A Potential New Cutflower For Australia - Haemodorum Coccineum

A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation by Margaret Johnston and Alenna McMah

September 2006

RIRDC Publication No 06/087 RIRDC Project No UQ-117A

© 2006 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved.

ISBN 1 74151 350 2 ISSN 1440-6845

Haemodorum coccineum production in south-east Queensland Publication No. 06/087 Project No. UQ117A

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable industries. The information should not be relied upon for the purpose of a particular matter. Specialist and/or appropriate legal advice should be obtained before any action or decision is taken on the basis of any material in this document. The Commonwealth of Australia, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, the authors or contributors do not assume liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from any person's use or reliance upon the content of this document.

This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.

Researcher Contact Details Dr Margaret Johnston Mrs Alenna McMah Centre for Native Floriculture Boomajarril Native Flower Farm Phone: 07 54601240 Phone: 07 54665668 Fax: 07 54601112 Fax: 07 54665668 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.

RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 02 6272 4819 Fax: 02 6272 5877 Email: [email protected]. Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in September 2006 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

ii Foreword

New product development in ornamental horticulture is the driver of international competitiveness and the Australian native flower industry needs new products to maintain and develop export markets. Haemodorum coccineum (Haemodoraceae) is an attractive species from tropical Australia (Queensland and Northern Territory), producing orange to red flowers from November to March, a time when red flowers are highly desired on global markets for Christmas, Chinese New Year and Valentines’ Day.

Market evaluations by exporters, importers and domestic market agents vary widely. Key issues will be yield and plant density relationships, nutrition and the value of the product as this will influence profitability. Selection of desirable forms with compact heads will be essential to further develop this potential new crop.

This project was funded from RIRDC Wildflower and Native Plants sub-program which is provided by the Australian Government.

This report, an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1500 research publications, forms part of our Wildflowers and Native Plants R&D program, which aims to improve the profitability, productivity and sustainability of the Australian wildflower and native plant industry.

Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/fullreports/index.html • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

iii Acknowledgments

The technical assistance provided by Tess Stafford, Vishu Wickramsinghe, Robyn Cave and Helen Hofman is acknowledged.

Abbreviations

BAP Benzylamino purine IBA Indole butyric acid MS medium Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium NAA α-naphthaleneacetic acid P Phosphorus

iv Contents Foreword...... iii Acknowledgments...... iv Abbreviations...... iv Executive Summary ...... vi 1 Literature Review...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Haemodorum species endemic to Queensland ...... 1 Other important species...... 1 Distribution of Haemodorum coccineum ...... 1 Ecology of Haemodorum coccineum ...... 2 Soils...... 2 Reproductive biology ...... 2 Flowering ...... 3 Plant maturity and rhizome size ...... 3 Temperature...... 3 Daylength ...... 3 Soil moisture ...... 3 Propagation...... 4 Tissue culture ...... 4 Horticultural production...... 5 Post harvest ...... 6 Marketing ...... 6 2 Research ...... 7 Seed sources ...... 7 Seed propagation ...... 7 Tissue culture ...... 7 Transfer to the nursery and field ...... 9 Flower yield and quality...... 10 Evaluation of phosphorus sensitivity ...... 10 Selection...... 11 Market evaluations ...... 12 Conclusions and opportunities ...... 13 3. References ...... 14 Appendix 1 Photographs...... 16 Selection...... 16 Field production ...... 17 Postharvest and marketing...... 19

v Executive Summary

Haemodorum coccineum (Haemodoraceae) is an attractive species from tropical Australia (Queensland and Northern Territory), producing orange to red flowers from November to March, a time when red flowers are highly desired on global markets for Christmas, Chinese New Year and Valentines’ Day. A RIRDC funded research project on Haemodorum coccineum as a new cut flower species was conducted by Ian Dawson in the late 1990’s, but there has been little commercial production. There was concern that plants growing in southern Queensland died soon after flowering with no plant survival past the second summer (Dawson 2000). This was attributed to low soil temperatures and winter rainfall.

Results presented in this report appear more promising. Plants have been established both by seed and tissue culture with seed being the preferred method as most of the 200 lines evaluated failed to multiply in tissue culture. Established plants flower in the first season. Flowering of H. coccineum appeared to be autonomous. It was established that this species is not sensitive to phosphorus (P) fertiliser. Selection criteria for cut flower and pot/garden types have been developed and seed from the first round of selection has been collected.

Market evaluations of H. coccineum by exporters, importers and domestic market agents vary widely. Key issues will be yield and plant density relationship, nutrition and the value of the product as this will influence profitability of production. Selection of desirable forms will be essential to further develop this potential new crop. The vibrant colour of Haemodorum and its flowering time during a period of peak demand for red flowers would suggest further research is warranted.

vi 1 Literature Review

Introduction

Haemodorum is a genus of 20 species, all are native to Australia with one also being found in New Guinea (Macfarlane 1987). They are commonly referred to as bloodroot, derived from the orange, red pigment contained in their roots (Macfarlane 1987). Haemodorum belong to the Haemodoraceae family which also includes the important floricultural genera of Anigozanthos and Macropidia (Hopper et al. 1999).

