Emotional Labour in Professional Cricket ……………… 31 Purpose …………………………………………………………………

EMOTIONAL LABOUR IN

PROFESSIONAL CRICKET:

PERCEPTIONS OF PLAYERS

AND ORGANISATIONAL PERSONNEL

CHAITANYA SRIDHAR (M.Sc)

This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Western Australia, School of Human Movement and Exercise Science, September 2007. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to dedicate this thesis to the sporting fraternity of India (my motherland) and

Australia (current homeland).

Undoubtedly, first and foremost, my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to my family, especially my mother, Shyla Sridhar and sister, Ananya Gowda for their unswerving love and support at all times. I am indebted to my late father, B.V. Sridhar who was instrumental in triggering my passion in cricket. Sincere appreciation must also be expressed to my grandfather, Chinappa Hegde and to members of my extended family.

My deepest gratitude to the former Head of School, Prof. Brian Blanksby for being supportive and encouraging, especially during trying times.

I would like to especially thank my three supervisors Prof. Bob Grove, Dr. James Dimmock and Dr. Scott Cresswell for taking me under their wings right in the middle of this research.

Your guidance and constructive feedback have enabled me to finish well.

Special acknowledgement goes to all the Australian and Indian participants (cricketers and organisational personnel) who participated in my research. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Col. Nair, Darryl Foster, Doug Harris, Dr. M.P.Ganesh, Murali Ramdas,

Pavithra Chandra, and Sunil Yash Kalra for their insights and help in establishing contact with Australian and Indian cricketers.

iii I owe my deepest appreciation to Dr. Lee Poh Chin for the pep-up and brainstorming sessions, and also for proof reading my thesis. I am also indebted to Dr. Nikola Medic and

Dr. Paul Herd for their help and invaluable feedback. Sincere appreciation to the ever helpful and cheerful staff of Human Movement, especially Barbara Smith, Brenda

Churchill, Don Gordon and Margaret Durling; and also the encouraging staff at the

Graduate Office. I am thankful to Dr. Sandy Gordon and Dr. Sandra Kiffin-Peterson for their initial advice. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the department for their company and motivation.

My heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to all my friends in India and Perth for keeping me motivated to achieve the ‘Dr.’ title! I owe my sincere appreciation to my close friends

Jyothi Hegde and Aditi Mankad for their love and support, especially during my phases of homesickness and difficult moments. I am very grateful to my “foster” family in Perth,

Shreya Laveena and Kiran Anthony, who welcomed and treated me like their very own. I am also thankful to all my housemates for their encouragement, support and also for tolerating my Ph.D. mood swings.

Although challenging, the Emotional Labour of giving birth to this ‘baby’ has been life transforming and enriching. All the individuals above and many others who walked with and inspired me along this path played a huge part. Through it all, I realise that it is the not the end product of this thesis which matters, but every step of the Ph.D. journey!

iv ABSTRACT

This research explored the concept of emotional labour (EL) in the context of professional cricket. Hochschild (1983, p. 7) defined EL as “the management of emotions for a wage”. In all, four studies were conducted to investigate various aspects of EL among professional cricketers from Australia and India. Additionally, data were also collected from organisational personnel (such as coaches and selectors) to gain a broader perspective of the organisational setting and the corresponding emotional demands.

Study 1 utilised a focus group approach to determine the extent to which EL existed in the cricket setting, and how it was perceived by professional cricketers and organisational personnel. Individual interviews were also conducted with the participants to further clarify the construct of EL and its related issues. Results from Study 1 indicated that professional cricketers and organisational personnel endeavour to meet organisational, individual and team goals by altering their emotions suitably, thereby performing EL to a substantial extent. Findings in Study 1 also showed that professional cricket players and the management staff managed their emotions both privately (within the organisation) and publicly (outside the organisation).

Study 2 was conducted to further examine the issues identified in Study 1 on a much larger sample of professional cricketers and organisational personnel from Australia.

Similar to the findings in Study 1, results from Study 2 indicated that professional cricket players and organisational personnel perform EL either through Reading Emotions of

Others, Managing Emotions of Others, Suppressing Emotions and/or Expressing Unfelt

Emotions on a regular basis. Professional cricket players also found some of the

International Cricket Council (ICC) codes difficult to adhere to. Additionally, Work-life

Balance and Image Management evolved as particularly demanding to professional players.

Professional players performed EL mainly due to organisational display rules, individual v goals, team goals, and image management concerns. Notably, organisational personnel engaged in EL for team perspective and organisational rules. Cannonical relationships indicated that older participants who were high in professional efficacy were associated with frequency of emotions and duration of interactions. Also, high levels of emotional exhaustion and cynicism were associated with the use of surface acting.

Following these two initial studies, a case study approach was employed in Study 3 and Study 4 to further understand EL during competitive situations. Specifically, an incident-based prompting technique was used to elicit in-depth information from three

Australian and four Indian professional cricketers respectively to explore the concept of EL across cross-cultural contexts.

Study 3 results indicated that all three professional Australian cricketers managed their emotions to a substantial extent. The antecedents for performing EL were influenced by organisational rules, societal rules, cultural expectations, and audience expectations. In addition, players’ emotional management requires the suppression of genuine emotions and handling of mixed emotions. The data also revealed that emotional management instances quoted were closely related to performance and umpiring decisions. Selection related aspects evolved as a pressing issue to the players. In addition, the media, spectators, and commercialisation of cricket evolved as central issues in the public management of emotions. The consequences of regulating emotions privately and publicly could be positive or negative, depending on the role internalisation, job satisfaction and situational context.

Indian professional cricketers’ responses in Study 4 further confirmed the findings found in Study 3 regarding the management of emotions and its consequences. However, there appeared to be more discontent among the participants regarding the Board of Cricket

Control in India (BCCI) functioning and handling issues pertaining to professional vi cricketers. Audience expectation and the media emerged as vital factors for performing EL among these Indian cricketers. Career concerns emerged as another important factor for performing EL among the participants in this study.

Overall, results from these studies suggest that EL exists and takes a variety of forms in professional cricket. A number of factors (such as display rules, ICC codes, and game commercialisation) were found to influence the performance of EL. Results in these studies also indicated that EL does not necessarily have to be negative as advocated by many researchers. Instead, EL can be either positive or negative, and its impact is largely context-dependent. Finally, this thesis demonstrates that the EL of professional cricketers is varied, and different from that of employees in the service setting.

vii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ii ABSTRACT...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS...... vii LIST OF TABLES ...... xviii LIST OF FIGURES ...... xx

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...... 1 Statement of the Problem...... 3 Significance of the Research...... 5 Aims and Purposes of this Research ...... 6 Structure of the Thesis ...... 6

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE …………………………………. 8 Sport-Business Link and Common Stressors...... 8 Emotion-Performance in Sport …………………………………………….. 12 Difference between Emotional Labour and Emotion Control ……………... 13 Emotional Labour in the Non-sporting Organisations...... 13 Perspectives on Emotional Labour ...... 15 Hochschild’s Dramaturgical Perspective ...... 15 Grandey’s Dramaturgical Model...... 16 Ashforth and Humphrey’ Perspective ……………………………… 17 Morris and Feldman’s Perspective …………………………………… 17 Emotional Labour and Emotion Work...... 18 Types of Emotional Labour ...... 19 Emotion Regulation Mechanisms ...... 20 Surface and Deep Acting …………………………………………... 20 Antecedent and Response-focused Coping …………………………… 21 Factors Influencing Emotional Labour ...... 22 Display Rules ...... 23 Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour ...... 24 viii Emotional Labour and Emotional Dissonance...... 25 Emotional Labour and Burnout...... 26 Work-family Conflict ………………………………………………. 27 Management of Emotional Labour ...... 28 Conclusion ...... 30

CHAPTER 3: STUDY ONE: Exploration of Emotional Labour in Professional Cricket ……………… 31 Purpose ………………………………………………………………….. 31 Method ………………………………………………………………….. 31 Participants ………………………………………………………….. 31 Procedure ……………………………………………………………. 32 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………… 34 Results …………………………………………………………………… 36 Part A. Findings Pertaining to Professional Cricketers ………….. 37 I. Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ………….. 37 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ……………………………… 46 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ……… 46 ICC codes …………………………………………… 46 Team Atmosphere ………………………………….. 51 Indirect Cricket-related Demands ………………………… 51 Professionalism, commercialisation and media …………………………………. 51 Public and private scrutiny …………………. 52 Discussion ……………………………………………………………. 54

Part B. Findings Pertaining to Organisational Personnel …… 56 I. Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ………….. 56 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ……………………………… 65 Discussion …………………………………………………………… 66 Conclusions …………………………………………………………… 68

CHAPTER 4: STUDY TWO Antecedents and Consequences of Emotional Labour ...... 70 Purpose …………………………………………………………………. 70 Method ………………………………………………………………….. 71 Participants ………………………………………………………….. 71 Procedure …………………………………………………………… 71 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………… 74 Results and Discussion…………………………………………………… 77 Part A. Findings Pertaining to Professional Cricketers ………….. 81 I. Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ………….. 81 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ……………………………… 97 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ……….. 97 ICC codes …………………………………………… 97

Part B. Findings Pertaining to Organisational Personnel ………… 103 BI. Direct Management Support Group ………………………….. 104 BIi. Management of Emotions………………………… 104 BIii. Perceived Emotional Demands…………………… 108 BII. Direct Management Coaching Group ……………………… 110 BIIi. Management of Emotions………………………… 110 BIIii. Perceived Emotional Demands………………… 117 BIII. Indirect Management Group ………………………………. 117 BIIIi. Management of Emotions……………………… 118 BIIIii. Perceived Emotional Demands………………… 128

Part C. Emotional Labour and Burnout …………………………… 129 Descriptive Statistics ……………………………………. 129 Preliminary Analyses …………………………………… 131 x Correlations: Person Variables, EL and Burnout ………………………………….. 131 Canonical Analysis: Person Variables, EL and Burnout ………………………………….. 133 Correlations: EL and Burnout ………………………….. 135 Canonical Analysis: EL and Burnout …………………… 136 Discussion…………………………………………………………. 138 Conclusions………………………………………………………………. 141

CHAPTER 5: STUDY THREE Case Study Approach of Australian Players ...... 143 Purpose …………………………………………………………………… 143 Method …………………………………………………………………… 143 Participants …………………………………………………………… 143 Procedure …………………………………………………………….. 144 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………… 149 Results and Discussion…………………………………………………… 151

Case Study 1 – “Steve” Interview 1 ……………………………….. 151 A Brief Background and Overview ……………………………. 151 I. Management of Emotions ………………………………. 152 Suppressing Emotions ………………………………. 152 Mixed Emotions ……………………………………... 153 Coping …………………………………….……………. 154 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ………………………… 154 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ….. 154 ICC codes …………………………………….….. 154 Organisational Expectations …………………….. 160 Pre game …………………………………………. 161 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ……………………... 162 Commercialisation and Media ……………………….. 162 Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour ………….. 163

Case Study 1 – “Steve” Interview 2 ………………………………………. 165 I. Video-analysis: Focusing on the Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ……………… 165 Ricky Ponting’s Dismissal …………………………… 165 Shane Warne’s LBW Appeals ……………………….. 167 II. Perceived Emotional Demands …………………………….. 171 Organisational and Performance-related Demands …... 171 ICC codes ……………………………………... 171 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ………………………….. 174 Commercialisation and Media ….……………………. 174 Cultural Influences ….………………………………………………. 176 Cricket Culture ….…………………………………………………... 177 Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour …………………… 179

Case Study 2 – “Shane” Interview 1 ………………………………………. 181 A Brief Background and Overview ……………………………. 181 I. Management of Emotions ………………………………. 181 Suppressing Emotions ………………………………. 181 Mixed Emotions ……………………………………... 182 Coping …………………………………….……………. 182 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ………………………… 183 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ….. 183 ICC codes …………………………………….….. 183 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ……………………... 186 Cricket fans, Media and Commercialisation 186 of Cricket ………………………………… Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour ………….. 186

xii Case Study 3 – “Martin” Interview 1 ……………………………………… 187 A Brief Background and Overview ……………………………. 187 I. Management of Emotions ………………………………. 188 Suppressing Emotions ………………………………. 188 Mixed Emotions ……………………………………... 189 Coping …………………………………….……………. 189 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ………………………… 190 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ….. 190 ICC codes …………………………………….….. 190 Organisational Expectations …………………….. 193 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ……………………... 194 Cricket fans and Media ………………………… 194

Case Study 3 – “Martin” Interview 2 ……………………………………… 196 I. Video-analysis: Focusing on the Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ……………… 196 Shane Warne’s LBW Appeals ……………………….. 196 Ricky Ponting’s Dismissal …………………………… 198 Martin’s Examples …………………………………… 200 II. Perceived Emotional Demands …………………………….. 202 Organisational and Performance-related Demands …... 202 ICC codes ……………………………………... 202 Selection …………………………………….… 204 Team Atmosphere …………………………….. 205 II. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ………………………….. 206 Media and Senior Cricketers ….……………………… 206 Cultural Influences ….………………………………………………. 207 Cricket Culture ….…………………………………………………... 209 Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour …………………… 210 Summary and Conclusions ……………………………………………… 213

xiii CHAPTER 6: STUDY FOUR Case Study Approach of Indian Players ...... 215 Purpose …………………………………………………………………… 217 Method …………………………………………………………………… 218 Participants …………………………………………………………… 218 Procedure …………………………………………………………… 219 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………… 222 Results and Discussion…………………………………………………… 223

Case Study 1 – “Jim” Interview 1 ……………………………….. 223 A Brief Background and Overview ……………………………. 223 I. Management of Emotions ………………………………. 224 Suppressing Emotions ………………………………. 225 Managing Emotions of Others……………………… 228 Coping …………………………………….……………. 229 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ………………………… 231 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ….. 231 ICC codes …………………………………….….. 231 Organisational Expectations …………………….. 236 Debut and High-pressure Matches ……………… 237 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ……………………... 238 Selection and Negative Feedback from Cricket-related People …………………….. 238 Cricket fans, Media and Commercialisation ……... 240 Cultural Influences …………………………………………………... 244 Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour …………………….. 247

Case Study 1 – “Jim” Interview 2 ……………………………….. 249 I. Video-analysis: Focusing on the Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ……………… 249 II. Perceived Emotional Demands …………………………….. 251 Organisational and Performance-related Demands …... 251 xiv ICC codes ……………………………………... 251 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ………………………….. 253 Media and Invasion of Privacy….……………………. 253 Security Issues ………………………………………. 254 Cultural Influences ….………………………………………………. 256

Case Study 2 – “Tim” Interview 1 ……………………………….. 259 A Brief Background and Overview ……………………………. 259 I. Management of Emotions ………………………………. 260 Suppressing Emotions ………………………………. 260 Managing Emotions of Others……………………… 263 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ………………………… 263 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ….. 263 ICC codes …………………………………….….. 263 Organisational Expectations …………………….. 267 Pre-game and Debut and Matches ……………… 268 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ……………………… 269 Selection ………………………………………… 269 Cricket fans, Media and Commercialisation ……. 270

Case Study 2 – “Tim” Interview 2 ……………………………….. 272 I. Video-analysis: Focusing on the Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ……………… 272 II. Perceived Emotional Demands …………………………….. 273 Organisational and Performance-related Demands …... 273 ICC codes ……………………………………... 273 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ………………………….. 275 Cricket Matches in India….………………………….. 275 Career Concerns …………………………………….. 277 Cultural Influences ….………………………………………………. 278 Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour …………………… 280

xv Case Study 3 – “Mark” Interview 1 ………………………………. 281 A Brief Background and Overview ……………………………. 281 I. Management of Emotions ………………………………. 282 Suppressing Emotions ………………………………. 282 Coping …………………………………….……………. 283 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ………………………… 284 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ….. 284 ICC codes …………………………………….….. 284 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ……………………… 288 Selection………………………...………………. 288 Media, Cricket fans, and Commercialisation …… 290

Case Study 4 – “Chris” Interview 1 ………………………………. 291 A Brief Background and Overview ……………………………. 291 I. Management of Emotions ………………………………. 292 Suppressing Emotions ………………………………. 292 Coping …………………………………….……………. 293 II. Perceived Emotional Demands ………………………… 294 Organisational and Performance-related Demands ….. 294 ICC codes …………………………………….….. 294 Pre-game ………………………………………… 295 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ……………………… 296 Commercial and Future Concerns ………………. 296

Case Study 4 – “Chris” Interview 2 ………………………………. 298 I. Video-analysis: Focusing on the Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective ……………… 298 II. Perceived Emotional Demands …………………………….. 300 Organisational and Performance-related Demands …... 300 ICC codes ……………………………………... 300 III. Indirect Cricket-related Demands ………………………….. 302

xvi Cricket Fans…………………...…………………………. 302 Summary and Conclusions ………………………………………………… 303

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION ...... 306 Context of Emotional Labour in Professional Cricket...... 308 Organisational and Occupational Rules and Expectations...... 309 Verbal “Sledging” and Physical Aggression...... 314 Team and Audience Expectations...... 316 Game Commercialisation and Media Expectations ...... 317 Image Management...... 318 Cultural Expectations...... 319 Emotional Labour ...... 324 Private Emotional Labour ...... 324 Public Emotional Labour ...... 326 Processes of Emotional Labour...... 330 Suppressing Genuine Emotions ...... 330 Mixed Emotions...... 331 Reading and Managing Emotions of Others ...... 332 Personal Characteristics ...... 334 Acting Approaches...... 335 Consequences of Emotional Labour...... 338 Negative Consequences ...... 338 Positive Consequences...... 343 Limitations of the Research ...... 344 Implications of the Research...... 345

xvii REFERENCES...... 348

APPENDICES ...... 378 Appendix A: General ...... 380 Appendix B: Study Two ...... 386 Appendix C: Study Three and Four ...... 419 Appendix D: Australian Interview Transcripts...... 424 Appendix E: Indian Interview Transcripts...... 482

xviii LIST OF TABLES

Study 1 Table 1. List of Positive and Negative Emotions …………………………….. 34 Table 2. Mean Rating Frequency of Specific Emotional Labour Processes by Players ………………………… 38 Table 3. Items Generated from the International Cricket Council (ICC) and Cricket Australia (CA) ‘codes’ for players .……… 48 Table 4. Mean Scores for Players’ Level of Difficulty with ICC and CA Code of Conduct ……………………………… 49 Table 5. Mean Rating Frequency of Specific Emotional Labour Processes by Organisational Personnel ……… 57 Study 2 Table 6. Items Comprising the Emotional Labour Scale …………………… 73 Table 7. Items Comprising the Maslach Burnout Inventory ………………… 75 Table 8. Mean Rating Frequency of Specific Emotional Labour Processes by Players ………………………… 82 Table 9. Performance-related factors for performing Emotional Labour (Players) ………………………………………………. 91 Table 10. Organisational factors for performing Emotional Labour (Players) ……………………………………………… 94 Table 11. Mean scores for ICC and CA Players’ Codes of Conduct ……… 98 Table 12. Perceived difficulty in abiding to the ICC codes …………………. 99 Table 13a. Mean scores of players dealing with Work-life Balance and Image Management ………………………………… 101 Table 13b. Perceived difficulty regarding Work-life Balance and Image Management (Players) ………………….…… 102 Table 14. Mean Rating Frequency of Specific Emotional Labour Processes by Organisational Personnel …………………. 104 Table 15. Alpha Coefficients, Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges, Skewness, and Kurtosis for the Study Variables ….…… 130

xix Table 16. Bivariate and Partial Correlations between the Person Variables and Psychological Variables ….…… 132

