatively little research likely to co-occur with other behaviors, firesetting intervention, control, and treat­ exists that addresses the efficacy of in­ such as aggression, risk-taking, antisocial ment tend to recognize the assumptions tervention efforts delimited by age of behavior, and substance use. Finally, the about firesetting origins that support their firesetter, type of firesetter, or event literature reveals that some prevention, remedial efforts. However, juvenile fireset­ characteristics—all of which are impor­ intervention, and treatment programs ting likely has multiple causes, and fireset­ tant for determining best practices in show promising results. ters may be of many different types. What firesetter interventions. Gaps in the research literature remain. works with members of one group may not Most apparent is the lack of a sufficient work with members of another because Treatment. The research literature ad­ systematic assessment of the scope of their behaviors may have discrete origins. dresses two broad types of treatment juvenile firesetting over time. Although Fortunately, the firesetting research litera­ strategies: pharmacological and psy­ some municipalities, counties, and states ture clearly recognizes that successful chological or clinical. Pharmacological have made efforts to measure the occur­ intervention, control, and treatment in­ remedies to firesetting are typically imple­ rence of firesetting, most have not. Many volve multiple strategies that respond to mented when fire usage co-occurs with fire professionals consider firesetting to firesetting’s multiple origins. Despite this another behavior pattern, such as hyper­ be underreported. Existing studies sug­ rather complicated scenario, defining the activity, neurological disorders, or mal­ gest that the majority of reported cases current state of research-based remedial adaptive conduct disorders. Although are identified by the medical, clinical, efforts is possible. Some of these efforts drug therapies are prescribed in some and education communities rather than are described below. clinical trials, mixed evidence supports their effectiveness in addressing fireset­ the fire and law enforcement communities Risk factors. Risk factor identifiers are ting. The dearth of comprehensive re­ that have limited investigation budgets used for predictive purposes. If the risk search on drug therapies renders assess­ and are constrained by juvenile protec­ factors associated with firesetting are ing their application with confidence tion statutes. In fact, a considerable num­ known with some certainty, then the pro­ problematic. Psychological or clinical ber of fireplay and firesetting incidents fessional community might be able to treatment programs, in contrast, dominate may escape the attention of the medical, determine the types of juveniles in great­ the existing literature, even though treat­ clinical, and education communities est jeopardy of engaging in firesetting ment programs generally attend to only because the incidents are handled within behavior. At present, analyses of risk those juveniles known to have engaged in families and outside the notice of others. factors for firesetting are inadequately inappropriate fire usage. Juveniles who The development and implementation of a developed, and confidence in existing escape attention or reporting are not periodic, nationwide survey of households applications is low. often treated in this context. could address this shortcoming and pro­ vide useful information to policymakers Education programs. Media campaigns Numerous types of psychological and and decisionmakers. targeting fire prevention have a long- clinical treatment programs exist. Some standing history. The Smokey the Bear address the mental health needs of indi­ The literature presents several systems campaign, for example, has been used vidual firesetters, whereas others address for classifying firesetting behavior and for decades. More recently, local agencies the broader needs within the firesetter’s individuals. In many cases, however, have implemented their own campaigns, family and school. Still others address these taxonomies have been built from including those offered within primary, the needs of the juvenile resident within convenience samples. Some studies fail middle, and secondary schools. Some a mental health institution or juvenile to provide control or comparison groups new education programs target only detention center. Two conclusions are to ensure the reliability and validity of those juveniles who have been identified reached in the clinical literature. First, findings, although more recent studies as fire-involved in one way or another. successful treatments are hand-tailored to have taken steps to address this short­ Two observations are important: First, the needs of individual juveniles. Second, coming. Clearly, more research using some confusion exists regarding the target successful treatments often employ multi- larger representative samples and control audience. Are these programs designed systemic approaches, involving the fire- groups should be encouraged to identify with an age group in mind or with an setter’s family, school, ongoing clinical risk factors associated with firesetting, to eye to the difference between fireplay counseling and care, and the participation discern co-occurring behavior sets, and and firesetting or fire interest and fire of local fire and law enforcement officers. to understand the developmental process involvement? Second, rigorous evaluation that may link fireplay and firesetting. The of the outcomes of the prevailing educa­ professional communities that deal with tional efforts is relatively scarce. Limitations of the juvenile firesetting have expressed a need for reliable classification systems, tax­ Intervention. Intervention strategies are Research Literature onomies, and typologies. That reliability designed to interrupt firesetting behavior. The body of firesetting theory and the should be fostered through ongoing re­ In most cases, these strategies are in­ research that tests it to date are consider­ search and development. tended to respond quickly the moment able. The literature shows that there is