Haemodorum are a tufted bulbous perennial, often with grey, green, strap-like leaves, the flowers are usually borne on long, slender stems and range in colour from orange, yellow and red, through to green or black (Elliot and Jones 1990) .

In the past Haemodorum have been used by indigenous people as a dye, for medicinal purposes and also as a food source (Wrigley and Fagg 2003). The leaf fibres were used to make bags (Macfarlane 1987).

The potential utilisation of Haemodorum as a cut flower was investigated by Dawson (RIRDC 1999a). This research suggested that both Haemodorum coccineum and H. ensifolium have the potential to meet the requirements of the cut flower market as both species have long, thick stems which is desirable on the cut flower market (RIRDC 1999b).

Haemodorum coccineum, the scarlet bloodroot is the focus of this report. This is an attractive species from tropical Australia (Queensland and Northern Territory), producing orange to red flowers from November to March, at a time when red flowers are highly desired on global floricultural markets for Christmas, Chinese New Year and Valentines’ Day.

Haemodorum species endemic to Queensland

Five species of Haemodorum are endemic to Queensland, a description of each species can be found in Flora of Australia (Macfarlane 1987).

Haemodorum coccineum Haemodorum planifolium Haemodorum tenuifolium Haemodorum austroqueenslandicum Haemodorum brevicaule

Other important species

Haemodorum ensifolium, endemic to Western Australia and Northern Territory, is considered to be important for its potential as a cut flower (RIRDC 1999b).

Distribution of Haemodorum coccineum

H. coccineum occurs in tropical Australia from western Northern Territory to Queensland and in southern New Guinea (Henderson 2002). It is widespread in Queensland and occurs in the districts of Bourke, Cook, Mitchell, North Kennedy and South Kennedy (Henderson 2002), from about Mackay northward and also on islands in the Torres Strait and the Gulf of Carpentaria (Macfarlane 1987).

1 Ecology of Haemodorum coccineum

Habitat H. coccineum can be found in depressions behind beaches, in association with eucalypt forests, open forest, woodland and savannah or with Melaleuca (Macfarlane 1987) and is said to prefer positions which provide filtered or partial sun (Elliot and Jones 1990).

Temperatures Dawson (2000) reported that the soil temperature in the species natural habitat at rhizome depth ranged from 21-250C in July to 29-310C in December, with fluctuations depended on aspect and ground cover and suggested that H. coccineum appears to require day/night temperatures which promote soil temperatures which exceed 220C (Dawson 2000).

Elliot and Jones (1990) reported that H. coccineum is adapted to tropical regions with a seasonally dry climate, but that it is expected to perform well in the subtropics except that frost tolerance is unlikely to be high. Typically, in the habitat of H. coccineum summers are characterised by heavy, periodic rains, especially on the coast, and the winters are mild and generally dry. The median annual rainfall exceeds 600 mm and coastal areas have a very high humidity (Dawson 2000).

Soils Macfarlane (1987) reported that H. coccineum occurs in sandy, clay and various other kinds of rocky soils, in dry or swampy conditions, while Elliot and Jones (1990) stated that H. coccineum inhabits well drained or seasonally swampy soils.

Dawson (2000) derived the preferred soil types for the species from herbarium records; and found that H. coccineum usually inhabits the sand, sandy loam, gravely loams, lithosols and skeletal soils. An analysis of the soil particle size was performed for ten sites, and the average distribution by weight of USDA particle size classes was gravel 38%, sand 59%, silt and clay 3% (Dawson 2000). The permeability of all soils was good, free draining and many plants were found in sites with slopes that were gentle to steep. In areas where the topography was relatively flat H. coccineum was found growing in slightly more elevated sites (Dawson 2000). Soil moisture at several locations in its natural habitat ranged from 4-21% during the dry season (Dawson 2000).

H. coccineum was found on very acidic soils with an average pH for the nine sites being 4.5 (Dawson 2000). These soils had low organic matter content, low cation exchange capacity, low salinity and fertility (Dawson 2000). All macro nutrients were present at low levels, zinc and copper levels were low, iron is generally adequate and manganese is variable, the calcium to magnesium ratio was uniformly low (Dawson 2000). He reported that higher nutrient levels were not detrimental to growth (RIRDC 1999b).

Reproductive biology

The inflorescences have been described as corymbose panicles 90 to 130cm tall (Elliot and Jones, 1990) and are made up of about 200 to 300 flowers, grouped in 10 to 15 clusters (Dawson 2000). The flowers are 5.5 to 12 mm long, red or orange, profuse and showy, densely clustered (Macfarlane, 1987; Elliot and Jones, 1990). Anthers are versatile, borne at the top of the flower (Macfarlane, 1987). Typically anthers dehisce about 4 to 6 days after stigma emergence (Dawson, 2000). The species is reported to be self compatible and the flowers are easily pollinated by hand (Dawson 2000).