Table 17. Correlations, Standardised Canonical Coefficients, Canonical Correlations, Percent of Variance, and Redundancies between the Person Variables and Psychological Variables ….…………………………………………… 134 Table 18. Bivariate and Partial Correlations between the (Controlling for MBI Variable) Person Variables and Psychological Variables ….…………………………………………… 136 Table 19. Correlations, Standardised Canonical Coefficients, Canonical Correlations, Percent of Variance, and Redundancies between the ELS Variables and MBI Variables……… 137

Study 3 Table 20. ICC Code of Conduct for Players and Team Officials provided to players during the interview ….……………… 146 Study 4 Table 21. ICC Code of Conduct for Players and Team Officials provided to players during the interview ….……………… 232

xx LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Grandey’s (2003) Dramaturgical Perspective …………………… 16 Figure 2. Forms of Emotion Management ………………………………… 19 Figure 3. A Sequential Model of Emotional Labour and burnout (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002) ……………………………………… 26 Study 1 Figure 4. An Overview of the Results ……………………………………… 36 Figure 5. Reading Emotions of Others (Players) …………………………… 39 Figure 6. Managing Emotions of Others (Players ………………………… 41 Figure 7. Suppressing Emotions (Players) ………………………………… 42 Figure 8. Expressing Unfelt Emotions (Players) …………………………… 45 Figure 9. Reading Emotions of Others (Organisational Personnel) ………… 58 Figure 10. Managing Emotions of Others (Organisational Personnel) ……… 60 Figure 11. Suppressing Emotions (Organisational Personnel)………………... 62 Figure 12. Expressing Unfelt Emotions (Organisational Personnel) …………. 64

Study 2 Figure 13. An Overview of the Results and Discussion …………………… 79 Figure 14. Reading Emotions of Others (Players) …………………………… 83 Figure 15. Managing Emotions of Others (Players ………………………… 84 Figure 16. Suppressing Emotions (Players) ………………………………… 86 Figure 17. Expressing Unfelt Emotions (Players) …………………………… 89 Figure 18. Situations for all the Four Emotional Labour Processes by Support Staff (doctors and physiotherapists) …………… 105 Figure 19. Reasons for Performing Emotional Labour and their Management by Support Staff …………………………………………... 109 Figure 20. Situations for all the Four Emotional Labour Processes by Coaching Staff ………………………………. …………… 111 Figure 21. Reasons for Performing Emotional Labour and their Management by Coaching Staff …………………………………………. 116 Figure 22. Reading Emotions of Others (Indirect Management Group) ……... 119 Figure 23. Managing Emotions of Others (Indirect Management Group) …… 121 xxi Figure 24. Suppressing Emotions (Indirect Management Group) ……………. 123 Figure 25. Expressing Unfelt Emotions (Indirect Management Group) ……... 125

Study 3 Figure 26. Images of Video-clip shown to Australian Players ……………….. 148 Figure 27. Australian Vice-captain Adam Gilchrist Reacts in Anger at the Umpire’s Decision against his Teammate…………… 173 Study 4 Figure 28. Images of Video-clip shown to Indian Players …………………… 221 Figure 29. Vinod Kambli Leaving the Field in Tears ……………………….. 227 Figure 30. Batsman Terrified by Fast Bowler’s Sledge ……………………… 235 Figure 31. Batsman facing bouncers from bowlers (physical aggression) …… 274

Figure 32. A Conceptual Framework of Emotional Labour in Professional Cricket………………………………………. 307

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Following the seminal work on emotional labour by Hochschild (1983) in The

Managed Heart: The Commercialisation of Feeling, increasingly, the role of emotion, specifically emotional labour (EL) has become a key area of research in the life of service organisations. This is because service quality has become more and more, a competitive differentiator of organisations. In fact, the current trend of providing excellent customer service appears to be one of the foremost aims of most organisational workplaces. Service employees, especially front-line workers, are encouraged to suppress unacceptable emotions (e.g., impoliteness, anger) and enhance positive emotions (e.g., happiness). This kind of impression management for the organisation necessitates not just physical and mental exertion from the employees; it demands EL (Fineman, 2000). Hochschild (1983, p.7) defined EL as “the management of feelings to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display”. Subsequently, EL was defined as “the process of regulating both feelings and expressions for organisational goals” (Grandey, 2000, p. 97).

Most research in the area of EL has centered around the three principal topics including external behavioural displays (e.g., Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993), emotional dissonance (e.g., Kruml & Geddes, 2000; Morris & Feldman, 1996), and emotional regulation processes (e.g., Glomb & Tews, 2004; Grandey, 2000). The vast majority of studies on EL have focused on the negative consequences associated with performing EL

(Cote & Morgan, 2002; Morris & Feldman, 1997). Previous studies have also associated

EL with higher stress, alienation, emotional exhaustion, inauthenticity, depression, and burnout (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge & Lee, 2002; Fineman, 1993;

Wharton, 1993). However, selected studies have found mixed results (e.g., Adelmann, 2

1989). For example, whereas Wharton’s study (1993) on bank and teaching hospital employees found no evidence of those performing EL to suffer from emotional exhaustion,

Adelmann (1989) found that EL correlated positively with job satisfaction. Ashforth and

Humphrey (1993) indicated that performing EL familiarises the situation and thereby makes customer communication easy, reduces stress, and enhances satisfaction. Similarly, findings from Van Dijk and Kirk-Brown’s (2004) research revealed that the outcomes of

EL could be positive or negative, and are not consistently negative.

In sport, the extent to which emotional displays are organisationally desirable is often encapsulated in players’ behavioural codes and policies. For example, “The Spirit of

Cricket” serves as Cricket Australia’s guideline for contracted players that include codes and policies they are expected to follow (Cricket Australia’s Official Website, 2003). These codes and policies include reference to on-field behaviour such as positive play, pressure, body language, and banter between opponents. The codes also encompass off-field behaviour because players’ off-field conduct reflects either positively or adversely on both the individual and the game of cricket. Hence, players need to be cautious about their behaviors, especially those which could attract public attention and criticism.

However, often there is a discrepancy between the ‘codes’ and players’ opinions.

For example, sledging is regarded as fairly common in cricket but it would be an offence according to the International Cricket Council (ICC) codes. How do players control themselves when an opposition team member is harassing them? What coping strategies do they employ when the crowd is unruly? Under all circumstances, players are expected to exercise restraint and display good sportsmanship.

On the other hand, milder forms of EL are more evident in most competitive matches of cricket such as when players are staring at umpires, having verbal combat with 3 the opposition team, running into an opponent, or making personal comments about a particular player. These examples are a clear break of the ICC codes. Players’ found guilty of such behaviours could escape punishment a few times but there is also a possibility of being fined or banned from a few matches. This, in turn, could result in players becoming agitated as they don’t consider it as a serious offence, but it has endangered their game participation and careers to some extent.

Apart from two articles by Giulianotti (2002) and Synder and Ammons (1993) which briefly examined emotional work (a concept analogous to EL) in the sport setting, the concept of EL is yet to be explored in more detail. The absence of empirically based and theoretically grounded research on the concept of EL in sport reduces the ability of researchers, players, coaches, and practitioners access to practical strategies to assist in the management of EL. Therefore, an examination of EL in sport and the coping strategies employed in dealing with EL is needed in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the processes and issues involved.

Statement of the Problem

Macdonald (1995, p.1) defines professions as “occupations based on an advanced, or complex, or esoteric, or arcane knowledge”. In line with this suggestion, professional cricket can be categorised as a status profession. The main purpose of this research was to examine EL in professional sport. Professional cricket was chosen for this purpose due to its high-profile status as a professional sport, which is partly due to the popularity of the game, especially in the sub-continent (India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka) (Majumdar, 2007).

Furthermore, since cricket evolved from the gentry of England, the laws and informal norms of cricket are very conservative, and place large emotional demands on the players 4 to preserve the gentlemanly spirit of the game. Moreover, cricket owes much of its popularity due to the laws that govern it, which in turn was mainly integrated to enhance the Spirit of the Game. In order to ensure the spirit of fair play, the Captains of the cricket teams shoulder the responsibility of their respective teams. Of course, the umpires also try their level best to ascertain that the game is played in the best spirit possible. More specifically, The Spirit of the Game involves respect for opponents, the Captain and team, the role of umpires, and the game’s traditional values. Conversely, it is against the Spirit of the Game:

To dispute an umpire's decision by word, action or gesture.

To direct abusive language towards an opponent or umpire.

To involve in any act of violence.

To indulge in cheating or any sharp practice, for instance:

(a) to appeal knowing that the batsman is not out.

(b) to advance towards an umpire in an aggressive manner when appealing.

clapping or unnecessary noise under the guise of enthusiasm and motivation of one's

own side.

In addition to its professional status, cricket is a team game and has the set-up of an organisation, which makes it suitable to study EL. Incorporating Goffman’s (1959) dramaturgical perspective, professional cricketers are actors (both on and off the field) who perform for a wide range of audience (such as spectators, media, and sponsors).

Professional cricketers are also required to mould their emotions while interacting with coaches, selectors, umpires, and opposition members. Furthermore, the clash between the batsman and bowler makes it interesting to study the EL phenomenon from this dimension. 5

As a result, professional cricket players from Australia and India were chosen for the research. While cricket does not enjoy the same popularity as Australian Football League

(AFL) in Australia, it is noteworthy to mention that Australia has been the World

Champions for three consecutive World Cups. On the other hand, cricket is the arguably the most popular sport of India with a huge fan following (Majumdar, 2003).

Significance of the Research

The research presented in this thesis seeks to contribute to sport psychology literature and practice in two important ways. Firstly, a theoretically grounded examination of the business literature will allow for a more comprehensive exploration and understanding in an initial translation into the incidence and nature of EL in sport.

Secondly, this research contributes useful information and strategies for athletes, coaches, and other support staff in identifying core factors contributing to EL and its management.

The potential benefits are decreased stress levels in dealing with organisational issues among athletes and support staff, thereby enhancing relationships with management. This, in turn, will help elite performers to focus on enhancing performance and competing to their full potential. In order to achieve the research objectives, data was collected using a variety of qualitative and quantitative methods, namely individual and focus group interviews of professional cricketers and organisational staff (Study 1), surveys of professional cricketers and organisational staff (Study 2), in-depth case studies of

Australian cricket players (Study 3), and in-depth case studies of Indian cricket players

(Study 4).

Aims and Purposes of this Research

The main aims and purposes were:

1. Identify the core factors of EL and their ultimate consequences for athletes and

management.

2. Examine the unique characteristics of EL in professional sport.

3. Explore the specific coping methods athletes use to deal with EL.

4. Inquire how EL affects performance.

5. Analyse whether some athletes are better than others at managing and

regulating their emotions.

6. Investigate the relationship between EL and burnout.

Athletes and administrators’ perspectives on the concept of EL and their coping mechanisms were obtained to investigate both theoretical and practical imperatives. The theoretical imperative was to explore and examine the concept of EL in the sport setting.

The practical imperative was to yield information on the key factors of EL and the coping mechanisms employed by professional players and support staff in dealing with EL.

Structure of the Thesis

This thesis is organised into seven chapters. Following this introductory chapter, a review of the literature relevant to EL is presented. Following the review of relevant literature, Chapter 3 to Chapter 6 describe four consequential research studies that were conducted between 2005 and 2007. More specifically, Chapter 3 presents Study 1 which explored the concept of EL within a State cricket organisation. In Study 2, which is presented in Chapter 4, I examined the determinants and consequences of EL. In Chapter 5, 7 a case study approach was adopted as part of Study 3 to further understand EL in a competitive setting. This study also employed incident-based prompting technique to enquire into the EL of professional cricketers. The fourth and final study of this thesis is presented in Chapter 6. This study explored EL in a culturally distinct concept to verify the applicability of EL and determine the role of culture in performing EL. This thesis concludes with Chapter 7 which culminates with a discussion on the findings from this research, offers suggestions for players, coaches, and other organisational personnel, and makes recommendations for future research.

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the relevant literature from the organisational and business

context in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the concept of emotional labour

(EL). Apart from two articles by Giulianotti (2002) and Synder and Ammons (1993),

which briefly examined emotion work (management of emotions during interpersonal

context) in the sport setting, the concept of EL is yet to be explored in this unique

domain. As this research seeks to explore the management of emotions both during

interpersonal and public displays of emotional displays and their regulation, literature is

reviewed from the business environment to study its potential parallels of EL to the sport

setting. The first section reviews studies that focus on sport-business link including the

stressors in the sport and non-sport organisations. This is followed by a detailed

discussion of EL, including some background work on emotional regulation and the

consequences and management of EL.

Sport-Business Link and Common Stressors

A number of articles have highlighted the similarities between the sport and business settings. For example, Weinberg and McDermott (2002) examined factors which are perceived to be critical for organisational success1. They asserted that there are more similarities than differences when considering factors associated with success in sport and success in business. After a thorough literature search, Weinberg and McDermott (2002) identified the areas of leadership, group cohesion and communication as factors perceived to be most crucial for organisational success across business and sport organisations. They

1 Obviously, sports organisations are businesses. The terminology used here is for convenience in making a distinction. Other investigators have done much the same. 9 then interviewed twenty leaders from sport (n= 10) and business (n=10) settings. The participants were asked about their views regarding group dynamics and the extent to which they believed that leadership, group cohesion, and communication levels were essential for effectiveness. The authors posited that there was more similarity than differences between these two groups. Specifically, in terms of the factors that were perceived to be critical for organisational success, both groups specified a preference for an interactional leadership approach with a democratic style, equal importance placed on task and social cohesion, and effective communication with emphasis on listening skills.

However, notable differences included business leaders’ emphasis on being honest and reflective listening, whilst sport leaders highlighted the need for interactions with others and employment of positive reinforcements in their communications.

Jones (2002) listed five key commonalities between sport and business domains, namely, organisational issues, stress, leadership, high-performing teams, and one-to-one coaching/consulting. The main organisational issues which Jones (2002) encountered within both domains were lack of resources, poor communication, and failure to delegate.

Jones (2002) put forward the support-constraint paradigm based on occupational psychology literature in pursuit of achieving high-performance (demands) depicting the

‘sport-business link’. Jones (2002) proposed that performance depended on three factors: demands, supports, and constraints. According to Jones, demands refer to the requirements of the job; supports are environmental factors such as natural, physical, intellectual, technical, financial, and social aspects that help the individual to satisfy the demands; and constraints refer to environmental confines and challenges restricting the satisfaction of demands. Jones considered that organisational issues in sport and business fall mainly into the constraints category. Jones suggested that focus on constraints is often unwanted as it 10 distracts performers from their supports across both domains (i.e., sport and business).

Similarly, the performance environment plays a crucial role in elite teams. Therefore, focus should be given to the environment along with the performers (Jones, 2002). Furthermore,

Jones (2002) contended that performance excellence in both sport and business organisations is achieved by maximising support and minimising constraint in pursuit of high performance (demands). This proposition is in agreement with Hobfoll’s (1989) conservation of resources theory which states that employees cope with work demands by conserving their resources by performing initially through surface acting, and later, through deep acting. Employees experience a loss of resources and suffer from emotional exhaustion if the returns are not sufficient (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002). However, there is an increase in their energy output if the outcome of the interactions is positive.

Shirom (1982) defined organisational stress as “work-related social, psychological stress” (p. 21) and proposed that it is as the interplay between the employees and the factors associated with their work environment. Furthermore, Lazarus (1966) perceived organisational stress as the individual’s cognitive appraisal of a situation. Similarly, organisational stress in sport can be conceived as the stress linked to an employee’s assessment of the function of their organisation (Woodman & Hardy, 2001). Also,

Karasek’s Job Strain Model (JSM) (1979; revised by Karasek & Theorell, 1990) postulated that psychological strain is influenced by the demands in a work situation, as well as the degree of decision-making freedom available to workers encountering those demands.

Woodman and Hardy’s (2001) case study of an individual sport in the UK identified selection, training environment, finances, nutrition, goals and expectations, coaches and coaching styles, team atmosphere, roles, support, network, and communication as the main sources of organisational stress. In addition, Fletcher and Hanton (2003) studied the sources 11 of organisational stress on 14 international performers from a wide range of sports. They identified three main sources of stress to be accommodation, travel, and the competition environment. The authors emphasised the significance of these issues, particularly the competition environment, which is often underestimated by sport organisations.

Woodman and Hardy (2001) emphasised that sport administrators, especially coaches, managers and performance directors, are required to deal with a range of multifaceted skills. These include effective team-building strategies, clear and transparent selection criteria, coach education (particularly on sensitive topics such as dealing with an injured or dropped player) and realistic goal-setting. This suggests that competing at an elite-level requires athletes to deal with a large number of stressors, which are principally connected to their appraisal of the functioning of the sport organisation within which they are operating (Fletcher & Hanton, 2001).

Hanton, Fletcher, and Coughlan (2005) compared elite performer’s experiences of competitive and organisational stressors. Demands encountered directly due to competition were classified under performance issues and the demands associated primarily with the sport organisation were categorised under environmental issues, personal issues, leadership issues, and team issues. According to the researchers, stress experienced due to the functioning of the sport organisation is much greater than the stress associated with competitive performance. Organisational demands are more varied and complex due to the sociocultural, political, economic, occupational and technological influences. In addition to having a significant effect on performance (Fletcher & Hanton, 2003c), organisational issues may perhaps exert a greater influence than competitive issues (Jones, 2002).

In summary, the findings from the above reviewed studies suggest that sport organisations supporting performance at an elite level should pay careful attention to the 12 environment within which their performers are operating. Aspects of the environment, such as players’ behavioural codes, are designed to ensure uniformity and conformity. However, such codes also have potential unintended consequences in the form of increased emotional regulation that they demand, both on, and off the field. Managed poorly, such demands have the potential to increase, rather than reduce players’ stress.

Emotion-Performance in Sport

Deci (1980) defined emotion as “a reaction to a stimulus event (either actual or imagined)”. (p.85). Emotions play a pivotal role in sport performance and for many sports personnel; sport is more of an emotional experience (Jones, 2003). In addition, the emotional state of an athlete can influence the outcome of a performance both during training and competition (Butler, 1996).

Previous research on emotion in sport psychology has focused mainly on examining the effect (facilitating and debilitating) of pre-competition anxiety on athletic performance

(Gould & Tuffey, 1996; Woodman & Hardy, 2001). The findings from these traditional approaches are often difficult to apply to individual athletes (Hanin, 1997). More recently, sport psychology researchers prefer to predict athletic performance based on pleasant and unpleasant emotions, and not just on pre-competition anxiety (Gould & Tuffey, 1996;

Hanin, 1997; Jones & Hanton, 2001).

The individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) model (Hanin, 1997, 2000) is an idiographic sport-specific approach. The model aims to identify individual optimal and dysfunctional states (Hanin, 2002). It is important for athletes to be aware of his or her optimal and dysfunctional zones, and be able to enter and stay in the optimal zone during performance (Robazza, Pellizzari & Hanin, 2004). Researchers advocating the IZOF model 13 emphasise on assisting athletes to enter their zones of optimal functioning (e.g. Cox, 2002;

Morgan, 2002; Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

To summarise, there are numerous ways in which emotions can affect performance, depending on the athlete and the type of sport. It is important to tailor interventions to suit individual athletes because emotions are idiographic in nature. This will enable athletes to manage their emotions effectively, thereby improving concentration and performance.