5 Finally, many prevention, intervention, and based on convenience samples of persons Communities would benefit from a clear, treatment programs have been designed determined to be firesetters by parents, scientifically based classification system and implemented to address juvenile fire- law enforcement officials, or clinicians. for firesetting. Such a system should setting, protect public safety, and meet Samples drawn from identified firesetters, accommodate the various types of juve­ the therapeutic needs of firesetters. The however, may overemphasize some char­ nile firesetting, age of onset and recur­ NASFM leadership and membership have acteristics of firesetting behavior and ob­ rence, event characteristics, and offen­ identified juvenile firesetting as a priority scure others. A scientifically constructed der traits. The classification system in the hope of minimizing its occurrence national survey would allow practitioners should allow practitioners, policymakers, and the destruction and tragedy it brings. and policymakers to better understand the and researchers to reliably distinguish scope of the problem. It would also give firesetting that entails a high risk of esca­ Many juvenile prevention, intervention, researchers a basis for comparing the re­ lation or repetition from behavior that and treatment programs for juvenile fire- sults of their research with firesetters iden­ entails a low risk and to target enforce­ setters have been put in place with allo­ tified from a nationwide sample. ment, treatment, and scientific resources cated resources but without sufficient to high-risk behaviors. means to evaluate program efficacy. With­ Such a survey should provide reliable out evaluation components, determining data along a number of lines of inquiry, Current classification schemes do not which programs are effective and assess­ allow data to be correlated in a variety of adequately distinguish adolescent fire- ing whether program benefits justify their ways, and address such questions as the setting from child firesetting. Although costs are difficult. Although building pro­ following: research supports making such a distinc­ gram assessment and evaluation compo­ tion, further research is needed to eluci­ ◆ How often do youth engage in fireplay nents into the design of new programs date the relationship between age and and firesetting? may be beneficial, it is an expensive prop­ firesetting. Several participants in the osition. Evaluation costs are generally ◆ What is the distribution of fireplay by Justiceworks research conference asked about 10 to 15 percent of the total pro­ age group, and which groups are most whether identifiable career paths exist gram budget. Evaluation is a sound invest­ at risk for recurrence? for some types of firesetting behavior ment, however, because it is more likely ◆ What are the characteristics of youth and whether some kinds of behavior or that resources will be well spent, results- fireplay and firesetting and the result­ offender characteristics suggest which oriented programs will prosper, and, ul­ ing fires? children or adolescents are at greatest timately, that juvenile firesetting will be risk. Insights into these issues would ◆ addressed in a cost-effective manner. What distinctions in youth fireplay and help practitioners, policymakers, and firesetting emerge among geographic researchers target their efforts more regions of the country and among effectively to youth who manifest Recommendations rural, suburban, and urban areas? various types of behavior. ◆ What correlations exist between fire- for Research An additional reason for developing a play and firesetting and indicators of Through the collaborative process of reliable classification system is that economic status, gender, age, and the Justiceworks project, NASFM and youth may be stigmatized as firesetters event characteristics? colleagues in the fire, justice, and clinical regardless of the level of risk that they communities worked together to articu­ Analyses from the survey would allow present for recurring behavior. Partici­ late their concerns. Gaps in the existing practitioners, policymakers, and re­ pants in the research conference repeat­ research literature have been identified searchers to better understand and edly stressed that any new classification and suggestions have been made to bridge respond to the problems of fireplay and system should reflect a sensitivity for them. Involving practitioners and profes­ firesetting. Precedents exist for conduct­ the lasting effects of the stigmatization sionals provided an opportunity to ensure ing nationwide community surveys of of youth. that the questions brought forth would children and adolescents, which could result in the answers that are needed. be used as models. Identify and Evaluate The following recommendations are pre­ Promising Intervention sented for research in child and adoles­ Construct a Firesetting and Treatment Programs Classification System cent firesetting. The recommendations As previously noted, a significant body have two sources: existing gaps in fire- Participants in the Justiceworks research of scientific inquiry exists regarding the setting research and the input of working conference repeatedly emphasized the treatment of youthful firesetters and the professionals. Considerable effort was need for a classification scheme to reli­ psychological characteristics of fireset­ made to find points of convergence be­ ably describe and systematically catego­ ting youth. This research has contributed tween the two. Three directions for future rize firesetting behavior and its risks. to an understanding of important aspects research follow, in order of consensus. For instance, both practitioners and of firesetting behavior, especially the rela­ researchers understand that some kinds tionship between aggression, conduct Conduct a National Juvenile of fireplay and firesetting behavior are disorders, and firesetting. A number of Firesetter Survey relatively benign, impose relatively little promising avenues for future research in risk of serious fire loss, and respond One of the first tasks facing researchers this area exist, including the identification well to simple, low-cost interventions. is to determine and better describe the and evaluation of promising intervention/ It appears equally clear that other kinds scope of the challenge posed by adoles­ treatment programs and an investment of firesetting behavior are associated cent firesetters. Much of the research con­ in basic research on the pathology of fire- with serious human pathologies and ducted to date on adolescent firesetters is setting behavior. The distinction between increased risk of tragic outcomes.