Fruits are a 3 lobed capsule and the seed is discoid, with a membranous marginal wing (Elliot and Jones, 1990; Macfarlane, 1987). The seed is black, about 5mm x 4mm, with a mean weight of 38 ± 2 mg per seed (Dawson 2000).

2 Flowering

Flowering is generally reported to occur during and after the wet season from December to March (Wrigley and Fagg 2003; Dawson 2000). However Dawson (2000) observed sporadic flowering in any month in north Queensland, including after fire. Dawson (2000) suggested that flowering may be delayed by applying heavy mulch which assists in cooling the soil.

Floral initiation There is no published information on any Haemodorum species on the factors that influence floral initiation or the rate of flower development. Motum and Goodwin (1987b) reported that evidence of floral initiation in Anigozanthos flavidus and A. manglesii was evident 6 months prior to the peak flowering period for each species. They defined meristem stages during initiation but the time spent at each phase was unknown as was information about the phases when the inflorescence is affected by drought, frost or high temperature stresses (Motum and Goodwin 1987b).

Plant maturity and rhizome size

Dawson (2000) suggested that plant maturity or rhizome size, may determine when flowering is initiated. The mean rhizome size of 15 flowering plants of H. coccineum was reported to be 22.4 ± 3.1cm3, with a fresh weight of 22.7±3.1g, but no experimental work to determine the relationship between rhizome size and floral initiation was conducted. Motum and Goodwin (1987a) established a clear relationship between the weight of the rhizome and flower production in A. flavidus and A. manglesii. The fresh weight of the rhizome needed to be at least 175g and 75g respectively before flowering could be initiated.

Temperature

There is no published experimental data which determines the influence of temperature of flowering of H. coccineum. It is known that the main flowering season occurs from December to March (Dawson 2000) and that the mean daily maximum temperature ranges for this period range from 28.5 to 300C in Mackay, 32.2 to 33.60C for Darwin and 30.5 to 31.40C for Cairns (BOM). The mean daily minimum temperatures for the December to March period range from 22.2 to 23.40C for Mackay, 25.0 to 25.60C for Darwin and 23.0 to 23.70C for Cairns (BOM).

The rate of floral development of Anigozanthos species was reported to increase with increasing temperature (Motum and Goodwin 1987a). However high temperatures (30/250C day/night) during flower bud development gave some flower bud abortion, flower development was stunted and the flower colour was faded and bleached. Flower quality and development was best at temperatures of 24/190C (Motum and Goodwin 1987a).

Daylength

The influence of daylength on the flowering of Haemodorum is not known, but many tropical species are day neutral, that is, they flower at any daylength. While flowering predominately occurs in summer, flowering has also been observed in northern Queensland in June (Dawson 2000).

Soil moisture

The main flowering season coincides with the wet season when the soil moisture is at its highest (Dawson 2000). Less commonly, flowering has also been recorded in northern Queensland in June when the soil moisture was low at 3.7% (Dawson 2000).

3 Propagation

Seed

Dawson (2000) reported that seed germination can be improved by leaching out the naturally occurring dye which is present in the seed coat. The removal of the dye increases germination rates of freshly collected seed from 45 to 100% (Dawson 2000). Similar germination rates were achieved for seed up to three years old, there was no evidence of dormancy or apparent loss of viability during this period (Dawson 2000).

Division

Haemodorum coccineum is rhizomatous and can be divided into separate plants after flowering (Dawson 2000). The greatest success in dividing plants was achieved by separating rhizomes in the necrotic zone beneath a fan that has flowered (Dawson 2000). Dividing living tissue by cutting through the orange-red tissues is possible but less successful (Dawson 2000).

Tissue culture

There is no published information on tissue culture propagation of the Haemodorum genus. The information that has been reviewed relates to Anigozanthos species.

Explant source Embryo The developing embryo of Anigozanthos seed can be removed when it is approximately 0.2mm long and cultured on a simple medium (Gorst 1996). Secondary embryos can be induced with the addition of auxin, many somatic embryos will form, and with the removal of the auxin they continue to grow into plantlets (Gorst 1996).

Vegetative buds Successful cultures can be established using apical shoots, sprouting or dormant axillary buds and sections of rhizome cortex, however sprouting axillary buds still encased in an unbroken leaf sheath were found to be the best starting material due to low contamination rates (McComb and Newton 1981). Explants were placed in 1% ascorbic acid whilst the remaining material was being excised (McComb and Newton 1981). Goodwin (1993) used the lower vegetative buds on the inflorescence with about 3 to 5% of these buds producing vigorous plants in culture.

Initiation The explants were washed in water with added 0.01% Tween 80 for 1 minute, then 80% alcohol for 1 minute, followed by a 2% sodium hypochlorite wash for 5 minutes, finally they were given 3 washes in sterile water (McComb and Newton 1981). The explants were then trimmed and sometimes resterilised in 2% sodium hypochlorite followed by washing 3 times in sterile water. The sterile explants were placed in 1% ascorbic acid before being inserted into tubes (McComb and Newton 1981). After transfer to the initiation medium the explants were placed in the dark for one week, then under constant light (600-1000 lux at plant level) and a constant temperature of 250C (McComb and Newton 1981).