Difference between Emotional Labour and Emotional Control

Before we delve into a detailed discussion of EL, it is essential to highlight the difference between EL and emotional control. Emotional control is the management of emotions for oneself, and may be to improve performance. On the other hand, EL means managing emotions mainly for organisational purposes, game rules and not for individual purposes. Hence, it is different from emotion control or managing emotions. For example, a batsman who perceives he is ‘not out’ but is given ‘out’ by the umpire controls his frustration and anger because he will be penalised if he expresses any undesirable show of sportsmanship. Therefore, he is performing EL, i.e. managing emotions due to game rules and/or for the organisation.

Emotional Labour in Non-sporting Organisations

Hochschild (1983) introduced and elaborated the concept of EL by stating “this labour requires one to induce or suppress feelings in order to sustain the outward countenance that produces the proper state of mind in others” (p.7). Thus, EL can involve either the production of emotional displays, whether felt or unfelt emotions, or holding back displays of felt emotions. It could also include producing an emotional state in another 14 individual, and hence could involve absorbing (reading) and managing the emotions of others.

The initial study of EL has centred on service jobs, specifically with respect to client and customer interaction because emotional displays are a prime aspect of the job.

However, over the past decade, a plethora of research has been derived from a diverse range of occupational categories including barristers (Harris, 2002), exotic dancers

(Wesley, 2003), beauty therapists (Sharma & Black, 2001), hospitality/tourism employees

(Constanti & Gibbs, 2005; Guerrier & Adib, 2003), lecturers (Barrett, 2004), paralegals

(Deadrick & McAfee, 2001), police officers (Martin, 1999), veterinarians (Swabe, 1994) and wedding coordinators (Thompson, 1998).

Employees regulate their emotions to suit organisational expectations or commitments (Hochschild, 1983). The extent to which emotional displays are organisationally desirable may be due to display rules of the task, the occupation or the society (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). These rules and expectations determine the frequency, intensity, duration and range of emotions expressed

(Morris & Feldman, 1996, 1997). This could lead to emotional dissonance due to the difference between felt and displayed emotion (Morris & Feldman, 1996; Zerbe, 2002). On the other hand, Ashfoth & Humphrey (1993) argue that some emotions are genuinely felt, and hence may not lead to emotional dissonance but have a positive consequence on the individual and customer relation (Ashfroth & Humphrey, 1993; Morris & Feldman, 1997).

Also, emotions are managed by the employee to benefit both the individual and the organisation (Wharton & Erickson, 1993). There are times when individuals speedily alter their emotions to be in compliance with display rules. At other times, EL is employed to benefit the actor in an attempt to make work more enjoyable, meaningful or less stressful. 15

Surface and deep acting are the methods Hochschild (1983) advocated as the means through which employees cope with the emotional requirements. Hochshild (1983) posits that EL could lead to psychological strain and loss of emotional control. But other researchers argue that the effects could be positive or negative (Ashforth & Humphrey,

1993).

Morris and Feldman (1996) pointed that EL has been defined and operationalised in a number of ways. For example, while, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) defined EL as the act of displaying appropriate emotions, whose goal is to engage in a form of impression management for the organisation. Morris and Feldman (1996) defined it as the work required in the planning, effort, and control of enacting organisationally desirable emotional displays. Finally, Grandey (2000) conceptualised EL as enhancing, faking, or suppressing emotions to modify emotional expression. Due to this conceptualisation, a number of perspectives have been proposed.

Perspectives on Emotional Labour from Previous Research

Hochschild’s Dramaturgical Perspective

According to the dramaturgical perspective, the work setting is the stage on which the employee performs for an audience (the customers) (Grandey, 2000; Hochschild, 1983).

In order to enact their roles effectively, employees follow display rules and prescribed expressions (Grove & Fisk, 1989). These display rules also help the employees to keep those emotions in check which are not organisationally desirable. Actors manage their emotions in two main ways; through surface acting, where one regulates the emotional expressions, and through deep acting, where one consciously modifies feelings in order to express the desired emotion (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild (1983) believes that the 16 management of emotions requires effort and is often unpleasant. Because of this effort and unpleasantness, EL could lead to burnout and job stress.

Grandey’s Dramaturgical Model

Grandey (2003) has proposed and empirically tested a dramaturgical model of EL as illustrated in Figure 1. According to Grandey’s dramaturgical model, the actor’s role

(employee) is significantly influenced by the individuals’ awareness of display rules and also with job satisfaction. These would then determine the type of acting performed

(surface or deep acting).

Deep Acting Affective Delivery Job Satisfaction

Breaking Character

Surface Acting Display Rules

Emotional

Exhaustion

The Actor’s Role The Acting Approach The Actor’s Stress Role Performance

Figure 1. Grandey’s (2003) Dramaturgical Perspective Model

Grandey posited that employees or actors who are happy and satisfied with their job would employ deep acting when required, whereas unhappy employees would resort more to surface acting. The type of acting performed would determine whether the employee 17 effectively delivered the required emotion, which leads to the customer satisfaction, and organisational expectations. On the other hand, the type of acting may also lead to emotional exhaustion, which in turn might lead to breaking character, wherein the employee behaves or reacts in an undesirable manner to the customer (Grandey, 2003).

Ashforth and Humphrey’s Perspective

Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) suggested that a large number of factors influence emotional expressions by employees. They de-emphasised surface and deep acting as the mechanisms for the internal management of emotions. Furthermore, Ashforth and

Humphrey defined EL as the process of displaying emotional displays with the intention to engage in a form of image management for the organisation (Gardner & Martinko, 1988).

They focused on the impact of EL on performance or task effectiveness, whereas

Hochschild’s (1983) dramaturgical perspective emphasised on the individuals’ health.

Moreover, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) argued that EL might become routine and effortless for the employee, and hence would not necessitate effort.

Morris and Feldman’s Perspective

Morris and Feldman’s (1996) perspective stems from an interactionist approach in which emotions are partially influenced by the environment. Morris and Feldman (1996) defined EL as “the effort, planning, and control needed to express organisationally desired emotion during interpersonal transactions” (p. 987). The authors proposed that EL consists of four dimensions: (1) frequency of interactions, (2) attentiveness (intensity of emotions, duration of interactions), (3) variety of emotions required, and (4) emotional dissonance

(the discrepancy between felt and displayed emotion). 18

Together, each of these three perspectives infers that emotions are being managed at the work place in order to comply with organisational display rules, with the ultimate goal of enhancing customer-employee interaction. These perspectives also advocate either individual or organisational outcomes of EL (Grandey, 2000). This research relies mainly on the definitions of Hochschild initial conceptualisation (1983) and Morris and Feldman’s interactionist perspective (1996).

Emotional Labour and Emotion Work

Hochschild (1979) proposed the terms ‘emotion work’ or ‘emotion management’ to shed light on the controlled expression of emotions in a variety of interpersonal contexts

(Callaghan & McCollum, 2002). This expression could be either a suppression of boredom or an exaggeration of interest during interactions with colleagues or co-workers. On the other hand, being paid to display specific emotions required by the organisation was termed as EL (Hochschild, 1983). When emotions are managed for personal reasons, it is known as emotion work. However, when emotions are controlled for job purposes or in exchange for wages, it becomes EL.

Hochschild (1983) emphasised these concepts using Marxian terminology of use- value and exchange-value. ‘Use-value’ is something that gives satisfaction but cannot necessarily be exchanged for anything else. However, if a thing can be traded for something else then it has ‘exchange-value’. For example, a beautiful landscape may provide happiness but it cannot be exchanged for anything else. Hence, it has use-value but not exchange value. On the contrary, one can buy a good book with money, and this has exchange-value. Sometimes, things that have use-value can be transformed into having exchange-value. Therefore, using Marxian concepts, emotion work would have use-value 19 and EL exchange-value. The difficulty regarding this terminology raises a vital question regarding tasks which involve both emotion work and EL. Therefore, it becomes difficult to label these under one concept or the other (Callaghan & McCollum, 2002). Emotion management is used to encompass the control of emotions in both emotion work and EL.

Wharton’s (1993) definition of EL ascertains that, in addition to performing for a wage, these actions are controlled by others in the organisation, and not the individual.

Therefore, this implies that emotion work is under individual control, while EL is under organisational control.

Types of Emotional Labour

Callaghan and McCollum (2002) put forward a matrix elucidating four variations of emotion management (Figure 2). Emotion work and EL have been explained above but the focus of this section is on autonomous EL and indirect EL.

Internally Controlled

Autonomous Emotion Work Emotional Labour

Exchange Use Value Value

Emotional Labour Indirect Emotional Labour

Externally controlled

Figure 2. Forms of Emotion Management

Tolich (1993) referred to the term “autonomous emotional labour” to emphasise the spontaneous, individually controlled management of emotions which also has exchange- value to the organisation. This is similar to Rafaeli and Sutton’s (1998) concept of “faking in good faith” or deep acting which refers to the alteration of an employee’s emotions because he/she feels it is the right thing to do, in addition to the organisation requiring it.

An additional type of EL put forth by Callaghan and McCollum (2002) is ‘indirect

EL’. Here, the emotions are externally controlled (most often by the organisation), but the individual still recognises the use-value. The mechanisms used by people to manage their emotional expressions include surface acting and deep acting.

Emotional Regulation Mechanisms

Surface Acting and Deep Acting

Emotional displays are produced by surface acting, deep acting and/or expressing genuine emotions (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). Surface acting (response-focused, e.g., observable signs such as smiling) refers to exhibiting an emotional display that is not genuinely felt or inhibiting the expression of a genuinely felt emotion. Surface acting is called “faking in bad faith” (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987, p. 32) because employees conform to the display rules for job purpose (to keep their job), and not for the customer or the organisation. On the other hand, deep acting (antecedent-focused, e.g., cognitive reappraisal) is called “faking in good faith” (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987, p. 32) because the employee genuinely believes and tries to modify emotions, and present the desired emotional display. Deep acting has two variations. In one case, actors present an emotional display by imagining the appropriate emotion. In the other case, actors try to evoke the appropriate emotion and then present the associated display. However, deep acting still 21 requires EL as “felt emotion must still be translated into appropriate emotional displays, though it may be comparatively lesser (to surface acting) as the employee genuinely believes in the emotion” (Morris & Feldman, 1996, p. 992). The next section addresses the emotional regulation mechanisms proposed by Grandey (2000).

Antecedent and Response-focused Coping

Alicia Grandey’s (2000) conceptualisation of EL from a psychological perspective is of special significance because it states the number of ways through which individuals regulate and manage their emotions. Grandey (2000) defined EL as “the process of regulating both feelings and expressions for organisational goals” (p. 97). Grandey integrated Gross’s (1998) work on the process model of emotional regulation to develop a theoretical model of EL. Gross (1998b) defined emotional regulation as “the process by which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these emotions” (p. 275). Employing the emotional regulation model, Grandey (2000) argued that EL could have positive or negative consequences.

Grandey (2000) proposed that antecedent-focused and response-focused were the two main types of regulations involved in the EL process. Gross (1998b) hypothesised that an individual is engaged in antecedent-focused regulation when he/she modifies the appraisal of a situation to produce the appropriate emotion. Secondly, an individual engages in response-focused regulation when he/she modifies the observable or physiological signs of emotions. Hence, antecedent-focused emotional regulation attempts to modify internal states and feelings of the individual, whereas, response-focused regulation focuses merely on physical expression (e.g., facial expressions, tone of voice, body language etc).

Furthermore, Gross (1998b) identified four primary strategies of antecedent-focused 22 regulation and these include: situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment, and cognitive change. The first two types (i.e., situation selection and situation modification) involve an adjustment to the actual emotion-inducing situation and are not very useful in the sport context. For example, a bowler annoyed at the umpire can walk out of the competition setting but it could be detrimental to the player’s career as well as the team’s performance. The other two types (i.e., attentional deployment and cognitive change) are more relevant from a sport psychology perspective. Attention deployment involves recreating or thinking about events that produces the desired emotion in any given situation (Gross 1998b). Grandey (2000) provides the example of an aspiring opera singer who whistled while serving customers in a coffeeshop as it helped to create positive feelings while serving. On the other hand, cognitive change involves a change in the way a situation is perceived to lessen the emotional impact. Lazarus (1991) further contends that appraising work situations as stressful or challenging was useful to buffer against stress. In cricket, a batsman’s perception of sledging as challenging or stressful could influence emotional regulation and its management. These two methods are similar to Hochshild’s deep acting (Grandey, 2000). Response-focused regulation mainly involves a change in the emotional response or reaction of an individual (Grandey, 2000) and is similar to surface acting. It could be achieved through exercise, caffine, drugs, adjusting the intensity of emotional displays, or by faking the required emotional display (Grandey, 2000).

Factors Influencing Emotional Labour

Researchers (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2000, Pugliesi, 1999) have posited that a number of individual and organisational factors influence the performance of

EL. These include situational factors that mainly comprise of occupational characteristics 23

(Grandey, 2000; Harris, 2002), individual factors such as gender, affectivity, self- monitoring, and emotional intelligence (Grandey, 2000; Mayer & Salovery, 1995; Wharton,

1993), organisational factors such as display rules, job autonomy, supervisor and peer support (Grandey, 2000; Erickson & Wharton, 1997), individual and/or organisational well- being which included job satisfaction and intention to resign (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002;

Grandey, 2000), and emotional cultures (Bagozzi, Verbeke & Gavino, 2003; Grandey, Fisk

& Steiner, 2005). Display rules have also been discussed in some detail by Hochschild

(1983) who postulated it to be the foremost antecedent for performing EL.

Display Rules

Display rules are behaviour standards stating the appropriate emotions and their desired expression to customers (Ekman, 1973). Ekman (1973) provided the example of the ritualistic delight expressed by the runner-up as the winner of the new Miss America was announced. Socialisation is one of the chief methods of learning appropriate display rules

(Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Goffman (1959) was one of the foremost researchers in observing that behaviours are essentially pre-determined by the expectations or ‘norms’ of the organisation. Following this explanation, emotion work is under the control of the individual whereas EL is controlled by others, or more specifically the organisation. The

‘act of expressing socially desirable emotions’ (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993, p. 88-89) could perhaps be the motive for performing EL in most professions, and especially so in the service industries.

Display rules are either explicitly stated in selection or training materials or are implicit and generally learned by observing co-workers (Grandey, 2000). Diefendorff and

Gosserand (2005) asserted that the basic purpose of display rules is to dictate the emotions 24 that employees express. However, the extent to which display rules affect behavior depends on how committed individuals are to the display rules (Diefendorff and Gosserand, 2003).

Hence, some individuals may choose not to conform to the display rules. Diefendorff and

(Gosserand, 2005) suggested that organisations should strive to increase the commitment to the display rules.

Consequences of Emotional Labour

Though EL may be helpful to the organisational bottom-line, various studies suggest that managing emotions for pay may be detrimental to the employee. The vast majority of studies on EL have focused on the negative consequences associated with performing EL (Morris & Feldman, 1997; Cote & Morgan, 2002). Specifically, in some studies EL has been associated with stress, alienation, emotional exhaustion, inauthenticity, depression, and burnout (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge & Lee, 2002;

Fineman, 1993; Wharton, 1993). Also, research has revealed that the inhibitions of emotions to a variety of physical illness including high blood pressure and cancer

(Blackburn, 1965; Gross 1989; King & Emmons, 1990; Smith, 1992). In addition, the inability to express negative emotion has been identified as one of the strongest predictors of cancer (Cox & McCay, 1982).

However, some studies have found mixed results. For example, Wharton (1993) studied bank and teaching hospital employees, and found no evidence of those performing

EL to suffer from emotional exhaustion. On the contrary, EL was found to correlate positively with job satisfaction. Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) indicated that performing

EL familiarises the situation and thereby makes customer communication easy, reduces stress, and enhances satisfaction. Van Dijk and Kirk-Brown (2004) found that the outcomes 25 of EL could be positive or negative, and are not consistently negative as argued by

Hochscild (1983). Some studies even suggest that emotional management requires very little emotional effort because these processes are not entirely under the control of individuals (Pugh, 2002).

Morris and Feldman (1996) stated “one of the reasons why there may be so much confusion surrounding the possible consequences of performing EL, is the incomplete way in which the construct has been previously operationalised” (p. 1001). Because EL has been defined and operationalised in a number of ways, the consequences of EL have revealed mixed results, and hence specific generalisations regarding the consequences are problematic. The subsequent section focuses on possible consequences of EL that are of special significance to this thesis.

Emotional Labour and Emotional Dissonance

Emotional dissonance is the uneven condition created due to the imbalance between felt and displayed emotion, which could possibly lead to negative consequences (Glomb &

Tews, 2004). Emotional dissonance may be created not only due to the incongruence between felt and displayed emotion, but also due to the presence of conflicting emotions.

Van Dijk and Kirk-Brown (2004) examined the relationship between EL and emotional dissonance. They focused on the identification and management of emotional dissonance using cognitive dissonance theory, stressing emotional dissonance as a consequence of performing EL. Morris and Feldman (1996b) proposed that emotional dissonance was one of the dimensions of EL, in addition to the frequency of emotional display, attentiveness to display rules and variety of emotions. On the contrary, Van Dijk and Kirk-Brown (2004) argued that, not only is emotional dissonance distinct from EL, but 26 suggested that it is a probable negative consequence of performing EL. This view is consistent with the findings of Hartel, Hsu, and Boyle (2002).

Emotional Labour and Burnout

Hochschild (1983) and others have proposed that EL is stressful and may result in burnout. This proposition has been supported by Cordes and Dougherty (1993) who found that longer interactions with customers are linked to higher levels of burnout. This could be because longer interactions have to be dealt by the individuals themselves since display rules do not explain behaviours in great detail. Longer interactions also require more attention and emotional stamina (Hochschild, 1983; Morris & Feldman, 1996a).

Brotheridge and Lee (2002) developed a model based on Hobfoll’s (1989) conservation of resources theory to study the relation between EL and burnout. This model is illustrated in

Figure 3.

Demands Emotional Effort Resources Self-Image Burnout

(display rules) (deep and surface (rewarding (authenticity) (emotional acting) social strain, relationship) detachment, low accomplish ment)

Figure 3: A Sequential Model of EL and Burnout (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002)

Brotheridge and Lee (2002) revealed that employees cope with their work demands in a way that leads to the conservation of their resources by performing initially through 27 surface acting, and later through deep acting. The nature of emotional displays – surface or deep acting and the outcome, determine the impact of EL on burnout. Employees experience a loss of resources and suffer from emotional exhaustion if the returns are not sufficient. However, there is an increase in their energy levels if the outcomes of the interactions are positive. This is in accordance with the findings of Lee and Ashforth (1996) that psychological distress is influenced more by resource loss rather than resource gain.

Work-family Conflict

Wharton and Erickson (1993) suggest that individuals perform multiple roles due to the emotional regulation required at home and work spheres. Roles that require high emotional regulation increases role overload, suggesting an overlap between work and family spheres (Hochschild, 1983; Wharton & Erickson, 1993).

Role overload is a consequence of high emotional regulation in one or both spheres.