6 clinical and abnormal psychology is some­ research initiatives to explore the epi­ Kolko, D. 1992. The emergence and recur­ what arbitrary in this context, however. demiology, correlates, and causes of the rence of child firesetting: A one-year Research in each field is likely to be useful physical, sexual, and emotional abuse prospective study. Journal of Abnormal to the other, but some research may be of children. The incidence and prevalence Child Psychology 20(1):17–37. better accomplished in the clinical setting of child abuse in the United States are Handbook on Fireset­ or may draw on theoretical frameworks lower today than they were a quarter cen­ Kolko, D., ed. 2002. ting in Children and Youth. that go beyond the field of psychology. tury ago. This decrease may be attributa­ Boston, MA: ble to research initiatives that led to Academic Press. Several conference participants expressed improved prevention and intervention the hope that research could identify Kolko, D., and Kazdin, A. 1986. A concep­ programs. which interventions work best, especial­ tualization of firesetting in children and Journal of Abnormal Child ly in treating high-risk firesetters. Par­ Juvenile firesetting is a serious and per­ adolescents. Psychology ticipants posed the following clinical sistent problem. Enlisting the aid of the 14:49–61. questions: research community will help the field to Lowenstein, L. 1989. The etiology, diag­ better understand how and why juvenile ◆ Which kinds of interventions can be nosis, and treatment of the fire-setting firesetting occurs, to determine the types Child Psychiatry delivered efficiently and effectively by behavior of children. of juveniles involved in firesetting, and to and Human Development teachers and fire services profession­ 19:186–194. establish the best practices to combat it. als? By psychotherapists? Which can Lyng, Stephen. 1990. Edgework: A social only be delivered by specialized pro­ psychological analysis of voluntary risk- fessionals in specialized treatment References taking. American Journal of Sociology settings? Bradford, J., and Dimock, J. 1986. A com­ 95:851–886. ◆ How important is it for clinicians to parative study of adolescents and adults Macht, L., and Mack, J. 1968. The firesetter think of firesetting behavior as a sepa­ who willfully set fires. Psychiatric Journal syndrome. Psychiatry 31:277–288. rate problem rather than as a manifes­ of the University of Ottawa 11(4):228–234. tation of problems for which they have Raines, J., and Foy, C. 1994. Extinguishing already developed treatments? Bumpass, E., Fagelman, F., and Brix, R. the fires within: Treating juvenile fireset­ 1983. Intervention with children who set ◆ ters. Families in Society 78(10):595–607. What are the optimal strategies for fire- fires. American Journal of Psychotherapy setting prevention efforts? 19(3):186–194. Sakheim, G., and Osborn, E. 1986. A psy­ ◆ Do the differences in the two types of chological profile of juvenile firesetters in Cohen, L.E., and Felson, M. 1979. Social behavior (impulsive and deliberate fire- residential treatment: A replication study. change and crime rate trends: A routine setting) arise at different times in the Child Welfare 65(5):495–502. activity approach. American Sociological development of the individual or the Review 44:588–608. Sakheim, G., and Osborn, E. 1999. Severe onset of firesetting? vs. nonsevere firesetters revisited. Child ◆ To what extent is juvenile firesetting Cox-Jones, C., Lubetsky, M., Fultz, S., Welfare League of America 78(4):411–434. associated with antisocial behavior? and Kolko, D. 1990. Inpatient psychiatric treatment of a young recidivist firesetter. Showers, J., and Pickrell, E. 1987. Child ◆ To what extent is firesetting unique and Journal of American Academy of Child and firesetters: A study of three populations. to what extent is it like other conduct Adolescent Psychiatry 29(6):936–941. Hospital and Community Psychiatry and personality disorders? 