Medium composition and preparation Several media have been used for Angiozanthos including the callus method first used by McIntyre and Whitehorn (1974) and shoot multiplication medium used by Ellyard (1978) which lead to undesirable callus formation.

4

The initiation medium used by McComb and Newton (1981) contains a half-strength Lindsmaier and Skoog (1965) major and minor minerals and 20mg/L NaFe EDTA together with inositol 100mg/L, thiamine HCL 0.5mg/L, sucrose 20g/L, and hormones benzylamino purine (BAP) at 2 µM and α- naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) at 2.5 µM; agar 0.7% at pH 6.0. The medium was placed into a polycarbonate tube and autoclaved at 1210C for 15 minutes (McComb and Newton 1981).

Shoot proliferation Once shoots have developed they were subcultured to a shoot proliferation medium which contained the same constituents as the initiation medium but did not contain NAA (McComb and Newton 1981). This resulted in good multiplication and the elimination of callus formation (McComb and Newton 1981). No new shoots were produced in the absence of BAP, thus a rate of 0.5µM was selected for routine shoot production (McComb and Newton 1981). Multiplication rates of three fold per month are reported (Goodwin 1993).

Rooting and transfer ex vitro For rooting, plantlets were transferred to a medium without cytokinins but with added auxins either indole 3-butyric acid (IBA) or NAA. Most plantlets (90-100%) formed roots within 3 weeks using 1.5 µM/L IBA (McComb and Newton 1981). Survival rates on deflasking range from 98-100% (Goodwin 1993) with plants flowering in about 4 months after transfer.

Macropidia Macropidia fuliginosa commonly called the black Kangaroo paw is another member of the Haemodoreaceae family. This species is reported to have slower rates of multiplication than the Anigozanthos (Gorst 1996). Tan and Vlok (1989) obtained multiple shoots by using 0.88 µM BAP or 2.3 µM kinetin in a half strength MS medium. These researchers also reported that the response of various lines varied considerably and that better proliferation rates could be obtained by selection.

Horticultural production

Little published information for Haemodorum was found and material was only included from other related genera when it was deemed that it may be useful.

Plant density

There is no published information on plant density for Haemodorum genus and information found on Anigozanthos was considered not to be relevant to Haemodorum as these species differ significantly in plant habit.

Temperature Dawson (2000) hypothesised that soil temperature is the key to understanding the seasonal growth pattern of Haemodorum coccineum. Plants in natural population were flowering on disturbed ground on a north facing slope, whereas on nearby soils on flatter areas the plants were dormant (Dawson 2000). The soil temperatures at rhizome depth of the flowering specimens was 240C while that where the dormant plants were found was 210C (Dawson 2000).

Soil and soil temperature

Dawson (2000) field trial at Gatton gave poor plant survival of Haemodorum coccineum. The particle size distribution of the soil was 95% sand, 4% silt and clay, and 1% gravel, the carbon content was 0.9%. The site was planted in autumn and by late spring most of the plants were alive but not actively growing (Dawson 2000). There were a small number of flowers in summer, but the plants died soon after flowering, none of the plants survived past the second summer. Dawson (2000) attributed the poor performance to low soil temperatures and/or winter rainfall.

5

Nutrient management

Dawson (2000) reported that Haemodorum tolerate increased nutrition but no detailed information was provided. It has been reported that calcium (Ca) deficiency in Anigozanthos is thought to cause leaf tip blackening and that adding calcium to crops increases growth rate and frost tolerance and reduces leaf tip burn (Roh and Motum 1989). Growns (2005) gave recommended minimum fertilizer rates for Anigozanthos (Table 3).

Source: Growns (2005)

Worrall (1996) stated that growers of Anigozanthos in the humid east coast of Australia tend to use slow release fertilizers due to the high leaching rates and the difficulty of applying liquid fertilizers during periods of high rainfall. Typical application rates are 100 to 150g m-2 of Nutricote purple or Osmocote low P twice a year.

Post harvest

The vase life of Haemodorum reported by Dawson (2000) ranged from mean of 10.3 to 11.88 days when stems were held in water. This depended on harvest stage and resulted even when simulated transport was applied to harvested flowers Dawson (2000). Cool storage out of water was found to not be detrimental to vase life. Blackening of the petals and sometimes wilting was used to indicate the end of the useful vase life. Added sucrose and ‘Flourish®’ treatments reduced vase life by 2 to 4 days; this was associated with severe leaf and stem blackening.

Marketing

RIRDC (1999b) estimated from industry sources that Haemodorum may have potential for exports of around $1million between January and March, based on extending the Kangaroo paw market niche. The response to a shipment of Haemodorum cut flowers, from a Japanese importer, was generally favourable, with one adverse comment being the desirability of removing any black colouring from the petals (RIRDC 1999b).

6 2 Research

Seed sources

Seed of Haemodorum coccineum was obtained from Mrs Alenna McMah. These were as follows; HC (seed collected from a farm in North Queensland) O - Orange (collected from a plant at McMah’s farm) CR - Cherry Red (collected from a plant at McMah’s farm)

Seed collected at Kairi (K) and Lamb Range (LR) in north Queensland by Mrs Anne Yinfoo in January 2005 have been initiated into tissue culture.