On the other hand, role conflict occurs when there is dissimilarity in the type of emotional management required in both these roles. The consequences of multiple roles are higher when there is lesser flexibility in emotional management due to structural arrangements

(Thoits, 1991). Furthermore, emotional management in one role become problematic when it conflicts with the emotional management in another domain (Wharton & Erickson,

1993). However, the dissimilarity between work and family is not stressful when individuals can maintain physical, temporal or psychological distance between the roles

(Lobel, 1991).

Management of Emotional Labour Effective tools used by individuals to reduce EL include self-selection, self- monitoring, and employment of “behavioural and cognitive defence mechanisms” 28

(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993, p. 89). To self-select, individuals would learn more about their own personality and take on the roles/tasks that best suited their personality.

Developing one’s self-monitoring personality allows an individual to better monitor behaviour and use emotional displays as tools in a process. Similarly, appropriate mechanisms include dissociation from one’s personality or from the required emotions of the role/task.

Most theorists agree that “the best way to support EL is by hiring people whose emotional tendencies match the job requirements” (Carbonara, 1996, p.73). Training and socialisation can have positive performance effects (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993) but there can be negative identity confusion effects. Changing tasks and processes (in relation to the antecedents and dimensions) can lessen the severity of EL. In other words, person-job fit is essential to ensure the employee’s personality and emotional expressivity agrees with the emotional requirements of the job (Arvey, Renz, & Watson, 1998).

Organisations should consider training employees’ effective emotion regulation and coping strategies to facilitate and enhance the work environment. In fact, Totterdale and

Parkinson (1999) explained that the employment of various emotion regulation strategies by trainee teachers yielded favourable results. The utilisation of role playing and video training may prevent estrangement from one’s self (Grandey & Brauburger, 2002).

Hochschild (1983) observed that “what is offstage for the front-line employees is on-stage for the supervisor” (p. 118). For instance, managers are faced with the dual task of modulating their expressions not only with customers but also with their subordinates and colleagues. Hence, managers should receive training to regulate emotions both on-stage

(with customers) and off-stage (empathetic towards other employees). The EL of the coach 29 of a sport team would be akin to that of managers because they perform EL both on-stage

(with players) and off-stage (with other employees).

Martin, Knopoff, and Beckman (1998) championed the implementation of ‘bounded emotionality’. Bounded emotionality is a compromise based on the premise that individuals should not totally constrain their true emotions. Rather, they must learn to constrain them somewhat to function effectively in their roles/tasks. The concept of bounded emotionality requires some autonomy and self-monitoring so that employees can perceive situations and judge for themselves the required level of constraint. In fact, Steinberg (1999) suggested that EL should be compensated for in some form in order to express the organisation’s recognition and appreciation of the employee’s emotional effort, in addition to the physical and mental exertion. It would be useful to grant reasonable autonomy to employees to self- express emotions that are appropriate to the situation during service transactions. This is especially so while dealing with a difficult or uncivil customer. An increase in emotional autonomy facilitates perception of control and may reduce suppression of unwanted emotions (Grandey & Brauburger, 2002).

Van Dijk and Kirk-Brown (2004) suggested that cognitive reappraisal is an effective method of dealing with affective responses to performing EL. Research has shown that support at work is positively linked to team environment, decreased stress, and productive work behaviours (Cropanzano, Howes, Grandey & Toth, 1997; Howes,

Cropanzano, Grandey & Mohler, 2000). Hence, effective team building strategies, peer support, sufficient avenues for emotional venting, and ample appreciation of EL performed can enhance individual and organisational outcomes and decrease psychological strain.

Conclusion

From the above literature review, it is apparent that a wealth of empirical research exists with regards to EL, its causes, consequences and management specifically within workplace setting. However, research on EL in sport setting is still absent. There is thus a need to examine EL in sport setting. This thesis aims to do that in professional cricket as this setting shares much of the hierarchical arrangement and practices in the service organisational setting. More specifically, the thesis aims to examine EL as defined by

Hochschild (1983) and Morris and Feldman (1996). Furthermore, to study how display rules affect the performance of EL and the types of acting (surface and deep acting).

Additionally, to determine whether the consequences of EL is negative or could be positive as well. Also, the relationship between EL, emotional dissonance, burn out, and work- family conflict will be interesting facets to observe. Finally, the manner in which sports personnel cope or manage EL is of special significance to this thesis. This would help to illuminate the role of emotion work in sport organisations and further the understanding and implications of the concept of EL to sports practitioners. It would also address the gap in the existing EL literature which has mainly focused on front-line workers. With these aims in mind, qualitative and quantitative methods were utilised to explore this phenomenon in the cricket-setting.

CHAPTER 3: STUDY 1

EXPLORATION OF EMOTIONAL LABOUR IN PROFESSIONAL CRICKET

Purpose

The concept of emotional labour (EL) was examined in the context of professional cricket. Focus groups and individual interviews were employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the occurrence and nature of EL. The investigation also aimed to identify the coping methods employed in the management of EL by players, coaches and other organisational personnel. While professional cricket players were the primary focus of the study, data were collected from organisational personnel (e.g., coaches and selectors) to understand the concept more adequately.

Method

Participants

Participants in this study consisted of two groups. Seven first class male cricketers comprised group 1, and ten organisational personnel from a State Cricket Association constituted group 2. The players were aged 24 to 32 years (M = 28.14, SD = 2.73). All the players who participated in the study were professional, full-time contracted cricketers with a minimum of 2 years in first class cricket (M = 5.67). Also, player contracts ranged between one to three years depending on their age, experience and level of performance.

Three of the seven players had part-time employment (outside cricket). Four players had also competed at the National level (i.e., for the Australian National team).

The organisational personnel group consisted of a chief executive officer (CEO), a selector, the chairman of a club cricket council, manager of team operations, a sponsorship 32 coordinator, a project officer, a coach, a fitness coordinator, a coaching manager, and a physiotherapist. Eight participants were male, and two were female. Their age ranged from

27 to 50 years (M = 40.8, SD = 7.69), and their experience varied from 1 to 15 years (M =

5, SD = 4.39).

Procedure

The CEO of a State Association was contacted via email to seek permission for the participation of players and organisational personnel in the study. This initial contact was followed by a meeting with the CEO and Manager of Team Operations to further explain the purpose and benefits of the study to the Association. Both individuals expressed interest in the research and offered support in establishing contacts with players and organisational personnel. The Manager of Team Operations then assisted in establishing initial contacts with both groups of participants. Players and organisational personnel were then informed about the purpose of the study through email and invited to participate. All the participants who were contacted indicated that they were keen to take part in the study. However, it was not possible to contact all the contracted players of the State Association since the data collection took place during off-season which means that some of the players were playing in various leagues outside of Australia. Face-to-face interviews and focus group discussions were conducted at a time and location chosen by the participants. The cricketers and organisational personnel were provided with a standardised information sheet and a written consent was obtained prior to conducting the sessions.

Since focus groups tend to function optimally when participants are relatively homogeneous (Macnaghten & Myers, 1999), the players participated in one focus group and the organisational personnel participated in a separate group. This also helped ensure that participants felt free to answer questions honestly without fear of possible 33 recriminations when sensitive issues were raised and discussed. For example, one player commented, “I had to suppress my emotions to avoid making a brash statement that may affect the opinions of selectors”.

A semi-structured and an indirect interview approach was employed because EL can have negative connotations; for that reason, the term itself was not mentioned (i.e., imposed on) at any stage of the data collection process (see Poczwardoski & Conroy,

2002). Instead, questions were framed to address the processes of EL identified by

Hochschild (1979, 1983) without directly referring to the term EL. The four processes of

EL include: Suppressing emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading emotions of others and managing emotions of others.

More specifically, the participants responded to open-ended questions (e.g., describe a situation where you had to suppress your emotions) that explored the meaning of

EL to players and organisational personnel. These questions inquired into the four processes of EL (suppressing emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading emotions of others and managing emotions of others) (Hoschschild, 1979). The open-ended questions included description of situation, reasons for regulating emotions, particular emotions

(Hanin, 2000) that needed to be regulated (See Table 1) and how the situation was handled

(coping). The questions also involved participants to rate the frequency of managing their emotions (e.g., how frequently do you need to suppress your emotions. A score of 1 indicating ‘never’ and a score of 5 indicating ‘always’. Involving participants in open- ended questions helped in focusing the attention of participants on relevant EL issues. In addition, players’ rated how emotionally challenging it was to follow the International

Cricket Council (ICC) and Cricket Australia (CA) players’ code of conduct. This was done mainly to determine whether any codes (Table 3, on page 45 in results section) in particular 34 were emotionally demanding and the specific coping mechanisms used by players to deal with these codes on and off the field.

After the participants completed the questionnaire, they were probed and queried about their responses. Subsequently, the participants were involved in focus group discussions with the researcher acting as a facilitator. The participants were somewhat restrained at the initial stages of the focus group discussion, but this hesitancy was overcome by a general discussion regarding the study and the questionnaire. Also, using the open-ended questions as a frame of reference helped guide the focus group discussions as many participants quoted their answers, which further helped in leading the focus group discussion.

Table 1

List of Positive and Negative Emotions (Hanin, 2000)

calm thrilled afraid discouraged happy pleased angry doubtful confident satisfied annoyed helpless delighted motivated anxious nervous excited determined concerned unhappy bored enthusiastic interested unmotivated energetic frustrated tired disappointed others

Data Analysis

Data were analysed separately for the two groups (players and organisational personnel). Data analysis was undertaken by the same individual who conducted the interviews and focus group discussions. It is noteworthy that this individual was born and raised in India, where cricket is a national obsession. In addition, her father had played the game at the competitive level, and she had grown up in a family setting where cricket matches featuring India were rarely missed. Moreover, prior to conducting this research, 35 this individual had worked as a sport psychology consultant with the Indian National teams for three years.

Focus groups were employed for this initial study since the EL phenomenon is relatively unexamined in the sport context. Also, focus groups are frequently employed in exploratory studies to help researchers in identifying categories and associations related to their research topic (Macnaghten & Myers, 1999). Initially, the information obtained during the interviews was subsequently verified through alternate sources such as media reports and discussion with administrators and coaches (for players). The focus group discussions were recorded with due consent of the participants and consisted of one-hour duration each.

The interview and focus group data were transcribed and content analysed using a combination of inductive and deductive processes (Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne,

Chatzisarantis, & Sparkes, 2001). It is essential to emphasise that the interview questions were framed around the four EL processes (suppressing emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading the emotions of others, and managing the emotions of others) identified by Hochscild (1979, 1983). In order to explore and understand the concept of EL each of the four processes were analysed separately. Hence, data extraction involved the clustering of quotes with common underlying themes within each EL process, which were subsequently developed into raw data themes. Also, this clustering of quotes involved comparing and contrasting each quote with the remaining quotes (within each EL process) to identify and bring together quotes with similar meanings. The same clustering process was used to identify emergent themes (Scanlan, Stein & Ravizza, 1989). The final higher- order themes were then categorised under post-hoc dimensions, which were based on the emergent themes and literature pertaining to organisational and performance stressors in sport. Hence, this labelling and categorisation of post-hoc dimensions was influenced to some degree by the labelling from previous studies (e.g., Fletcher & Hanton, 2003b; 36

Hanton, Fletcher, and Coughlan 2005; Woodman & Hardy, 2001a). Also, these post-hoc

dimensions were chosen after the emergence of the final higher-order themes (e.g., Hanton

et al., 2005).

Results

A. Players B. Organisational Personnel

AI. Management of AII. Perceived BI. Management BII. Perceived Emotions Emotional Demands of Emotions Emotional Demands

DISCUSSION DISCUSSION

Figure 4. An Overview of the Results

The findings are presented by using a combination of content trees and direct quotes

from the interview data to enable better understanding of the concept being investigated.

Frequency analysis of emotions helped in uncovering commonly modulated emotions. The

players (Part A) and organisational personnel (Part B) results are presented separately for

the purpose of clarity and to avoid unnecessary confusion. Furthermore, for each group 37

(players and organisational personnel) the results and discussion are presented in two sections (see Figure 4). The first section deals with the management of emotions from an

EL perspective. Subsequently, the second section discusses perceived demands that players and organisational personnel believed resulted in perceptions of EL.

The final higher-order themes were categorised under the following three post-hoc dimensions: Performance-related factors, organisational factors and athlete-related factors. Performance–related factors are those that directly influence players performance, and hence included training and competition elements. Organisational factors are those relating to job roles and organisational rules (both implicit and explicit). Athlete-related factors are concerns and issues directly related to the players. This categorisation is different from previous research by Woodman and Hardy (2001), Fletcher and Hanton

(2003) and other studies on organisational stressors since the deliberate differentiation is due to the difference in the enquiry of this research, which was to identify the antecedents and consequences for performing EL.

Part A. Findings Pertaining to Professional Cricketers

Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

Previous research determined that EL is expressed either by one or all of the following means: suppressing genuine emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading emotions of others or managing emotions of others (Hochschild, 1979, 1983). Based on the frequency, the findings from this study indicated that players engaged most often in

‘reading emotions of others’ followed by ‘managing emotions of others,’ ‘suppressing emotions,’ and lastly, ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ (Table 2). The two general post-hoc dimensions for performing EL that emerged from the results were: organisational and 38

Table 2

Mean Rating Frequency of Specific EL Processes by Players

EL Processes Mean

1. Reading emotions of others 3.83

2. Managing emotions of others 3.67

3. Suppressing emotions 3.50

4. Expressing unfelt emotions 3.17

Group Mean 3.54

Note. 1= never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often and 5 = always

performance-related factors. In addition, career concerns, individual goals, team goals and organisational obligations/commitments were identified as the basis for performing EL.

Hochschild’s (1979, 1983) criteria for expressing EL are outlined in Table 2.

‘Reading emotions of others’ involved interactions with the captain, coach, teammates and selectors during match and non-match situations (see Figure 5). Performance-related factors were the only post-hoc dimension within this process. The main themes cited within this process included “gauging teammates during training and change rooms”. It appears that in professional cricket, players need to constantly keep track of the emotions and feelings of teammates. The themes cited also included “game debriefs with coaches and selectors”. Although, game debriefs are essential, it does not preclude them from being a potential source of stress. The following quote suggests how it could be difficult to ‘read the emotions of others,’ especially those of the coach or selectors during critical situations:

“ I try to read the body language and tone of voice during discussion with the coach when things might not be going well.” 39

Situations

During training to gauge teammates Game debriefs with coach and selector Discussions with the coach Performance- Change rooms related New players from interstate trying to fit in with the team

Reasons

Ensure to remain in good books with higher Career authorities Concerns

Team harmony Team Perspective

Coping

Rely on body language Tone of voice Ask questions Previous experiences with same person

Specific Emotions requiring “Reading Emotions of Others”

Confident 3 Motivated 2 Happy 1 Bored 1 Determined 3 Doubtful 2 Pleased 1 Annoyed 1 Nervous 3 Angry 2 Satisfied 1 Unmotivated 1 Frustrated 3 Disappointed 2 Concerned 1 Tired 1 Afraid 3

Figure 5. “Reading Emotions of Others” (Players)

Since such interactions happen on a fairly regular basis, it could be the reason why the mean value for ‘reading emotions of others’ was higher than the other three EL processes. The reason cited for ‘reading emotions of others’ was to ensure approval from higher authorities and maintain team harmony. Players are required to ‘read’ an array of emotions ranging from positive emotions such as happiness and confidence, to negative emotions such as frustration, anger and disappointment. Specific emotions requiring

‘reading the emotions of others’ are provided in Figure 5. Strategies to cope with this EL process included keen observation and analysis of the person and situation.

The second most often performed EL process was ‘managing emotions of others.’

Professional cricketers engaged in ‘managing emotions of others’ to a reasonable degree due to the numerous interpersonal demands that their job role necessitates. As outlined in

Figure 6, instances can range from dealing with a dropped player to managing emotions of junior players while taking a training session. The themes cited within Organisational factors included: “dealing with failure” and “dealing with dropped players”. And, themes cited within performance-related factors included “motivating teammates during game situations” and “cheering up teammates during training”. Players’ shoulder the responsibility of ‘managing the emotions of others’ to achieve individual as well as team goals. Positive reinforcement and setting an example were the main strategies cited to cope with ‘managing emotions of others’.

‘Suppressing emotions’ (the third EL process) usually involved situations wherein selection and coaching aspects were discussed (Figure 7). The two post-hoc dimensions were organisational and performance-related.

Situations

Dealing with failure (encouraging teammate) Organisational Dealing with a dropped player

Motivating teammates during grade cricket by setting an example Cheering up a teammate who would be crucial for the team on the following day Performance- related During training sessions and discussions with the team as a senior player

Reasons

Lack of faith in others to manage their emotions Individual Furtherance of personal ends Goals

To keep the team focused Team Ensure the entire team is focusing in the right Goals direction

Coping

Reinforce positives and build confidence Set an example Communicate energy by imparting own energy onto others Reassure individual players and encourage them

Specific Emotions requiring “Managing Emotions of Others”

Frustrated 5 Unhappy 2 Nervous 2 Confident 1 Disappointed 4 Afraid 2 Helpless 1 Excited 1 Angry 3 Anxious 2 Doubtful 1 Bored 1 Annoyed 2 Discouraged 2 Unmotivated 1 Thrilled 1

Figure 6. “Managing Emotions of Others” (Players)

Situations Communicate with selectors after deselection During team announcements Deselected (dropped) without an explanation Organisational Discussions with selectors and coaching staff during post-season review

Coach extremely harsh and demanding Disagree with coach on an important issue Performance- Perceived incorrect umpiring decisions related Anger as a captain when players make mistakes On and off the field

Reasons

Might hamper future chances of selection Consequences of action (code of conduct) Career Might offend coach by expressing true opinion, Concerns which may in turn affect chances of selection

Idealistic image of sports personnel Image Management

To avoid alienating teammate Inconsequential expressing anger on teammates Team Perspective

Coping

Focus on positives Focus on next delivery when bowling Strategies Self-talk Get things right the next time

Walked away Project focus onto others Be overly friendly during player appearances Alternative Bottled-up feelings Restrained from an outburst Approaches Covered up true feelings Pretend everything was fine

Specific Emotions requiring “Suppressing Emotions”

Annoyed 6 Frustrated 3 Unhappy 1 Pleased 1 Angry 5 Disappointed 3 Concerned 1 Thrilled 1 Discouraged 4 Nervous 1 Excited 1

Figure 7.“Suppressing Emotions” (Players)

The theme cited within Organisational-factors included “communicate with selectors after deselection” and “during team announcements”. Selection aspects emerged as a particularly sensitive topic for professional cricketers. Suppressing genuine emotions may require a substantial amount of effort, as suggested by the following quote:

Suppressing anger/frustration whilst talking to selectors and coaching staff during post-season review is extremely difficult especially when you do not agree with them . . . grin and bear it . . . don’t want to get people in authority in wrong books.

The themes cited within the performance-related factors mainly included aspects related to coaching and competition environment. For example, “coach extremely demanding and harsh” and “disagree with coach on an important issue”. Coaches and their coaching style are crucial determinants to enhance the potential of any player; hence the working relationship between a coach and athlete is extremely important (Greenleaf,

Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001). Themes pertaining to the competition environment were

“perceived incorrect umpiring decisions” and “following disappointment on the field”.