38(5):495–501. Franklin, G., Pucci, P., Arbabi, S., Brandt, Research that addresses these questions M., Wahl, W., and Taheri, P. 2002. De­ Slavkin, M. 2000. What every professional could clarify whether resources to combat creased juvenile arson and fire setting who works with adolescents should firesetting should be focused on special­ recidivism after implementation of multi­ know about firesetters. Adolescence ized interventions and treatments. disciplinary prevention programs. Journal 35(140):759–774. of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Slavkin, M. 2001. Enuresis, firesetting, and Conclusion Care 53(2):260–264. cruelty to animals: Does the ego triad Past research on juvenile firesetting pro­ Heath, G., Hardesty, V., Goldfine, P., and show predictive validity? Adolescence vides a foundation on which to build new Walker, A. 1985. Diagnosis and childhood 36(143):461–466. research initiatives that will require re­ firesetting. Journal of Clinical Psychology Stickle, T.R., and Blechman, E.A. 2002. sources and expertise across the social, 41(4):571–574. Aggression and fire: Antisocial behavior behavioral, and health sciences. The un­ Juvenile Firesetter and in firesetting and nonfiresetting juvenile derstanding of juvenile firesetting in 2004 Karchmer, C. 1982. School Arson Prevention Programs. Aetna offenders. Journal of Psychopathology and may be comparable to the understanding Behavioral Assessment 24(3):177–193. of child abuse more than 25 years ago, Arson Prevention Series. Washington, DC: when concern about the victimization of U.S. Department of Education. Swaffer, T., and Hollin, C. 1995. Adolescent children grew from the law enforcement, Kazdin, A. 1986. Parent psychopathology firesetting? Why do they say they do it? clinical, and medical professionals who and family functioning among childhood Journal of Adolescence 18(5):619–623. witnessed the damages of child abuse. firesetters. Journal of Abnormal Child Psy­ U.S. Fire Administration. 1997. Juvenile These professionals looked to the re­ chology 14(2):315. Firesetters: What You Can Do! Washington, search community where social, behav­ DC: Federal Emergency Management ioral, and health scientists developed

7 U.S. Department of Justice PRESORTED STANDARD Office of Justice Programs POSTAGE & FEES PAID Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention DOJ/OJJDP *NCJ~207606* PERMIT NO. G–91 Washington, DC 20531 Official Business Penalty for Private Use $300

Bulletin NCJ 207606

Agency, U.S. Fire Administration. Re­ Webb, N., Sakheim, G., Towns-Miranda, L., This Bulletin was prepared under grant number trieved May 10, 2004, from the Web: and Wagner, C. 1990. Collaborative treat­ 1999–JS–FX–0005 from the Office of Juvenile www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/ ment of juvenile firesetters: Assessment Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De­ publications/l-240.pdf. and outreach. American Journal of partment of Justice. Orthopsychiatry 60(2):305–309. U.S. Fire Administration. 2004. Juvenile Points of view or opinions expressed in this Arson—Youth Firesetting Facts. Fact Sheet. document are those of the authors and do Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Man­ For Further Information not necessarily represent the official position agement Agency, U.S. Fire Administration. or policies of OJJDP or the U.S. Department To contact the National Association of Retrieved May 10, 2004, from the Web: of Justice. State Fire Marshals, send an e-mail to www.usfa.fema.gov/fire-service/arson/ [email protected]. arson-aaw3.shtm. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Acknowledgments Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Institute of Charles T. Putnam, J.D., and John T. Kirkpatrick, Ph.D., are Codirectors of Justice- works at the University of New Hampshire. Justice, and the Office for Victims of Crime. The authors would like to thank their colleagues at Justiceworks and the members of the Justice Studies Program at the University of New Hampshire for their assis­ tance in preparing this Bulletin.