Seed propagation

Seed germinates readily when using the protocol suggested by Dawson (2000) to imbibe seed in water for 24 h prior to planting to leach dye from the seed coverings. Seed is now the preferred method of propagation of this species given the difficulties associated with multiplication in tissue culture. Seeds obtained from one year old plants growing at McMah’s farm near Gatton Queensland germinated readily and seedlings flower in the first season. There was no obvious difference in flowering of plants obtained from seed or tissue culture.

Tissue culture

Seeds from each source were sterilised with 2000 mg/L sodium hypochlorite for 20 mins on 28 June and 6 August 2005, and initiated into standard half strength de Fossard (1981) medium with 20g/L sucrose and 9g/L agar; pH 5.7, which was autoclaved at 120 ˚C for 20 mins. Cultures were placed in tissue culture laboratory held at 25+3˚C, under a 16 h daylength at a light intensity of 70 to 120 µmol m-2s-1. Germination commenced in two weeks. Initially 138 seeds were initiated into culture. After four weeks high germination percentages were obtained for all seed sources and ranged from 80 to 97% for HC, 100% for O and 92 to 94% for CR.

Individual lines were trimmed to remove roots and transferred onto a multiplication medium containing 4 µM BAP. However multiplication was limited on this medium, so an experiment was commenced evaluating a range of BAP concentrations (0-12 µM). Some phenolic development and browning of cultures occurred. However, apart from four lines (HC6, HC8, O23 and O25 representing only 3% of all lines initiated into tissue culture) relatively limited multiplication was obtained.

Lines were transferred to a Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium (MS medium) containing 2 µM BAP and 2.5 µM α-naphthaleneacetic (NAA) used for Kangaroo paw by McComb and Newton (1981), and this medium did improve multiplication rates obtained with some lines. Another experiment using 7 different combinations and rates of the plant growth regulators, BAP, IBA and kinetin on the line O23 did not improve rates of multiplication, but did suggest that plants left as small clumps gave more multiple plants than single plantlets. Most Haemodorum lines continued to develop massive roots in tissue culture and this inhibits shoot multiplication. Over the 18 month period 510 plantlets of the line O23 were derived from trials in the tissue culture laboratory. Plantlets obtained from seed initiated into culture in January 2005 from Kairi and Lambs Range also tend not to multiply even when high rates of BAP were applied.

7

Two additional experiments were conducted. In the first experiment there were five replications of four O23 plantlets per jar which were cultured on the full or half strength MS media each containing the following plant growth regulators. • 2 µM BAP and 2.5 µM NAA • 0.5 µM BAP • 4.44 µM BAP In the second experiment, there were seven replications of four O23 plantlets per jar which were cultured onto either full strength or half strength MS media containing the following plant growth regulator combinations: • Shaken in liquid medium of 4.4 µM BAP for 3 days and then transferred to either; 2.22 µM BAP solid medium 4.44 µM BAP solid medium • 2.22 µM BAP solid medium • 4.44 µM BAP solid medium

Results The results obtained from the first experiment showed that number of shoots per Haemodorum plantlet was significantly higher when the standard medium from McComb and Newton (1981) was used (Table 2.1). In addition, Haemodorum plantlets required a full strength medium and number of shoots was about 13 to 58% lower when a half strength medium was used. The strength of the medium or plant growth regulator treatments had no significant effect on plant vigour or browning (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 The effect of medium and plant growth regulators on multiple shooting, plant vigour and browning of Haemodorum O23.

Treatments No of Vigour@ Browning# shoots per plantlet

Full strength MS + 10.0 1.2 2.2 2 µM BAP and 2.5 µM NAA Half strength MS + 4.2 1.2 2.0 2 µM BAP and 2.5 µM NAA Full strength MS + 7.0 1.8 1.8 0.5 µM BAP Half strength MS + 3.4 1.4 1.6 0.5 µM BAP Full strength MS + 6.8 1.6 1.6 4.44 µM BAP Half strength MS + 6.0 1.8 1.8 4.44 µM BAP

LSD0.05 4.41 NS NS @ Rating scale 1-5, with 1 being poor vigour to 5 being high vigour (green shoots and good roots). # Rating scale 1-3, with 1 being severe browning and 3 being no browning.

In the second experiment a comparison was made of O23 plantlets which were cultured on solid medium or emerged in a liquid medium on a shaker for three days then transferred to a solid medium. No significant difference in the number of shoots was obtained with any treatment but full strength MS medium with 4.4 µM BAP (either solid or liquid) gave more vigorous plantlets with less browning (Table 2.2).

8

Table 2.2 The effect of medium type and plant growth regulators on multiple shooting, plant vigour and browning of Haemodorum O23.