Umpires and referees try their best to be objective and unbiased, but because their decisions are sometimes perceived as controversial (by players), their actions can have a substantial impact on player emotions. Undoubtedly, this aspect is outside a player’s control, yet it is a crucial determinant in their performance and emotional regulation. Career concerns was the most often mentioned rationale for suppressing emotions, followed by image management and team perspective. The most frequently ‘suppressed emotions’ were negative emotions such as anger, frustration and annoyance. Focusing on the task, self-talk and striking the punching bag were the main coping strategies mentioned by players. Interestingly, though this is the third most performed process of EL, most participants provided more detail for this process. This is also evident in the number of quotes, post-hoc dimensions and reasons provided for this category. 44

Enthusiasm during early morning training is a good example to describe the last EL process, which is ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ (Figure 8). Organisational and performance-related aspects were the post-hoc dimensions identified. The themes cited within organisational aspects were “congratulate a player selected ahead of you” and

“appear happy at appearances when things might not be going great”. The themes cited within performance-related aspects were “showing enthusiasm at training sessions when not feeling great (mentally/physically)”.

Expressing unfelt emotions necessitates some effort because it involves producing an emotion, which is not genuinely felt. In addition, this might frequently involve the suppression of an authentic emotion in order to express another unfelt emotion that could be contrary to one’s feelings. This is best explained in the following quote: “I had to congratulate someone else for getting selected when you believe you are more deserving . .

. . Hid my displeasure and pretended I was happy for him . . .” The primary reason to express unfelt emotions by players were career concerns and team perspective. Given the highly competitive nature of sport, it is not surprising that career anxiety seems to be one of the most salient concerns that players have. Coping mechanisms included focusing on positives and faking. In this context faking included appearing happy at training or when congratulating another player. Faking has been associated with surface acting. It appears that players could be employing surface acting more often than deep acting.

Situations

Congratulate a player selected ahead of you Organisational Appear happy at appearances when things might not be going great

Showing enthusiasm at training sessions when Performance- not feeling great (mentally/physically) related

Reasons

Organisational rules does not allow players to Organisational comment

Important to show the coaching staff/selectors enthusiasm while training Career Not to get coach or selector offside Concerns

Team harmony Illustrate humility Team Preserve team unity/spirit despite personal Perspective feelings/situation

Coping

Focus on the positives of the session rather than Strategies the negatives

Grin and bear it A fake smile, being polite Alternative Put on an act Approaches Go on as if everything is okay

Specific Emotions requiring “Expressing Unfelt Emotions”

Confident 3 Enthusiastic 2 Doubtful 1 Pleased 3 Energetic 1 Frustrated 1 Happy 2 Motivated 1 Delighted 1

Figure 8. “Expressing Unfelt Emotions” (Players)

This section showed that professional players engage in the four processes (reading emotions of others, managing emotions of others, suppression emotions and expressing unfelt emotions) of EL to regulate their emotions to a certain degree.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC Codes.

The study findings stipulate that the extent to which emotional displays in sport are organisationally desirable is often encapsulated in players’ behavioural codes and policies.

For example, “The Spirit of Cricket” serves as Cricket Australia’s guideline for contracted players that include codes and policies they are expected to follow (Cricket Australia’s

Official Website, 2003). These codes and policies include reference to on-field behaviour such as positive play, pressure, body language and banter between opponents. The codes also encompass off-field behaviour because players’ off-field conduct reflects either positively or adversely on both the individual and the game of cricket. Hence, players need to be cautious about their behaviour, especially when it is likely to attract public attention and criticism. In order to comply with these behavioural codes, players might need to modulate and express their emotions in a befitting manner, thus performing EL to a significant extent.

Table 3 shows the list of International Cricket Council (ICC) and Cricket Australia

(CA) codes. These codes were provided to the players to determine whether any codes were emotionally challenging. Rules and codes are a good way to manage aggression especially in team games such as cricket. However, these codes could also prove detrimental if they impose severe restrictions on what a player can and cannot do. One player felt that enforcing numerous codes did not serve the intended purpose of enhancing the spirit of 47 sport; in fact, he felt it was disadvantageous to the game. He stated “they have put all these rules in place because they think they increase the value of the game, but I think over time they do the opposite.” He also stated that these rules could affect players’ health due to emotional regulation required by suggesting, “it may have some detriment health wise . . . it involves changing your emotional patterns and restraining emotions most of the time.”

Another player indicated such codes were reducing players to robots because every action and emotion was regulated by the ICC and CA codes.

The rules are eliminating characters in the game. If you don’t have characters in the game, exactly like robots . . . . Your true character can’t come out because you are not allowed to say anything related to selection or other players.

Mean scores of players with respect to the difficulty of dealing with ICC and CA players’ code of conduct are shown in Table 4. The ‘anti-harassment, offences and detrimental public comment’ codes (see Table 4) had higher mean values for “difficulty complying” compared to the other codes. The following quotes demonstrate the frustration players experience while dealing with some of these codes. In this instance, it is the anti- harassment code (Table 4, ICC & CA code # 7) as supported by the following statements expressed by cricketers:

Intrinsic anxiety or disappointment is often expressed toward a batsman (as I am a bowler). This has nothing to do with the opposition and more to do with how I feel . . . requires a lot of control to refrain from doing something negative and getting fined.

Occasionally in the heat of play, sometimes it requires discipline to avoid making a personal attack on someone [opponent] who is frustrating you. It is avoiding a “slip of the tongue” verbal assault.

Table 3

Items generated from the ICC and CA ‘codes’ for players

1. Offences: Abuse cricket equipment or clothing, ground equipment or fixtures and fittings.

Show dissent at an umpire’s decision by action or verbal abuse.

Use language that is obscene, offensive or insulting and/or the making of an obscene gesture.

Engage in excessive appealing.

Engage in inappropriate and deliberate physical contact with other players or officials in the course of play.

Deliberately and maliciously distract or obstruct another player or official on the field of play.

2. Off-field Codes: Players need to be cautious about their off-field behavior especially that which is likely to attract public attention and criticism because players’ off-field conduct reflects either positively or adversely on the game.

3. Detrimental Public Comment Players and officials must not publicly denigrate another player, official, umpire, referee or team against which they have played or will play, whether in relation to incidents which occurred in a match or otherwise or comment on the likely outcome of a hearing or a report or an appeal.

4. Anti-Doping Policy: A player shall not use performance enhancing drugs, as doping practices is contrary to the ethics of sport and potentially harmful to the health of athletes.

5. Betting, Match-fixing and Corruption: Players or officials must not directly or indirectly engage in betting, gambling or enter into any form of financial speculation on any cricket match or on any event connected with any cricket match.

6. Racial and Religious Vilification Code: Players will not engage in any conduct, act towards or speak to any other player in a manner which offends, insults, humiliates, intimidates, disparages or vilifies the other player on the basis of the player’s race, religion, color, descent or national or ethnic origin.

7. Anti-Harassment Policy: Players will not engage in any harassment including any comment, conduct or gesture directed towards an individual or group of individuals which is insulting, intimidating, humiliating, malicious, degrading or offensive.

8. Penalties: Players and officials breaching the code of conduct and committing any of the offences (Level I- IV) will be penalised which can include 50% fine of their match fees or being banned for matches depending on the level of offence.

Table 4

Mean scores for Players’ Level of Difficulty with ICC and CA Code of Conduct

No. Codes Mean

1. Anti-harassment 2.67

2. Offences 2.53

3. Detrimental public comment 2.17

4. Off-field codes 2.00

5. Penalties 2.00

6. Anti-doping policy 1.33

7. Racial & religious vilification code 1.33

8. Betting, match-fixing & corruption 1.00

Group Mean 1.88

Note. 1= never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often and 5 = always

The demands complying with not ‘showing dissent at an umpiring decision,’ which falls under the code for offences (Table 4, ICC & CA code # 1) are best explained by these quotes:

I was so angry for being given out when I was clearly not out. I took out my anger on a punching bag when I got inside . . . as you cannot do anything [express] on the field.

I coped badly as I expressed verbal expression of disappointment and physical expression by kicking the ground . . . I also projected anger towards the batsmen because the umpire turned down my appeal for LBW.

The detrimental public comment code (Table 4, ICC & CA code # 3) was found to be emotionally demanding since some players felt the code restricts expression of views on topical issues such as selection, umpires, wickets and problems with their respective organisations. One player commented, “this prohibition on ‘detrimental public comment’ is eventually detrimental to the game.” Another player remarked, “I got penalised for comments in a paper that I didn’t even make.” The quotes below demonstrate the frustration other players feel in relation to this code:

The general prohibition on making detrimental public comment is difficult when it means suppressing the voicing of your true opinion on an important issue . . . I sometimes find it frustrating personally, and when listening to the opinion of other players, in relation to an issue, when I know the ‘true’ opinion.

At the end of the day, if you are saying things about people or players it is your problem, and you have to find out why someone is talking about you. There is a way to go around it, but not to say anything at all is ridiculous. Again it must be so much more for the footballers [AFL] or the Aussies [National cricket team]. The footballers can’t even say anything if they are fined, and that must be hard because they just have to sit there.

The anti-doping code (Table 4, ICC & CA code # 4) was also a source of concern for players:

It is very frustrating when the ADA [Australian anti-doping agency] officials show no respect to you as a player and your requirements during a game . . .

Sometimes you are not sure about taking medication for something as simple as a cold. Often if not sure, I just put up with being sick because I am unsure of what medication is classified as dope.

The above mentioned quotes indicate that there is a discrepancy between the ‘codes’ and players’ opinions regarding what should be acceptable. For example, sledging is regarded as fairly common in cricket, but it is an offence according to the players’ code of conduct. Under all circumstances, players are expected to exercise restraint and display good sportsmanship. This requires a degree of EL because in order to be regulated and in 51 control of the situation, players will be required to modulate their emotions to a certain extent.

Team Atmosphere.

Some players felt that a good team atmosphere helped in dealing with the emotional challenges related to cricket. One player commented, “if the team is playing together for a longer time then you vent out more in the team.” This is line with the findings of Weinberg and McDermott (2002), who indicated that group cohesion, was essential for organisational effectiveness and success. However, another player felt that teammates could help but he wouldn’t do it often as he could be pulling the team down with his feelings. “I do have close mates in cricket, you have a beer and ***** [talk] about it but you try and not do it often so that I don’t pull the team with my negativity.” This suggests that professional players might require additional support networks to assist in managing or regulating their emotions.

Indirect Cricket-related Demands

Professionalism, commercialisation and media. The participants also addressed the professional and commercial aspect of cricket.

The quote below summarises this aspect succinctly:

In the world where they want us to be more and more professional and the more they want you to be training for this, this and this. To be honest about it, the more you think about all these things, the more you don’t want to be thinking about cricket. The more you get involved in other things [non-related to cricket]; it is your escape. I find that the more time I spend with other stuff, I don’t think about cricket. But if a guy has given up everything to become a cricketer, where does he get his outside or other stuff?

The media spotlight and emphasis on winning and maintaining peak form

(performance) was also addressed by cricketers. One player observed that the Australian

National Cricket Team was under constant scrutiny. He also observed that since the

Australian Team was performing extremely well, the media did not have much to write about them; hence, he stated that if any player’s form decreased, the media would make focus on it:

Everyone is watching you and there is less to write about [regarding Australian team as they are very good]. So there are 11 players and if one player’s performance drops a little, then bang everyone is writing about it. X [Australian batsman] had it last year, he went in to the stand [news] because he was not averaging 70 [runs] and the media went bang, bang, bang.

Public and private scrutiny. Dealing with scrutiny was considered challenging by most players in the group, and was discussed in detail. It is best explained in this quote: “You just have to stand up there and be scrutinised from all angels and just accept it.” Private scrutiny was related to the censure from coaches and selectors, and public scrutiny was connected to dealing with comments from the general public. Most players agreed it was quite demanding dealing with public evaluation of players. “Constant hiding or suppressing of emotions and people telling you what you should be doing.” Another participant pointed to dealing with this scrutiny constantly: “You pick up a paper and it is everywhere . . . everyone is talking about who is good and who is not good and that sort of thing.” The same player commented that it was reasonably difficult coping with comments from non-cricket related people. “It is pretty difficult thing to deal with; imagine if someone at your workplace [non-related to cricket] walks up and says ‘oh you are not good at that’.” Another player commented it was much more challenging since it can’t be dealt with or questioned. “I guess it would be hard because there are not many people you could directly question.” A third participant 53 believed that the career and lives of cricketers depended on the opinions of others. The quote below explains his perception:

Our whole lives revolve on the opinions of others - selectors opinion, coaches opinion and the opinions of others; we get out [off the cricket ground] and we are not allowed to voice our opinion, we are not allowed to say anything and yet our lives revolve around them. ‘Greg’ [television host] says to me that he can’t have any players on any show because they are not allowed to say anything.

One of the participants even felt it could affect a player’s life (professional and personal) to a considerable extent. He provided an example of how it could affect a player’s professional career. The player also observed that professional players were challenged with scrutiny from all types of people. In addition, he felt that while everyone else could express their opinions, players were required to exercise restraint and not say anything.

And it changes your life. For example, I have played first class cricket for many years and I get the opinion from guys who have played none or who have just played 3 games and he is saying, ‘no you are not a first class [player] tomorrow’. Then what do you do, if you say something you will get fined and if he goes to the media and says ‘this guy is **** ra ra ra’ and they have nothing to back it up because it comes from his mouth and the public says ‘oh’ and that is it, off your job. And then you will have to deal with it, even if you don’t listen to the radio or read the papers, you still have to answer queries from family and friends and they say ‘what is going on mate, what are you doing?’ You can’t escape, there is no escape for us and I would assume 10 [much harder] for the Aussies. Everyone has their opinion but you [player] can’t say anything.

This section suggests that in addition to the rules, players face additional challenges that are not directly related to cricket but still require a great deal of emotional control.

Also, this section addressed what might be called “private” and “public” EL among professional cricketers. In this context, public EL seems to be chararcterised by emotional regulation required during interactions with the umpire, opposition, media and spectators.

On the other hand, private EL seems to involve interactions with teammates, coach, selectors, and other organisational personnel. It appears that in cricket the potential for 54 private EL is equivalent to that of the public EL. This is similar to the findings of the EL of barristers (Harris, 2002). However, this aspect needs further research.

Discussion

The study findings revealed that players performed EL through four processes, which are reading emotions of others, managing emotions, suppressing emotions and expressing unfelt emotions (Hochschild, 1979, 1983). The two post-hoc dimensions for performing EL that emerged from the players results were: organisational and performance- related factors. Organisational factors are those relating to job roles and organisational rules (both implicit and explicit). These included higher order themes such as role expectancies, selection matters and organisational obligations/commitments.

Performance–related factors are those that direct influence players performance, and hence included training and competition elements. These included themes such as coaching and game reviews, training and competition environment. These results concur with previous studies, which identified selection, communication methods, training and competition environments as some of the stressors elite performers encounter (Fletcher and Hanton,

2003c; Hanton et al., 2005; Woodman & Hardy, 2001).

The findings also indicated that elite performers found ‘anti-harassment, offences and detrimental public comment’ codes as the most emotionally demanding while dealing with ICC and CA players’ code of conduct. Also as suggested by some researchers (Rafaeli

& Sutton, 1987; Tschan, Rochat, & Zapf, 2005) findings from this study indicate that EL occurs both in the private and public context (Harris, 2002) of professional cricket.

Furthermore, results revealed that milder forms of EL were more manifest in most competitive matches be it cricket, for example, staring at umpires, tee-tee with the 55 opposition team, sledging, running into the opponent, commenting about a particular player and so forth. These examples are a clear break of the International Cricket Council (ICC) codes. Players’ found guilty of such behaviour could escape punishment a few times but there is also a possibility of being fined or banned from a few matches. This in turn could agitate players since they do not perceive it as a serious offence, endangering their game and career to a substantial extent.

Moreover, some of the other issues that emerged as emotionally challenging to the players were lack of security, handling mixed emotions (player has done well but not the team or vice-versa), disruption to family routines, fear of losing, dealing with the media

(i.e. being cautious of every word you speak), player stereotypes (e.g., cannot play one day game), injuries and dealing with in-house team codes. These concerns can be addressed in future studies as ‘image management’ and ‘work-life balance’ issues.

Most players identified career anxiety came across as one of the most pressing issue, since most players stated it. Career concerns, individual goals, team goals, organisational goals and image management were identified as the basis for performing EL.

These findings concur with those of previous research (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993;

Grandey, 2000; Morris & Feldman, 1996) suggesting that a number of factors influence the performance of EL.

The main strategies employed by players while performing EL or managing emotions were reinforcing positives, focusing on the immediate task and self-talk. It should be noted that not all players mentioned these strategies. In fact, most of them reported the course of action they normally undertake while encountering situations that required emotional control. Most of the coping mechanisms employed were response-focused (Grandey, 2000) or surface acting (Hochschild, 1983; Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987) as it involved a modification 56 in the physical expression (body language, voice tone, facial expression etc), and hence included faking to a certain degree. This suggests that players might employ surface acting more often than deep acting to regulate their emotions. Surface acting may lead to emotional dissonance due to the discrepancy between the displayed emotion and what is actually experienced. However, some cognitive strategies (antecedent-focused) were also mentioned by some players (focus on positives rather than the negatives, self-talk) to alter feelings and produce the appropriate emotion and feeling. In addition, with professional cricket players, evoking the appropriate emotion can also influence performance. For example, a bowler disappointed with an umpire’s decision will need to regulate his emotion to restrain from making a negative comment or display, and ensure he does not lose focus on his task (i.e., bowling) and performance.

Part B. Findings Pertaining to Organisational Personnel

Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

EL is expressed either by one or more of the following processes: suppressing genuine emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading emotions of others or managing emotions of others (Hochschild, 1983). Table 5 outlines the scores on these four EL processes for cricket organisational personnel. These individuals engaged most often in

‘reading emotions of others’ followed by ‘managing emotions of others,’ ‘suppressing emotions’ and lastly ‘expressing unfelt emotions.’ These results are identical to those of the players; the only difference being that the mean values of administrators were slightly lower for three of the processes (managing emotions of others, suppressing and expressing unfelt emotions). However, the mean value for ‘reading emotions of emotions’ was 4.1

(Table 5) for organisational personnel and 3.83 (Table 2) for players on the same 57

Table 5

Mean Rating Frequency of Specific EL Processes by Organisational Personnel

EL Processes Mean

1. Reading emotions of others 4.1

2. Managing emotions of others 3.4

3. Suppressing emotions 3.1

4. Expressing unfelt emotions 2.4

Group Mean 3.25

Note. 1= never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often and 5 = always

process. This indicated that both groups engaged in performing this process to a considerable extent. The subsequent sections enquire into each of these individual processes. The two general post-hoc dimensions for performing EL (for all the four processes) that emerged from the results were: organisational and athlete-related factors.

Organisational factors are those relating to job roles and organisational rules (both implicit and explicit). Athlete-related factors are concerns and issues directly related to the players.

Instances (Figure 9) cited by organisational personnel for ‘reading emotions of others’ involved dealing with both players and staff issues and concerns. Two post-hoc dimensions identified were organisational and athlete-related. The themes cited within

Organisational-factors included “assess strength of feelings by staff and addressing client

(cricket stakeholder) concerns”. The themes cited within athlete- related factors included

“discussions with the Captain about the team and options for the next game, informing a player of his deselection, assessing player performance”. The most common reasons given 58

Situations

Assess strength of feelings by staff regarding an important issue Address client concerns regarding a specific issue Approach colleagues after a confrontational media Organisational conference Gauge client’s level of interest to potentially sponsor a cricket program

Discuss team and options for the next game with the Captain Inform player’s about deselection Athlete- related Assess player’s performance Monitor player’s fitness test Decide on player’s club clearance or transfer application

Reasons

Avoid conflict with colleagues Assess the suitability of a situation to discuss an important matter Achieve a mutually beneficial outcome for the Organisational organisation and the client Gauge the effect of injury outcome on player

Get the best performance from each player

Coping

Observe how they react with others Body language and voice tone Ask questions regarding their concerns

Make judgment based on the individual’s mood Strategies Look for cues- observe eyes to note concern or disappointment Observe action – verbal/physical

Specific Emotions requiring “Reading Emotions of Others ”

Annoyed 7 Unhappy 4 Calm 2 Determined 2 Angry 6 Anxious 4 Pleased 2 Happy 1 Concerned 6 Doubtful 3 Motivated 2 Discouraged 4 Nervous 3 Confident 2

Figure 9. “Reading Emotions of Others” (Organisational Personnel) 59 for engaging in this process was to determine future courses of action to mutually benefit all individuals involved. Coping strategies of the team support staff for ‘reading emotions of others’ were identical to those of the players, and predominantly included observation and analysis. The following quote illustrates how organisational personnel engage in

‘reading the emotions of others.’

Assessing a player’s performance. What has his poor performance got to do with? Is it things solely related to cricket or outside influence? How do you act to get players up or regain confidence? Is it through consoling, encouragement, or is it better to take a more aggressive approach about lack of discipline, commitment etc.

‘Managing emotions of others’ was the second most frequently cited process. As shown in Figure 10, this EL process occurs in a wide array of situations. The themes cited within athlete- related factors included “dealing with angry and frustrated players after a session, and managing players under pressure to perform”. The themes cited within organisational factors included “handling internal issues/obstacles to achieve client outcomes, and conveying undesirable news to players and staff”. The main reason for

‘managing emotions of others’ was action-oriented in order to achieve the best result for the team and the organisation. Reinforcing positives, lateral thinking, addressing concerns and finding solutions to problems were the main strategies used to cope with ‘managing emotions of others’. Organisational personnel describe the process as follows:

Telling players that they have not been selected for the next game, what they need to do to be included in the future . . . To ensure the player focuses on the ‘right’ things to ensure they continue in the team . . . . Being clear about the decision, providing reasons (if possible) then trying to move the player from the negative emotions to a more determined mindset.

Separate meetings with players and staff to explain a prevailing negative issue that would attract publicity. Explanation had to be honest but convey confidence in me [CEO] that the issue was being managed effectively . . . Convey a sense of control and care for their issues so that they could feel progress could be made. Whatever the context of the matter overall, it is helpful to appreciate the importance in terms of the staff member’s role . . . . Organised thoughts, covering key points in a calm, measured and professional way. 60

Situations

Deal with angry and frustrated player after session Manage players under pressure to perform Athlete-related Inform a player about deselection Player unmotivated to complete rehab training

after treatment

Coaching workshop – managing 12 different club coaches Organisational Handle internal issues/obstacles to achieve client

outcomes

Convey undesirable news to players and staff

Reasons

Motivate player Achieve the best results Get player to the best possible performance

playing state Convey sense of concern for issues Result Ensure player focuses on the right things Oriented Achieve beneficial results Keep team focused on desired outcomes

Coping

Reinforce strengths Reassure player and encourage moving to next stage in the session Encourage lateral thinking to solve problems Strategies Convey negative issues in a professional manner to media, player or staff

Listen to concerns and find solutions

Specific Emotions requiring “Managing Emotions of Others” Angry 5 Helpless 4 Satisfied 2 Excited 1 Annoyed 5 Concerned 3 Motivated 2 Tired 1 Anxious 5 Unhappy 3 Determined 2 Happy 1 Discouraged 5 Calm 3 Afraid 2 Delighted 1 Doubtful 4 Confident 2 Nervous 2 Passivity 1

Figure 10. “Managing Emotions of Others” (Organisational Personnel)

A player wanting to leave without really being bothered about his exercise after treatment [physiotherapy]. I then had to reinforce, educate and encourage him to complete them . . . For a beneficial outcome – to achieve rehab standards or maintain positive client-therapist relationship . . . Acting with consolation and confidence with regard to advice given.

‘Suppressing emotions’ (the third process) mainly involved situations dealing with player contracts and media conferences (Figure 11). The themes cited within athlete- related factors included “player contract negotiations, and dealing with players lacking appropriate communication skills”. The themes cited within organisational factors included “delivering undesirable news to the media, discussions with clients where contractual obligations had not been fulfilled”. The following quotes demonstrate the effort required to suppress genuine emotions:

I was very frustrated and angry at the poor performance by the team . . . At times to show anger and lose control is not going to achieve positive outcome. As much as you want to express your anger and disappointment, it is in the best interest of the team to be positive, encouraging and focusing on the positives of the situation.

Client meetings where contractual obligations had not been fulfilled and they were dissatisfied . . . . Had to suppress frustration and present a positive, proactive image of the Association.

A player not respecting advice, I did not feel he was showing respect but had to suppress my emotions to get the player around . . . I was angry. I don’t find expressing anger is always beneficial to changing a situation or ‘bringing them around’. I took a step back in my mind (viewed the situation objectively) and decided on a plan of action logically. I also didn’t listen or consider some of the negative emotions I felt.

The above-mentioned quotes suggest that suppressing emotions requires the expression of an unfelt emotion. Role expectations and long-term benefits were the most often mentioned reasons for suppressing emotions. The most frequently ‘suppressed emotions’ were largely negative emotions such as anxiousness, anger and being annoyed. 62

Situations Player contract negotiations Dealing with players lacking appropriate Athlete- communication skills Players disregarding advice related Team playing poorly

Client meetings where contractual obligations have not been fulfilled Delivering undesirable news to media Organisational Disagree with decisions taken by club cricket members

Reasons

Benefit of all Did not want anyone to see my disappointment Represent organisation in the best light Long-term benefit Appear even-handed and sympathetic to all Organisational club views Commitments To sustain confidence of internal and external stakeholders Selectors need to take comments from a variety of cricket people

Coping

Focus on positives Deep breathing, gathered thoughts before Strategies responding Took a step back and thought of a logical action Seek alternative communication channels

Bit my tongue Deadpan face Alternative Displayed calmness Approaches Outwardly expressed no concern to the situation Talk less and listen more

Specific Emotions requiring “Suppressing Emotions ”

Annoyed 9 Discouraged 3 Unhappy 3 Frustrated 1 Anxious 5 Doubtful 3 Angry 3 Disappointed 1 Concerned 5 Helpless 3 Nervous 2

Figure 11. “Suppressing Emotions” (Organisational Personnel) 63

These results are very similar to those of the players. Focusing on positives, deep breathing, taking a step back to think of a logical action and seeking alternative communication channels were the main coping strategies mentioned by organisational personnel.

Appearing interested in a topic of conversation and demonstrating enthusiasm at the end of the working day are good examples of the last process, which is ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ (Figure 12). The themes cited within athlete- related factors included “appearing energetic at the end of a tiring day, and expressing sympathy to deselected player”. The themes cited within organisational factors included “remaining calm when disagreed with a point of view expressed, and appearing calm and confident during client meetings”.

Organisational expectations/commitments was the only reason provided by these individuals for performing EL.

Even positive emotions and behaviors can be detrimental in certain situations and scenarios. While it is important to appear up beat, positive emotions may not necessarily have the desired effect. This is because over enthusiasm could lead to over confidence and could prove costly for the team. This aspect has been well explained in the following quotes that suggest the control administrators need to demonstrate during most situations:

Things going well- feeling ecstatic but don’t want to give impression of becoming over confident and complacent. Works same in negative sense- performance poor – show confidence that things will turn to the positive . . . I have to show I am in control of all situations. My actions will affect the actions of others so if I can remain stable and composed, it can flow on to the players. If I lose it will have negative affect. Just a conscious effort to keep control. Positive talk, positive body language.

I had to remain calm when sitting in a meeting when I disagreed with the Chairman. I felt angry at what had been said, but I remained calm . . . It was not the forum to express views. I remained calm and did not join the discussion.

Situations

Appear energetic at the end of a tiring day Express sympathy to a player not selected,

when he hadn’t tried hard enough Deal with irate parent Athlete-related When the team was being beaten in the one- day final

Remain calm when disagreed with a point of view expressed

Appear interested in a topic of conversation Organisational Appear calm and confident during client meetings

Reasons

Represent organisation in the best light Achieve the best results Organisational Not to let down player commitments Expectations of others Not the forum to express views Expressing personal views will be seen as unprofessional

Coping

Calm voice Pregnant pause Deep breathing to relax Looked happy and relaxed Strategies Appear interested Try to inspire confidence

Specific Emotions requiring “Expressing Unfelt Emotions”

Confident 4 Pleased 2 Delighted 1 Conciliatory 1 Calm 3 Concerned 2 Angry 1 Unhappy 1 Motivated 3 Satisfied 1 Annoyed 1 Doubtful 1 Determined 3 Boredom 1 Understanding 1 Energetic 1 Attentive 1

Figure 12. “Expressing Unfelt Emotions” (Organisational Personnel)

The primary reason given for expressing unfelt emotions was organisational expectations. The coping mechanisms of administrators are identical to those of players with regard to managing this process. The main coping strategies mentioned were acting or pretending. In other words, this is faking, thereby stressing the degree of surface acting utilised. Also, it appears that expressing unfelt emotions involves the suppression of a genuine emotion, which suggests that the four processes are not distinct.

This section showed that organisational personnel engage in the four processes

(reading emotions of others, managing emotions of others, suppression emotions and expressing unfelt emotions) of EL to regulate their emotions to a certain degree.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Issues management, media relations, maintaining a rapport with players, separating professional role from ‘mateship’, high expectations of players regarding the availability of certain support staff (e.g., physiotherapist), communicating and fulfilling the expectations for a broad range of stakeholders were some of the demands encountered by professional sports personnel. The statements provide additional details about these demands:

Interacting with a range of people from different background, expertise and roles i.e., players, members of the public, volunteers, past-players (with high profile reputations) is very demanding . . . These are a broad range of people with whom we are expected to communicate and fulfill their expectations.

Working in the commercial business of sport can be emotionally demanding in that my role holds a dual purpose: to represent the best interests of the organisation to a client, and to represent the best interests of the client internally . . . . Open communication is a key element in ensuring success in this role. Internally, allowing our team to understand clients’ needs and motivations will allow me to show the client we can meet their objectives . . . The demands can increase when one or both sides ‘don’t meet in the middle’ resulting in frustration, dissatisfaction and potentially damage important relationships.

Being part of the management team [Captain, coach, physiotherapist, trainer], then being isolated if not agreeing with the group is very frustrating.

Maintaining personal relationship with players but then needing to show the group decision or ‘outcome’ of the selection panel is hard at times.

In some ways, many similarities between on-field and off-field leadership in cricket. Controlled reaction to circumstances most important. A greater percentage of cricketers are more demanding on your time and have high expectations of your availability. They expect you to be able to change your working schedule to meet their work/training commitments, probably beyond what is reasonable.

All media issues are something that I have to be conscious of because any issue can be asked in my position. Need to know all aspects of the Association, so you don’t become ambushed by press . . . Any issue related to the association is a target for the media. I need to know all issues and how to answer despite my personal feelings on some matters.

Use of players and myself [coach] in situations [appearances] that can become a pain in the neck. Have to be available and be positive despite feelings.

Discussion

Woodman and Hardy (2001) emphasised that sport personnel, especially coaches, managers and performance directors, are required to deal with a range of multifaceted issues. These include effective team-building strategies, clear and transparent selection criteria, coach education (particularly on sensitive topics such as dealing with an injured or dropped player) and realistic goal-setting. The results section revealed the many challenges professional organisational personnel are confronted with in order to maintain a competitive team for National or International play. The general higher-order themes emerging from the findings for performing EL were organisational issues, selection issues, performance-related, non-performance related issues, client-related and staff or interdepartmental issues. 67

The study findings revealed that organisational personnel performed EL through the four processes identified by Hochschild (1983), namely reading emotions of others, managing emotions, suppressing emotions and expressing unfelt emotions. Additional post- hoc dimensions for performing EL that emerged from the results were: Athlete-related factors and organisational factors. Athlete-related factors are those situations that required organisational personnel to interact with professional players. These included themes related to selection, performance and non-performance issues. Organisational factors are those that directly impact the organisation and the functioning of the organisational personnel involved. The main themes that evolved within this dimension were those related to clients and those of staff.

These two post-hoc dimensions suggest that the organisational personnel can be divided into two groups depending on their level of involvement with players: the direct management group and the indirect management group. The direct-management group would include the coach, fitness coordinator, physiotherapist, team doctor and coaching manager. This group is directly involved with the professional team on a daily basis. The indirect management group would then consist of the CEO, selectors, the team operations manager and the administrative staff who do not interact with players on a day-to-day basis.

It appears that the emotional demands of these two groups are substantially different.

The reasons for performing EL can be categorised under two main sub-headings: organisational purposes and to achieve results. These results concur to some degree to the

EL literature (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Harris, 2002). Organisational reasons mainly include avoiding conflict, representing the organisation in the best light and long-term benefits. Result-oriented reasons included enhancing player and staff performance, and achieving beneficial results. There is over-lap between these two areas because emotions 68 need to be managed both for organisational harmony purposes as well as to achieve desired results.

Coping mechanisms employed by organisational personnel appeared to be more appropriate and efficient than those of players, since they included strategies such as lateral thinking, cognitive change and solution-focused approaches. Nevertheless, as with players, administrators also engaged in surface acting to a considerable extent, which could prove damaging to the individual and the organisation. This is because surface acting corresponds to response-focused emotion regulation (Gross, 1988a; Gross, 1998b, Grandey, 2000) wherein the display rules are mechanically conformed (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993).

Moreover, surface acting may lead to emotional dissonance due to the discrepancy between the displayed emotion and what is actually experienced (Zerbe, 2002). Brotheridge and Lee (2003) further contended that this could lead to emotional strain and detachment from others. However, it also appears that organisational personnel tend to internalise their role; and hence, might be better at coping with EL than professional players. Job involvement and intrinsic satisfaction from the job will lead to stronger identification and hence they perform more deep acting and confirm to their job roles (Kruml and Geddes,

2000a). Also, organisational personnel do not face the same career concerns as cricketers.

Conclusion

The study examined the concept of EL in the context of professional cricket; and the coping mechanisms employed by professional cricketers and organisational personnel to manage EL. Though preliminary, results from this study indicate that professional cricketers and organisational personnel endeavour to meet organisational, individual and team goals by altering their emotions suitably, thereby performing emotional EL to a 69 substantial extent. Furthermore, professional cricketers and organisational personnel perform EL either through ‘reading emotions of others, ‘managing emotions of others,’

‘suppressing emotions’ or ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ on a regular basis. Also, professional cricket players found ‘anti-harassment, offences and detrimental public comment’ codes as the most emotionally demanding while dealing with ICC and CA codes of conduct. The antecedents for managing emotions included organisational display rules, individual goals and team goals. It appears that in professional cricket, professional players and the management staff manage their emotions both privately (within the organisation) and publicly (outside the organisation). The precise range of coping mechanisms was not clear from this study.

The main strength of the study was the employment of focus groups as well as individual interviews to gather rich information from the participants. However, this qualitative information could be further verified by the administration of standardised questionnaires (e.g., Emotional Labour Scale) to aid in understanding EL and its consequences, especially pertaining to performance and health.

Also, the study expounded the nature of EL and its applicability to the sport setting.

Nevertheless, data were collected from players and administrators from a single State

Cricket Organisation. Therefore, to generalise the results to professional cricket could be presumptuous. Involving participants from various cricket associations, and (perhaps) games could help in understanding this unexplored concept of EL more adequately. 70

CHAPTER 4: STUDY TWO

ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF EMOTIONAL LABOUR

Purpose

Study 1 examined the determinants of emotional labour (EL) in professional cricket.

It also described the coping mechanisms employed by professional cricketers and organisational personnel in managing EL. Professional cricketers and organisational personnel performed EL either through ‘reading emotions of others, ‘managing emotions of others,’ ‘suppressing emotions’ or ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ on a regular basis. Also, elite performers found ‘anti-harassment, offences and detrimental public comment’ codes as the most emotionally demanding while dealing with ICC and CA players’ codes of conduct.

Furthermore, ‘image management and work-life balance’ were two categories that evolved from focus group discussions in Study 1. These were of some significance to players when dealing with the emotional demands of being a professional cricketer. Coping mechanisms employed by organisational personnel seem to be more appropriate when compared with those performed by the players. However, both groups engaged in surface acting to a significant degree. This was especially so while expressing unfelt emotions and agreed with previous research which established the detrimental effects of surface acting

(Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2003).

The present study (Study 2) examined the antecedents and consequences of EL in professional cricket. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative measures to gain an understanding of the emotional demands of professional athletes, coaches and administrators along with identifying the antecedents and consequences of EL and coping methods employed in the management of EL. The study also sought to confirm the 71 presence of issues that evolved from Study 1. Similar to Study 1, professional cricket players were the primary focus of this study, and data were collected from other organisational personnel (e.g., coaches and selectors) so as to obtain information from a different dimension.

Method

Participants

The study employed a mixed methods approach to collect data from 84 Australian

First class cricketers and organisational personnel. Similar to Study 1, participants in this study consisted of two groups. These included individuals who were either currently playing cricket (n = 46) or who were involved at an administrative level in cricket (n = 38) within Australia. The mean age of the participants was 35.22 years (SD = 11.73). The mean level of involvement in cricket as a player was 5.70 years (SD = 4.42), and at an administrative level 8.89 years (SD = 8.56).

Procedure

The Manager of cricket operations from each of the six state cricket organisations

(within Australia) helped in establishing contact with participants. The participants

(cricketers and organisational personnel) were mailed a copy of the questionnaire booklet, along with a standardised information sheet, and consent forms. The study employed a mixed methods approach to collect data. Creswell, Vicki, Clark, Gutma and Hanson (2003) define a mixed methods study as one that involves the collection or analysis of both quantitative and/or qualitative data in a single study in which the data are gathered concurrently or sequentially, and then given a priority. It involves the integration of the data at one or more stages in the process of research. 72

More specifically, the questionnaire booklet for both the groups comprised of:

(i) The modified version of Emotional Labour Scale (ELS) (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003),

(ii) Modified version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach, Jackson &

Leiter, 1996),

(iii) Open-ended questions enquiring into the processes of EL (similar to Study 1).

These open-ended questions inquired into the four processes (suppressing emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading and managing emotions of others) through which EL is expressed.

In addition, players’ rated how emotionally challenging (see Appendix B) it was to follow the International Cricket Council (ICC) and Cricket Australia (CA) players’ code of conduct (modified from Study 1). Similar to Study 1, the word EL was not mentioned in the booklet due to the possible negative connotations associated with emotions and labour.

Participants were provided with self-addressed envelopes to ensure the completed questionnaires were returned without delay.