Treatments No of Vigour@ Browning# shoots per plant

Full strength MS + 6.29 1.71 2.33 liquid medium of 4.4 µM BAP for 3 days solid medium of 4.4 µM BAP Half strength MS + 5.86 1.43 1.71 liquid medium of 4.4 µM BAP for 3 days solid medium 4.44 µM BAP Full strength MS + 7.29 2.86 2.28 liquid medium of 4.4 µM BAP for 3 days solid medium 2.22 µM BAP Half strength MS + 5.71 1.86 2.0 liquid medium of 4.4 µM BAP for 3 days solid medium 2.22 µM BAP Full strength MS + 6.57 2.14 1.57 4.44 µM BAP Half strength MS + 5.71 1.71 1.71 4.44 µM BAP Full strength MS + 5.14 1.57 1.71 2.22 µM BAP Half strength MS + 5.14 1.43 1.57 2.22 µM BAP

LSD0.05 NS 0.92 0.78 @ Rating scale 1-5, with 1 being poor vigour to 5 being high vigour (green shoots and good roots). # Rating scale 1-3, with 1 being severe browning and 3 being no browning.

Multiplication rates of other lines of Haemodorum The results from these experiments with the line O23 may give the impression that high rates of multiplication can be achieved with Haemodorum. It is important to emphasise that this is not the case with the vast majority of the 200 lines evaluated in tissue culture. As an example, plantlets from lines from Kairi and Lambs Range were cultured emerged within a liquid medium at 8.88 µM BAP on a shaker for seven days then transferred to a solid medium containing 4.44 µM BAP. The mean multiplication rate after 3 weeks for Lambs Range lines was just 1.88 and for the Kairi lines just 1.26 which illustrates the very poor multiplication rates obtained for most of the 200 lines evaluated during this study. These rates of multiplication are well below a commercially viable multiplication rate for most tissue culture lines.

Transfer to the nursery and field

All lines that failed to multiply were transferred ex vitro in batches from early February 2005 to March 2006. They were transferred to a fog house propagation facility with bottom heat at 25 ˚C for 2 weeks and then to a standard greenhouse with overhead irrigation. Most lines transferred with very few losses and were supplied to McMah’s farm where they were planted into the field. About 210 plants were planted in the field with losses of about 12%.

9 However, losses of about 35% were obtained with the line O23, which showed some propensity to multiply. This was possible due to poor plant quality due to the higher rates of multiplication achieved. This line also grew poorly when planted in November 2005 and did not flower this season. Recently, 120 plants of O23 have been transferred with the loss of just 1 to 2%. The aim is to further evaluate the floricultural potential of this line, prior to any further multiplication.

It is clear that multiplication of most Haemodorum lines is difficult with few lines showing any propensity to form multiple shoots. This limitation and the cost of tissue culture propagation methods suggest that this will not be the preferred method of propagation. Seedling germination and establishment is a cheaper and more effective method but the limitation is that plants obtained are variable. However, further selection of desirable cut flower or garden types is possible and will be required for the further development of this species.

Flower yield and quality

Plants established from seed planted in January 2004 and transplanted into the field in July 2004, flowered in January/February 2005. These plants produced 1.4 flowering stems per plant, which ranged in size from 46 to 77 cm. Data collected on flowering of Haemodorum plants from November 2005 to early February 2006 is presented (Table 2.4). In addition, another 150 stems were harvested for various market evaluations.

Table 2.4 Flower yield of Haemodorum plants derived from seed or tissue culture.

Source and Number of Number of Number of Size of Planting date plants flowers dead plants flowers (cm) Seed, 11 July 80 113 1 44-71 2004, 2004 Data Seed, 11 July 72 122 9 38-79 2004, 2005 Data TC, April, May 118 78 20 51-108 and June 2005 TC, August and 88 55 4 45-120 November 2005

The flowering of Haemodorum plants in the first season after establishment from seed or tissue culture is a desirable characteristic. It would appear that Haemodorum is autonomous flowering. Flowering of plants, derived from seed or tissue culture and planted in November 2005, continued to late April 2006. This suggests that a method of extending flowering season would be to plant seedlings in late spring. It is likely that flower yields could be increased with improved plant nutrition once there is a better understanding of the nutritional requirements of this species. Clearly it will be important to evaluate plant density yield relationships of Haemodorum to evaluate productivity per unit area planted, a critical issue to determine profitability of this crop.

Many lines in the field were not harvested to enable the collection of seed and the selection of improved lines. Seed production was considered to have priority over harvesting of flowers for commercial sale this season.

Evaluation of phosphorus sensitivity

Dawson (2000) reported that Haemodorum plants grown near Gatton, south east Queensland tolerated high levels of nutrition but all plants died. This was attributed to winter rainfall and cool temperatures. However, it is possible that other factors may have been involved including pathogens. Both Phytophthora sp. and Colletotrichum sp. have been identified on plants growing in the field.

10 In its natural habitat Haemodorum is found on impoverished soils (which commonly occur in Australia) hence another possible cause of premature plant death is phosphorus (P) sensitivity. An experiment to evaluate P sensitivity was done at the UQ Gatton nursery. Haemodorum plants derived from tissue culture were grown in 1.5 L pots containing three different media, the standard UQGatton nursery medium, this medium plus 1 kg/m3 superphosphate and a low P medium (used for P sensitive species) which has P added as slowly soluble rock phosphate. The experiment commenced in January 2006 and was observed for a 10 week period. There were four replications of each treatment.

Table 2.5 The effect of phosphorus fertiliser on growth of Haemodorum.

Medium Total dry weight Root/shoot ratio Shoot dry Root dry weight (g) weight (g) (g) Standard 5.52 0.37 4.10 1.42 Standard + 5.95 0.57 3.90 2.05 superphosphate Low P 5.53 0.71 3.30 2.23

Phosphorus fertiliser did not reduce growth of Haemodorum and this species is not P sensitive (Table 2.5). In fact, it appears from the results obtained for the root/shoot ratio that plants growing in the low P medium were possibly showing deficiency as the root/shoot ratio was higher (though not significantly) than the other treatments (Table 2.5). A typical plant response to P deficiency is to increase root/shoot ratio as appears in these results (Chaplin 1980). Samples for plant nutrient analysis were collected from each treatment and replication, but these analyses have been stored but not analysed due to funding limitations at this time.

Selection

During the 2005-06 season, an evaluation was made of Haemodorum plants growing at McMah’s farm and desirable cut flower and pot or garden types were selected. Seed was saved from each of the selected lines. Fourteen cut flower types and 19 pot/garden types were selected.

The following characteristics were used:

Cut flower

Height of stem >70 cm 71-100 cm >100 cm Stem thickness and strength Strong and slender Thick Thin and weak Shape of the inflorescence or head Mushroom terminal inflorescences higher than the laterals Compact (<20 cm but terminal inflorescences were lower than the laterals Undesirable (see Plate 1). Colour Red Orange

11 Number of lateral shoots >6 3 to 5 2 or <

The selected lines were all greater than 70 cm in height, had a strong but slender stems, a mushroom or compact head with preferable with more than 6 or at least 3 to 5 lateral flowering shoots.

Pot or garden types

Height of stem <50 cm 51 to 70 cm 71 to 100 cm Stem thickness and strength Strong and slender Thick Thin and weak Shape of the inflorescence or head Mushroom terminal inflorescences higher than the laterals Compact (<20 cm but terminal inflorescences were lower than the laterals Undesirable (see Plate 1). Colour Red Orange Number of lateral shoots >6 3 to 5 2 or <

The selected lines were all less than 70 cm in height (but preferably less than 50 cm) with strong but slender stems, a mushroom or compact head with preferably greater than 6 or 3 to 5 lateral flowering shoots.

Seed from selected cut flower lines and will be planted at McMah’s farm and seed from the garden/pot types will be evaluated at UQ Gatton nursery next year.

Market evaluations

Dr Lilly Lim and Associate Professor Tony Dunne completed a market evaluation of Haemodorum in Japan in March 2005. However this study was limited as there were only limited quantities of material available at that time. The comments received suggested that "the main issues that need to be resolved prior to marketing Haemodorum would be its vase life and the uniformity of flower stages once harvested. Another issue may be the size of the flower head in relation to the stem length".

The following comments were received from Dr Greg Lamont from product provided in February 2006. “The Haemodorum lasted about 14 days which was more than adequate. Because we only received such a tiny quantity (8 stems in total delivered in a large flower carton) we were unable to mix it with other flowers to see how versatile it was. The nature of the flower puts it in the filler category and it could easily be lost among other flowers. The commercial value would be only 20 to 25 cents per stem based on its added value. This probably translates into ridiculous economics for this crop however I think it is a realistic conclusion”.

12 Product was provided to Adrian Parsons but no feedback was provided as unfortunately product was sent in the week of Valentines Day.

Positive feedback was obtained from Toa Trading, a Japanese importer and Dr Brian Freeman who believe that Haemodorum has potential as long as the flowering stems have the mushroom type of head, that is, even flower maturity on the inflorescence.

The comment made in an earlier RIRDC report was that the response to a shipment of Haemodorum cut flowers, from a Japanese importer, was generally favourable, with one adverse comment being the desirability of removing any black colouring from the petals (RIRDC 1999b).

As can be seen from these comments, opinions differ as to the market potential of Haemodorum. However, product supplied by Alenna McMah to Christenson’s Flowers (Brisbane) was well received and an average price of $1 per stem for 100 stems was received. The domestic market agent was very impressed with the product (Plates 7 and 8).

Conclusions and opportunities

Domestication of native species is a slow process and there is much knowledge to be gained. Haemodorum is really in the early stages of domestication but it would appear to have potential. The vase life of Haemodorum is 14 days. Market evaluations have been done in Japan and Australia and opinions vary about the value of flowering stems of H. coccineum. Various opinions about the market potential of this product from exporters, importers and domestic markets agent are reported. One key issue will be the price the market is prepared to pay.

There is a need for further research on nutrition and disease susceptibility to determine whether this may have contributed to the premature plant death reported by Dawson (2000), but initial trials suggest that this is not a phosphorus (P) sensitive species. The selection of elite lines with desirable head shape and maturity is a priority and seed from the first round of selection has been collected and processed. Data needs to be collected on yield per unit area to determine the economic viability of commercial production. The vibrant colour of Haemodorum and its flowering time during a period of peak demand for red flowers would suggest further research is warranted.