The ELS instrument was developed specifically to measure EL (Brotheridge and

Lee, 2003), and it is also one of the most frequently used EL inventories. The ELS (see

Table 6) consists of 15 questions measuring six facets of emotional displays in the workplace. These components include duration (one item), frequency (three items), intensity (two items), variety (three items), surface acting (three items), and deep acting

(three items). Duration refers to the length of an interaction, frequency refers to how often the interactions occur, intensity is the strength of the emotion experienced, and variety is the range of emotional displays required during interactions with customers (Brotheridge &

Table 6

Items Comprising the Emotional Labor Scale (ELS)

Item Item Content

Duration 1. A typical interaction I have with a customer takes about _ minutes. Frequency 2. Display specific emotions required by your job. 5. Adopt certain emotions required as part of your job. 7. Express particular emotions needed for your job. Intensity 3. Show some strong emotions. 9. Express intense emotions. Variety 6. Display many different kinds of emotions. 11. Express many different emotions. 13. Display many different emotions when interacting with others. Surface acting 8. Hid my true feelings about a situation. 12. Resist expressing my true feelings. 14. Pretend to have emotions that I don't really have. Deep acting 4. Make an effort to actually feel the emotions that I need to display to others. 10. Really try to feel the emotions I have to show as part of my job. 15. Try to actually experience the emotions that I must show.

Lee, 2003; Morris & Feldman, 1996, 1997). Surface acting refers to faking or masking a genuine emotion, and deep acting involves aligning feelings to bring about the required emotional display (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003). Participants respond to items on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (“never”) to 5 (“always”). Whilst this scale was suitable for use with the organisational personnel, the wording needed minor modifications for use with professional sportspersons, such as cricketers. For example, one of the original ELS question was: Have interactions with ‘customers’ which takes about 5-10 minutes. The 74 word ‘customers’ was replaced by ‘others’ and in brackets a few examples were provided to make the statement applicable to the sport setting, hence the modified statement read:

Have interactions with ‘others’ (e.g., public, coach, players, media) which take about 5-10 minutes. While only a few words were modified, precautions were taken not to change the meaning of the statements.

The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Table 7) is a 16-item measure of three aspects of burnout. These include Professional Efficacy (six items), Exhaustion (five items), and

Cynicism (five items). Exhaustion (Ex) refers to fatigue resulting from work. Cynicism

(Cy) refers to indifference or a distant attitude towards work. Professional Efficacy (PE) refers to accomplishments and expectations at work (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996). All responses were made on 7-point scale ranging from 1 (“never”) to 7 (“everyday”). Again this scale was suitable for use with the administrators and coaches, the wording needed minor adaptation for use with professional sportspersons, such as cricketers. For example, one of the original MBI question was: I feel emotionally drained from ‘my work’. The words ‘my work’ was replaced by ‘cricket’ to make the statement applicable to the sport setting, hence the modified statement read: I feel emotionally drained from cricket. Table 6 and 7 provide the items and item content for both these questionnaires.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was undertaken by the same individual who conducted the interviews

and focus group discussions. Quantitative data was analysed by combining the

responses of the two groups (players and organisational personnel) together. Qualitative

data analysis was conducted separately for the two groups.

Table 7 Items Comprising The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)

Item Item Content

Exhaustion 1. I feel emotionally drained from my work. 2. I feel used up at the end of the workday. 3. I feel tired when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job. 4. Working all day is really a strain for me. 6. I feel burned out from my work. Cynicism 8. I have become less interested in my work since I started this job. 9. I have become less enthusiastic about my work. 13. I just want to do my job and not be bothered. 14. I have become more cynical about whether my work contributes anything. 15. I doubt the significance of my work. Personal Efficacy 5. I can effectively solve the problems that arise in my work. 7. I feel I am making an effective contribution to what this organisation does. 10. In my opinion, I am good at my job. 11. I feel exhilarated when I accomplish something at work. 12. I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job. 16. At my work, I feel confident that I am effective at getting things done.

Whilst, the players were retained as one group, organisational personnel were further divided into:

(i) Direct Management Coaching Group,

(i) Direct Management Support Group, and

(iii) Indirect Management Group

This differentiation was considered essential while analysing the data due to the vast difference in the job roles and emotional demands of these organisational personnel. In fact, the results of Study 1 showed organisational personnel can be divided into the direct management group and the indirect management group based on the level of involvement and frequency of player interaction. However, while analysing the data it was observed that even within the direct management group there were noticeable differences in the responses of participants. More specifically, the physiotherapist and doctors are support staff catering to the needs of professional players. On the other hand, coaches, fitness coordinators and coaching managers are directly involved in producing a competitive team. Due to the inherent difference of their job roles, the emotional demands varied significantly. Hence, the direct management group was further divided into the support group constituting of the physiotherapist and doctors, and the coaching group that constituted of coaches, coaching managers and fitness coordinators. The indirect management group comprised of chief executive officers (CEO’s), team selectors, managers of team operations, club cricket managers, sponsorship coordinators, finance managers, and a curator. There was not much variation in the responses of the indirect management group; hence no further grouping was required.

Interview transcripts were formatted for analysis in the QSR N5 (2000) computer software package. [QSR N5 (2000) is the fifth version of the Non-numerical Unstructured

Data Indexing, Searching and Theorizing (NUD*IST) software for qualitative data analysis]. Data were analysed using a combination of inductive and deductive processes

(Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis, & Sparkes, 2001). This was similar to the content analysis of Study 1. More specifically, data extraction involved the clustering of quotes with common underlying themes within each EL process, which were subsequently developed into raw data themes. Also, this clustering of quotes involved comparing and 77 contrasting each quote with the remaining quotes (within each EL process) to identify and bring together quotes with similar meanings. The same clustering process was used to identify emergent higher-order themes (Scanlan, Stein & Ravizza, 1989). The final higher- order themes were then categorised under post-hoc dimensions, which were influenced by the emergent themes and the post-hoc dimensions of Study 1. Also, these post-hoc dimensions were chosen after the emergence of the final higher-order themes (e.g., Hanton et al., 2005).

Results and Discussion

The qualitative data analysis procedures represent the qualitative responses for the four groups:

(i) Players Group,

(ii) Direct Management Support Group (DMSG),

(iii) Direct Management Coaching Group (DMCG), and

(iv) Indirect Management Group (IDMG)

Consequently, the findings are presented using a combination of content trees from the data to enable better understanding of the concept being investigated. Results are presented in three sections: 1

Part A consists of results pertaining to professional cricketers,

Part B consists of the organisational personnel results, and

Part C (Players and Organisational Personnel responses) to examine the EL-Burnout

relationship.

1 Part A and B are qualitative; whereas Part C is quantitative

Furthermore, for all the four groups the results and discussion are presented in two sections (see Figure 13). The first section deals with the management of emotions from an

EL perspective. The second section discusses perceived demands that players and organisational personnel believed resulted in perceptions of EL. Quantitative analyses of data collected from these participants occurred in three stages: (a) descriptive analyses, (b) correlational analyses, and (c) canonical correlation analyses. 79

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

A1. ME

Part A (Players) A2. PED

BIi. ME

RESULTS I. DMSG BIii. PED

& DISCUSSION Part B (Org. Personnel)

BIIi. ME II. DMCG BIIii. PED

III. IDMG BIIIi. ME

BIIIii. PED

Part C (Players & Org. Personnel)

Figure 13. An Overview of the Results and Discussion

Note. ME = Management of Emotions, PED = Perceived Emotional Demands DMSG = Direct Management Support Group, DMCG = Direct Management Support Group, IDMG = Indirect Management Group.

Part A. Findings Pertaining to Professional Cricketers

Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

In line with Study 1, the findings from this study indicated that players engaged most often in ‘reading emotions of others’ followed by ‘managing emotions of others,’

‘suppressing emotions,’ and lastly, ‘expressing unfelt emotions.’ The three post-hoc dimensions for performing EL that emerged from the results were: organisational factors, performance-related factors and indirect cricket-related aspects (i.e., media). While the first two dimensions are in line with the results of Study 1, the third dimension emerged from this Study (i.e., Study 2). In order to avoid repetitiveness and exhaustiveness, the themes cited within each higher-order theme (for all the four processes) are brought together and explained in greater detail while discussing the post-hoc dimensions (after the results are presented for these four processes). Furthermore, career concerns, individual goals, team goals and organisational obligations were identified as the basis for performing EL in the first study. In addition to these reasons, image management emerged as an important factor in performing EL.

Hochschild’s (1979, 1983) processes for expressing EL are outlined in Table 8.

‘Reading emotions of others’ involved meetings with selectors, sponsor meetings, contract negotiations and team meetings (Figure 14). Since these meetings play a crucial part in the athletes’ career, it could explain why the mean value for ‘reading emotions of others’ was higher than the other three criteria. The two post-hoc dimensions emerging for this process was performance-related and organisational factors. The higher order dimensions within performance-related were coaching and team-related. The higher order dimensions within performance-related were selection and contract-related. Cautiousness and better understanding of the situation in order to achieve personal and team goals were the reasons 82

Table 8

Mean Rating Frequency of Specific EL Processes by Players

EL Processes Mean

1. Reading emotions of others 3.51

2. Managing emotions of others 3.23

3. Suppressing emotions 3.07

4. Expressing unfelt emotions 2.63

Group Mean 3.11

Note. 1= never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often and 5 = always

mentioned for ‘reading emotions of others’. Disappointment, annoyance, frustration and anger were emotions players regularly ‘read’ (N = 28) during interactions with others.

Body language, communication and analysis of the situation were the ways in which athletes coped in dealing with this process.

The second most frequently performed process was ‘managing emotions of others.’

Figure 15 illustrates situations dealing with ‘managing emotions of others.’ They included managing uptight players, club cricket matches, and pre-season and off-season training.

Emotions were managed mainly due to organisational expectations. Performance-related factors emerged as the only post-hoc dimension for this process. The three higher-order themes within this dimension were team environment, competition setting and training environment. Team goals evolved as the main reason provided by players for ‘managing the emotions of others’. Reinforcing positives, providing support, changing strategy and 83

Situations

Discussions pertaining to game reviews Coaching Meetings regarding progress Reviews following poor performance Performance- Tackle teammates after a conflict of players related Gauge captain’s mood As a Captain Team-related As a 12th man Team meetings

Selection meetings Meetings subsequent to deselection Selection

Organisational

Contract negotiations Contract-related Sponsor meetings

Reasons Right time to approach coach and Captain Effect on coach/ Captain/authority Individual Understand Coach/selectors personal views Goals Read between lines

Keep the team together Team Perspective

Coping Observe body language Communicate Analyse after discussion Listen carefully during conversation, especially between the lines

Specific Emotions requiring “Reading Emotions of Others” Disappointed 18 Interested 8 Confident 6 Afraid 3 Annoyed 17 Discouraged 8 Satisfied 5 Thrilled 3 Frustrated 15 Nervous 8 Pleased 5 Tired 3 Angry 14 Helpless 7 Delighted 5 Bored 3 Concerned 11 Doubtful 6 Unmotivated 5 Energetic 2 Unhappy 10 Happy 6 Excited 5 Motivated 2 Anxious 10 Calm 6 Determined 4 Enthusiastic 2

Figure 14. “Reading Emotions of Others” (Players)

Situations

Deal with extremely emotional players Team Uptight players Environment

Tough games Bad situations Competition Performance- Crucial games situations related Club cricket

Early morning training Pre-season training Training Off-season training Environment

Reasons

Team perspective Team Perspective Enhance performance of team Team Goals As a Captain Role expectancies

Coping

Reinforce positives Involve in fun activity Provide support Change strategy Light hearted approach Take minds of cricket Be a role model Inform expected behaviour

Specific Emotions requiring “Managing Emotions of Others”

Nervous 21 Annoyed 11 Discouraged 8 Happy 5 Anxious 18 Concerned 10 Angry 8 Bored 5 Doubtful 15 Motivated 10 Energetic 8 Calm 4 Frustrated 12 Confident 10 Unhappy 7 Interested 4 Unmotivated 12 Determined 10 Thrilled 7 Satisfied 2 Disappointed 11 Excited 9 Helpless 7 Delighted 1 Afraid 11 Tired 9 Enthusiastic 6 Pleased 1

Figure 15. “Managing Emotions of Others” (Players)

85 setting examples were the strategies mentioned for coping with this process. Emotions of others that were most often ‘managed’ (N = 28) were nervousness, anxiousness, doubt and frustration.

‘Suppressing emotions’ (the third most frequently performed process) usually involved situations wherein selection issues were discussed, media interviews and discussions with higher authorities. As illustrated in Figure 16, career concerns, image management, organisational expectations and team issues were the main reasons cited for suppressing genuine emotions. The three post-hoc dimensions emerging for this process were: organisational, performance-related, and indirectly cricket-related factors. As evident in the Figure, themes within organisational-related factors are much more than those within performance-related factors. The higher-order dimensions within organisational factors included selection, finance, rules, role expectancies and other factors.

Coaching and competitive environment were the higher order themes within performance- related factors. Media was the only higher-order theme within the post-doc dimension of indirect-related factors. Career concerns, image management, situational factors, organisational rules and team perspectives were the main reasons provided by professional cricketers for suppressing emotions. The most frequently ‘suppressed emotions’ (N= 22) are also illustrated in the same figure. Frustration, anger, annoyance and disappointment were the most frequent emotions ‘suppressed.’

Situations

Selection meetings Inadequate explanation provided at meetings regarding deselection Selection Face to face contact with selectors after delayed information regarding deselection

Discuss selection issues with selectors Communicate with selectors after deselection When informed of deselection

Perceived displeasure regarding financial Finances aspects Organisational

Restriction on voicing opinion on important Rules matters

Interactions with teammates competing for the same position Role expectancies

Perceived unnecessary comments on social habits by authority figures Others

Disagree with coach’s game plan Review meetings and debriefing sessions Coaching Discussions at end of season reviews Discussion regarding individual or team issues Performance- during coaching staff meetings related

Verbally abused by opposition Competition Perceived unjust umpiring decisions Tribunal hearing environment

Media interviews pertaining to selection issues Enquiries regarding opposition and match Media Indirect situations Cricket-related Media interviews subsequent to bad games

Figure 16. “Suppressing Genuine Emotions” (Players)

Reasons

Avoid conflict with authority Career Maintain relationship with administrators Inadequate opportunity provided before Concerns

deselection

Maintain image Image Perceived notion that displaying emotions is Management considered a sign of weakness

Organisational rules Organisational Implicit codes Contractual agreements

Inappropriate time Situational Non-outcome situations Stay focused and concentrate on the game

Avoid conflict with team members Team Perspective

Coping

Spending time with family Talking to friends outside cricket Support network

Self-talk Self-management strategies Strategies Positive approach/challenge Focus on task

Positives in the situation Bear future in mind

Avoid argument/confrontation Take politically correct route/action Listen carefully Alternative Take action- clarify issue with higher approaches authority Remove self from situation

Specific Emotions requiring “Suppressing Emotions”

Frustrated 31 Discouraged 9 Helpless 3 Calm 1 Angry 30 Concerned 7 Thrilled 3 Tired 1 Annoyed 28 Anxious 4 Unmotivated 2 Excited 1 Disappointed 25 Doubtful 4 Motivated 2 Bored 1 Unhappy 13 Determined 3 Confident 2 Nervous 1 Pleased 2 Energetic 1 Figure 16 (cont’d.). “Suppressing Genuine Emotions” (Players) 88

On closer examination, it was observed that most ‘suppressed’ emotions were negative, such as frustration, anger, and disappointment. Suppressing negative feelings over a period of time can lead not only to EL but also could affect health and other life spheres

(e.g., home, work other than cricket) (Grandey, 2000; Brotheridge & Lee, 2002).

‘Suppressing genuine emotions’ appears to be more difficult than ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ or reading emotions of others. Coping strategies included reappraisal, focus, support network, and self- management strategies such as self-talk.

Selection meetings, media interviews and training sessions were examples given by professional cricketers for ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ (Figure 17). Organisational, performance-related and indirect cricket-related factors were the three post-hoc dimensions within this process. Aspects related to selection, and the team were the higher- order themes within organisational-related factors. Training environment, competition setting, issues related to self and team were the four higher-order themes within performance-related factors. Media-related aspects was the only higher order theme emerging for indirect-cricket related demands. Furthermore, team issues, image management and organisational expectations were the main reasons for ‘expressing unfelt emotions’. Most ‘unfelt emotions expressed’ (N = 18) were positive emotions such as appearing enthusiastic and upbeat during training. Expression to a large extent would involve surface acting, which might not be as effective as deep acting. Surface acting may lead to emotional dissonance due to the discrepancy between the displayed emotion and what is actually experienced (Zerbe, 2002). Brotheridge and Lee (2003) further contended that this could lead to emotional strain and detachment from others. Consequently, surface acting could be detrimental to the player and the organisation.

Situations

When informed of deselection before being Selection provided an opportunity to play Perceived unfairness in selection Organisational Expected positivism regarding blood testing Role Emphasis on sponsor matches Expectancies

Enthusiasm during fitness and fielding sessions Early morning training Training Motivated during pre-season training Environment

Motivated and happy during four-day games Competition Display strength particularly when the game Setting is against you Performance- related

Dealing with one’s bad form Self

Disagree with teammates Team

Questions pertaining to team loss Media Indirect cricket-

Interviews wherein questions are repeated related time and again

Reasons

Role model Create a good impression Image Management Avoid being criticized Professional attitude

Organisational expected behaviour Organisational Authority approval commitments Do the right thing

Encourage team Team Not to pull team with negativitism perspective

Figure 17. “Expressing Unfelt Emotions” (Players)

Coping

Positive approach/outlook Philosophical perspective Focus on the present/total involvement Strategies Self-talk Positive body language Motivate self Redefine benefit

Avoid criticizing unwanted task Blend in with the group Alternative Alter feelings-deep acting approaches F Acted/faked Bottle up feelings

Specific Emotions requiring “Expressing Unfelt Emotions”

Energetic 24 Interested 10 Calm 3 Satisfied 2 Motivated 20 Confident 9 Pleased 3 Anxious 1 Enthusiastic 19 Determined 9 Thrilled 2 Frustrated 1 Happy 16 Calm 6 Disappointed 2 Annoyed 1 Excited 11 Determined 4 Delighted 1 Unhappy 1

Figure 17 (cont’d.). “Expressing Unfelt Emotions” (Players)

This section revealed that players performed EL through its four processes, which are reading emotions of others, managing emotions, suppressing emotions and expressing unfelt emotions. The three post-hoc dimensions that emerged from the results were:

Performance-related factors, organisational factors, and indirectly cricket-related (media).

While, the first two factors are in line with the findings of Study 1, the final dimension emerged from this study. The reader is reminded that the Study 2 employed the same open- ended questions to elicit information from a larger sample (first class cricketers from

Australia), and hence may find some of the themes repetitive or similar to Study 1.

Performance-related Factors

Performance–related factors are those that directly influence players performance, and hence included training and competition elements (Table 9).