13 3. References

BOM Climate Averages, Bureau of Meteorology. Online at http://www.bom.gov.au/weather/qld/

Chapin, F. S. (1980). The mineral nutrition of wild plants. Annual Review of Ecological Systems 11: 233-260.

Dawson, I. (2000). Scarlet bloodroot (Haemodorum coccineum) - A new Australian cutflower crop. Acta Horticulturae 541: 91-97. de Fossard, R.A. (1981). 'Plant Tissue Culture Propagation'. (R.A.de Fossard: Sydney).

Elliot, R. W. and Jones, D. L. (1990). 'Encyclopaedia of Australian Plants Suitable for Cultivation'. Lothian Publishing Company Pty Ltd.; Melbourne.

Ellyard, R.K. (1978). In vitro propagation of Anigozanthos manglesii, Anigozanthos flavidus and Macropidia fuliginosa. HortScience 13: 662-663.

Goodwin, P. B. (1993). Anigozanthos (Macropidia). In 'The Physiology of Flower Bulbs'.Eds A. D. Hertogh and M. L. Nard., Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.; Amsterdam. Pp 219-226.

Gorst, J. R. (1996). Tissue culture of Australian monocotyledons including the orchids. In 'Tissue Culture of Australian Plants'. Eds A. M. Taji and R.R. Williams. University of New England; Armidale. Pp 56-97.

Growns, D. (2005). Cultivation of kangaroo paws. Farmnote No. 22/96 Department of Agriculture Western Australia.

Henderson, R. J. F., Ed. (2002). 'Names and Distribution of Queensland Plants, Algae and Lichens. Queensland Herbarium Environmental Protection Agency; Toowong.

Hopper, S. D., Fay, M. F., Rossetto, M. and Chase, M.W. (1999). A molecular phylogenetic analysis of the bloodroot and kangaroo paw family, Haemodoraceae: taxanomic, biogeographic and conservation implications. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 131: 285-299.

Linsmaier, E.M. and Skoog, F. (1965). Organic growth factor requirements of tobacco tissue cultures. Physiologia Plantarum 18: 100-127.

Macfarlane, T. (1987). Haemodorum. In 'Flora of Australia'. Australian Government Publishing Service; Canberra 45: 134-148.

McComb, J. A. and Newton, S. (1981). Propagation of kangaroo paws using tissue culture. Journal of Horticultural Science 56(2): 181-183.

McIntyre, D.K. and Whitehorn, G.J. (1974). Tissue culture in the propagation of Australian plants. Proceedings of the International Plant propagators Society 24: 262-265.

Motum, G. J. and Goodwin, P. B. (1987a). The control of flowering in kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos spp.). Scientia Horticulturae 32: 123-133.

Motum, G. J. and P. B. Goodwin (1987b). Floral initiation in kangaroo paw (Anigozanthos spp.) : A scanning electron microscope study. Scientia Horticulturae 32: 115-122.

14

Murashige, T. and Skoog, F. (1962). A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiologia Plantarum 15: 473-497.

RIRDC (1999a). The Short Report; No. 53 Scarlet bloodroot Australia's new cut flower export?

RIRDC (1999b). Scarlet Bloodroot (Haemodorum coccineum) - A new Australian cutflower crop.

Roh, M. S. and G. J. Motum (1989). Anigozanthos. In 'CRC Handbook of Flowering'. Ed. A. H. Halevy. CRC Press Incorporated; Boca Raton, Florida. 6: 37-46.

Tan, B.H. and Vlok, A. (1989). Selection for tissue culture performance in Macropidia fuliginosa. In 'The Production and Marketing of Australian Flora'. The Western Australian Department of Agriculture; Perth.

Worrall, R. (1996). Anigozanthos and Macropidia (Kangaroo Paws), Family Haemodoraceae. 'Native Australian Plants Horticulture and Uses. Eds K. A. Johnson and M. Burchett. University of New South Wales Press: Sydney 242-259.

Wrigley, J. W. and M. Fagg (2003). 'Australian Native Plants: Cultivation, Use in Landscaping and Propagation'. Reed New Holland; Frenches Forest.

15 Appendix 1 Photographs Selection

Plate 1. Undesirable inflorescence of Haemodorum with lateral sections of the inflorescence taller than the terminal section.

A

B Plate 2 A & B. More even and compact inflorescences shape.

16 Field production

Plate 3. Two year old Haemodorum plants planted July 2004 showing their second flowering in November to December 2005

Plate 4. Flowering plants from seedlings planted July to September 2005 and flowering February to April 2006

17

Plate 5. Tissue culture plants (top two rows) planted April to November 2005 and seedling plants (third row) at the early flowering stages in February 2006

Plate 6. Flowering and seed collection from 2005 planted seedlings

18

Postharvest and marketing

Plate 7. Harvested Haemodorum flowering stems

Plate 8. Bunches of Haemodorum ready for sale

19