Table 9

Performance- related Factors for Performing EL (Players)

Coaching Discussions pertaining to game reviews Meetings regarding progress Reviews following poor performance Disagree with coach’s game plan Review meetings and debriefing sessions Discussions at end of season reviews Discussion regarding individual or team issues during coaching staff meetings

Team-related Tackle teammates after a conflict of players Gauge captain’s mood As a Captain As a 12th man Team meetings Deal with extremely emotional players Uptight players

Competitive situations Tough games Bad situations Crucial games Club cricket Verbally abused by opposition Perceived unjust umpiring decisions Tribunal hearing

Training Environment Early morning training Pre-season training Off-season training

These included higher order themes such as coaching, team-related aspects, and training and competition environment. Coaching included discussions with coach regarding game reviews, reviews after poor performance, and discussing individual and team issues. Coach and coaching issues are of particular relevance to players as it is vital for their performance. 92

These results are in concordance to those of Study 1 and also to that of Hanton et al. (2005) revealing the importance of an effective coach-athlete relationship (Greenleaf, Gould, &

Dieffenbach, 2001). Team-related aspects involved tackling teammates after a conflict of players, gauging Captain’s mood, managing players as a Captain, dealing with uptight, and extremely uptight players. This could involve a substantial amount of physical and emotional resources; yet, it is essential in order to ensure players reach the best playing state. Dealing with team aspects could be especially tough during crucial game situations.

These findings are in line with those of Study 1, and also with that of Woodman and Hardy

(2001) as well as Fletcher and Hanton (2003).

Training environment mainly included showing enthusiasm during early morning training, pre-season and off-season training. While, this may not appear to be extremely emotionally challenging, professional players would still need to appear enthusiastic and motivate for themselves and the team, as evident in the following quote: “Had to appear motivated during pre-season training because I did not want to pull the team down by my negativism . . . Tried hard to focus on the positives of the situation . . . whistled and tried to cheer myself”. Also, appearing happy and motivated could require much more effort when the player or team was not performing well. However, a good team atmosphere could promote positivity in the team, highlighting the link between these aspects (Fletcher &

Hanton, 2003c; Howes, Cropanzano, Grandey & Mohler, 2000).

Competition environment consisted of staying positive in tough games, bad or hopeless situations, dealing with verbal abuses from opposition team members, and dealing with perceived unfair umpiring decisions. The range of situations within a competition setting draws light on the numerous physical and emotional challenges professional players encounter during competitive situations. Fletcher & Hanton, (2003c) suggested that competition environment and opponents could be a source of strain to performers. 93

Regulating emotions during crucial and hopeless situations would require the expenditure of more emotional resources.

Organisational Factors

Organisational factors are those relating to job roles, organisational rules (both implicit and explicit). These included such as selection, contract and finance related aspects, role expectancies, and off-field restrictions (see Table 10). Each of these is discussed below. Selection-related aspects involved meetings with selectors after deselection, deselected without proper explanation and similar themes. This involved suppressing anger and frustration while dealing with this aspect. Similar to Study 1, selection issues evolved as particularly sensitive to professional cricketers, indicating the potential for EL due to this context. This finding is not surprising considering the highly competitive nature of professional cricket (Woodman & Hardy, 2001). Contract and finance related aspects also appeared to cause reasonable degree of stress and expenditure of emotional resources. This is because professional cricket follows a contract system depending on players’ performance. This contract could vary from one year to three years depending on the player’s age, experience and performance level. Role expectancies may be defined the specific role a player needs to perform being a member of the group or team he belongs to. The only theme cited within this dimension was ‘interacting with teammates competing for the same position’. Interacting and maintaining good relationship with players is essential in a team environment for performance and organisational rules, even if it against a player who is competing for the same position. This would certainly involve suppressing and expressing unfelt emotions to a certain degree.

Table 10

Organisational Factors for Performing EL (Players)

Selection-related Selection meetings Inadequate explanation provided at meetings regarding deselection Face to face contact with selectors after delayed information regarding deselection Discuss selection issues with selectors Communicate with selectors after deselection When informed of deselection before being provided an opportunity to play Perceived unfairness in selection

Contract and finance related Contract negotiations Sponsor meetings Perceived displeasure regarding financial aspects

Role Expectancies Interactions with teammates competing for the same position

Off-field Perceived unnecessary comments on social habits by authority figures

The only theme cited within Off-field restrictions ‘perceived unnecessary comments on social habits by authority figures’. This demonstrates the access of the organisation to player’s personal life, and when players perceive certain comments as unnecessary, it could make emotional regulation harder but players will need to bear it due to career concerns.

The only higher-order theme within the post-hoc dimension of indirect cricket- related aspects was media issues. These included media interviews pertaining to selection issues, match situations and opposition. They also involved interviews pertaining to team loss and poor performances. Players are required to appear gentlemanlike in all situations, and especially during media interviews. This is especially important for players image management as well because cricket spectators all over react to these interviews, hence irrespective of their feelings, professional players will need to put up a façade of 95 sportsmanship. And as addressed by many players, regulating emotions and staying in control is a lot more difficult while dealing with a player’s or teams poor performance.

Results indicate that there clearly appears to be an overlap between organisational- related and performance-related post-hoc dimensions. For example, coaching which emerged as a higher-order theme within performance-related factors could also fall within organisational factors. This overlap is because players regulate their emotions not just for performance related reasons but also to ensure their future playing career or organisational reasons. These results suggest that sports professionals working with professional athletes should pay attention to the organisational factors and indirect sports related factors that could affect performance. This is line with the findings of Fletcher and Hanton (2003).

Fletcher and Hanton (2003) identified environmental issues, personal issues, leadership issues and team issues as the main sources of organisational stress in elite sport performers.

They suggested that elite performers encounter a broad range of organisational stressors.

However, organisations are not always aware of these issues or, in many instances, pretend to be oblivious towards these problems. Competing at an elite-level requires athletes to deal with a large number of stressors, which are principally connected to their appraisal of the functioning of the sport organisation within which they are operating (Fletcher & Hanton,

2001). These findings also find some support to those of Woodman and Hardy’s (2001) case study. They identified selection, training environment, finances, nutrition, goals and expectations, coaches and coaching styles, team atmosphere, roles, support, network and communication as the main sources of organisational stress. Players also found a number of

ICC rules difficult to adhere to.

In addition, individual goals, team perspective, role expectancies, career concerns, image management, organisational rules and situational factors were the main factors identified for performing EL. These results find some support to previous research 96

(Ashkanasy, Zerbe & Hartel, 2002; Morris and Feldman, 1997) which state that a large number of factors influence EL.

Players coping methods mainly included reappraisal, establishing a support network and changing the plan of action. It also included antecedent-focused methods (deep acting) such as attentional deployment (light hearted approach, whistled), and cognitive change

(redefine benefit, focus on positives etc). However, it also included response-focused emotional regulation (surface acting) such as grin, fake it etc. Also, from these results it is difficult to determine when players employ surface or deep acting.

The importance of support network was addressed by some of the participants in the qualitative responses. The following quotes suggest the importance of support-networks, especially outside cricket.

I go home and talk to someone close to you about it. It would be pretty difficult not to have someone to talk to.

That is why I have mates outside cricket and I think that is important. When I went to Melboune and if you feel down about something and you can’t talk to anyone in the team because you don’t want to drag them as they are part of your team. I do have close mates in cricket, you have a beer and ***** about it but you try and not do it often.

Consequences of Performing EL

An examination of the emotional challenges faced by elite cricketers revealed that,

‘suppressing, managing and reading emotions of others’ (the three criteria for expressing

EL), dealt mostly with negative emotions such as frustration, anger, and disappointment.

Research has revealed that emotions and the management of negative emotions are significantly associated with a variety of health problems such as cancer, high blood pressure and heart disease (Blackburn, 1965; Gross 1989; Gross, 1998; King & Emmons,

1990; Pennebaker, 1990; Smith, 1992). In fact, the inability to express negative emotion 97 has been identified as one of the strongest predictors of cancer (Cox & McCay, 1982;

Derogatis, Abeloff, & Melisaratos, 1979).

Research also has revealed that suppressed negative feelings can leak out (Ekman,

1992). Hence, breaking character, which is when an employee reacts in a manner inappropriate to the organisation (e.g., expressing negative moods or reactions to customers) (Bailey & McCollough, 2000), is more likely to happen during surface acting.

Good examples to explain the above-mentioned phenomenon of surface acting and breaking character in cricket were in the following instances:

a. Essendon captain Hird criticising an umpire (ABC sport, April 8, 2004) and

b. When the Australian cricketer, Gilchrist, was found guilty of dissent over an

umpiring issue (Cricinfo, February 27, 2004).

Hochschild (1983) proposed that EL could potentially result in estrangement between self and work role, emotional exhaustion, emotional dissonance and burnout.

Performing EL either through suppression, expression, reading or managing emotions in cricket thus is exigent, especially on a regular basis.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC codes.

Mean scores of players dealing with International Cricket Council (ICC) and

Cricket Australia (CA) players’ codes of conduct are represented in Table 11. However, descriptive statistics showed ‘In-house team codes’ as the code with the highest mean value of 2.49. This indicated that it was quite emotionally demanding to follow this code when compared with the other codes. The qualitative responses revealed that it was emotionally 98

Table 11

Mean scores for ICC and CA Players’ Codes of Conduct

No. Codes Mean

1. In-house team codes 2.49

2. Offences 2.05

3. Detrimental public comment 2.05

4. Off-field codes 2.00

5. Penalties 1.58

6. Anti-harassment 1.53

7. Racial & religious vilification code 1.34

8. Anti-doping policy 1.27

9. Betting, match-fixing & corruption 1.11

Group Mean 1.71

Note. 1= never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often and 5 = always

demanding to adhere to most of the other codes as well. ‘In-house team codes’ included items which were implicit, wherein the meaning is inferred but not stated. In order to perform implicit codes, players frequently pick up cues from co-players or other staff, which could be misleading or ambiguous. Qualitative responses also revealed that it was more difficult to deal with implicit codes.

Table 12 illustrates the reasons provided by players as to why they found certain codes difficult to adhere to. Management’s access to players’ lives and being fined by the team for trivialities were some issues mentioned under ‘In-house team codes’. 99

Table 12 Perceived difficulty in abiding to the ICC codes (Players)

1. In-house Team Codes Non-accountability of umpires Fined by the team for trivialities Management’s access to players’ personal lives

2. Offences i. Abuse cricket equipment Angry at getting out Want to release frustration Difficult not to be angry with yourself when you get out ii. Umpire’s decisions Perceived incorrect umpiring decisions Consecutive mistakes by umpires Frustrated when given out by the umpire Difficult not to be angry when you get out

3. Detrimental Public Comment Cautiousness regarding controversial issues Unable to give honest comments on umpires, opposition, and administration Expected to act like robots Cannot be honest with public

4. Off-field Codes Restrictions on private life No privacy off the field Dealing with media at all times On-show to the public

5. Penalties Inconsistency regarding rules Penalties due to umpiring issues Difficult for emotional players to control emotions Inconsistent code

6. Anti-harassment Policy Encounter unruly crowd

7. Racial and Religious Vilification Code The code is uneven Lop sided code

8. Anti-doping Policy Social drugs offered by peers Unsure of drugs permitted and non-permitted Restriction on taking essential drugs/medicines Perceived inappropriate time of testing Discrepancy in rules Unwarranted code

9. Betting, Match-fixing and Corruption Betting should be involved Betting should be ok if we are not playing in the game

100

Issues dealing with ‘Offences’ revealed that players are not provided with an adequate avenue in order to vent emotions appropriately, especially negative emotions such as disappointment or anger. Bottling up emotions over an extended period eventually leads to emotional leakage (Grandey, 2003) and results in frustration. This then results in showing dissent at umpires and opposition players, and abuse of cricket equipment. As a consequence, this indicates that umpires could be performing EL to a substantial extent when interacting with such frustrated players. Hence, further study is recommended to assess the EL encountered by umpires in professional sport. ‘Off-field codes’ and

‘Detrimental public comment’ codes disclose the constant scrutiny endured by professional players on a daily basis, and also the enormous strain experienced due to restrictions on voicing opinion regarding topical problems. This could, in turn, then lead to frustration due to lack of autonomy in addressing core issues as suggested by Grandey and Brauburger

(2002). ‘Penalties, anti-harassment, the racial and religious vilification code, and ‘anti- doping policy’ were found to be emotionally demanding because players reported that the codes were not clear.

Moreover, ‘image management and work-life balance’ were aspects that evolved from the focus group discussions in Study 1 as particularly demanding to players, hence it was added in this study questionnaire. As seen in Table 13a, they are consequential in dealing with the emotional demands of being a professional player. Dealing with career anxiety, job security (non-cricket), time management and disruptions to family routines were the main concerns provided in dealing with the demands of ‘Work-life balance’.

Therefore, ‘Work-life balance’ demands are difficult to manage as it had repercussions on all aspects of the players’ lives (Table 13b). As illustrated in the Table, media issues, selection issues, handling mixed emotions and maintaining idealistic image of sportsmen

101

Table 13a

Mean scores of players dealing with Work-life Balance and Image Management

1. Work-life balance 2.91

2. Image management 2.57

Mean 2.74

Note. 1= never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often and 5 = always

were the main concerns in dealing with Image Management. Another important theme that emerged from the data was the lack of emotional support provided to elite players when dealing with an emotional game like cricket, by the organisation especially when injured or deselected.

In line with the findings of Study 1, further evidence evolved for the difficulty in adhering to some of the ICC codes. In particular, players found in-house team codes, offences, and detrimental public code more emotionally demanding to adhere to.

Furthermore, dealing with work-life balance and image management emerged as particularly stressful to professional players. This suggests that the more time and energy players devote to one role (cricket career); it means less time for the other role (family)

(Dixon, Bruening, Mazerolle, & Davis, 2006). These results also find some support to

Wharton and Erickson’s propositions (1993) that high emotional regulation in work

(cricket) may cause work-family conflict.

102

Table 13b

Perceived difficulty regarding Work-life Balance and Image Management (Players)

1. Work-life Balance i. Career anxiety Constant scrutiny Missing training due to job commitments Whether to move interstate or not for better opportunities to play Injury concerns ii. Job security Concerns due to yearly contracts No back up apart from cricket No security of playing iii. Assessing life goals and personal values Life after cricket Consider alternative choices Lack of time to enjoy the game per se iv. Disruptions to family routines Long-distance relationships when away from partner while playing cricket Break-ups with partners due to cricket commitments Social dinners cut down on family time Relationship killer v. Time management No spare time Juggling between cricket, job and family Too much traveling associated with cricket No social life

2. Image Management i. Constant evaluation (selectors & public) Constant evaluation and scrutiny by selectors and public. Selection concerns Seniority responsibilities ii. Idealistic image of sports people Living up to the expectations of family and friends Put on a brave face Idealistic sports person Public expectations iii. Handling mixed emotions Managing emotions when team has done well but not a player or vice-versa iv. Dealing with the media Misrepresentation of facts by the media

103

Part B. Findings Pertaining to Organisational Personnel

The descriptive data of the three groups (i.e., direct management support group, direct management coaching group, and indirect management group) were combined to determine which EL processes organisational personnel engaged in the most and to what extent. Similar to the results of Study 1, organisational personnel engaged most often in

‘reading emotions of others’ followed by ‘managing emotions of others,’ ‘suppressing emotions’ and lastly ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ (Table 14). These results identically resemble those of the players (Table 8). The subsequent sections describes each of these individual processes for the various groups of organisational personnel in greater detail.

The general post-hoc dimensions for performing EL that emerged from the results were: athlete-related, organisational, media-related, and client-related factors. Athlete-related factors are concerns and issues directly related to the players. Organisational factors are those relating to job roles and organisational rules and can be both implicit and explicit in nature. Media-related factors were matters corresponding to the media, whereas client- related factors are those related to the sponsorship agents and other clients of the organisation. Similar to player results, the themes cited within each higher-order theme (for all the four processes) are brought together and explained in greater detail while discussing the post-hoc dimensions (after the results are presented for these four processes).

104

Table 14

Mean Rating Frequency of Specific EL Processes by Organisational Personnel

Emotions Mean

1. Reading emotions of others 3.89

2. Managing emotions of others 3.31

3. Suppressing emotions 3.18

4. Expressing unfelt emotions 2.67

Group Mean 3.26

BI. Direct Management Support Group

BIi. Management of Emotions As previously stated, the direct management support group constituted of the team physiotherapist and the team doctor. Figure 18 shows the situations in which these individuals involve in regulating emotions and performing EL. The reasons and coping mechanisms provided for performing the four EL processes were alike and hence, it was deemed appropriate to bring it in one section, and thereby avoid repetition. Athlete-related factors and organisational factors were the two post-hoc dimensions within this process.

As shown in Figure 18, instances cited by this group of organisational personnel for

‘reading emotions of others’ involved interactions with the players, captain, coach, and selectors relating to player injury, diagnosis and management. Themes cited within Athlete- related factors were injury diagnosis and prognosis of players, predicting players’ return (to play) from injury and being mindful to players’ reaction about injury. The only theme cited within organisational factors included informing coach and selectors about players’ injury.

105

Reading Emotions of Others

Injury diagnosis and prognosis Predicting players return from injury Athlete-related Prognosis of injuries to players at crucial times Mindful of player’s reaction to injury Uncertainty regarding players’ injury

Informing coach and selectors about diagnosis and Organisational prognosis of players

Managing Emotions of Others

Inappropriate emotional and injury management Dealing with unrealistically motivated players Players covering injury

Players keen to play with injury Athlete-related Dealing with players with long-term injury Players disinterested in injury rehabilitation Long-term injury rehabilitation

Suppressing Emotions

Players challenging and unheeding advice High expectations of availability by players

Discussions regarding whether a player can play the next match Anxiety when treating high-profile players Players understating injury Athlete-related Late night treatment sessions Captain challenging withdrawal of key players from competition Players injured due to poor fitness preparation

Selector informed player medical reasons (untrue) for Organisational deselection

Expressing Unfelt Emotions

Appearing empathetic to players who are not fully injured Players ‘breaking down’ with injury during Athlete-related competition Players disinterested in exercise Player heeded advice from another doctor that prolonged injury Figure 18. Situations for all the four EL processes by Direct Management Support Staff (doctors and physiotherapists)

106

The following quote illustrates how support group organisational personnel engage in

‘reading the emotions of others.’

Explanation to selectors regarding length of time an injury may keep player from competing. Careful explanation . . . Details to avoid anger towards player who had not followed previous medical advice . . . To prevent anger from selectors and coach towards player which may have had ongoing negative consequences in terms of medical rehabilitation and future selection.

‘Managing emotions of others’ was the second most frequently cited process.

Athlete-related factors were the only post-hoc dimension within this process. This EL process occurs in a wide array of situations such as when dealing with unrealistically motivated players, educating players keen to play with an injury, motivating players to follow rehabilitation for a long-term benefit of the player. The following quote exemplified the manner in which these individuals are involved in managing the emotions of others.

Limiting a player’s access to multiple opinions on an injury where such opinions would only cause confusion. Some players will doctor shop until they hear the response they want. This causes disruption to my relationship with them and other team members . . . Hold discussions with the player explaining the reasons for my approach.

‘Suppressing emotions’, which is the third EL process, usually involved discussions with players and the coach regarding player’s injury and their return to the playing field.

The two post-hoc dimensions were athlete-related and organisational factors. Themes within athlete-related factors were: situations dealing with players challenging advice, high expectations of players’ demands, anxiety while treating high-profile players, and motivating high-profile players in group exercise. The only theme cited within organisational factors was suppressing anger when selector informed player of untrue medical reasons for deselection. 107

Even though suppressing emotions is the third most often performed EL process, similar to the results obtained in the Study 1 the instances provided were much higher than the other EL processes. The following quotes demonstrate the effort required to suppress genuine emotions:

Long hot day at cricket. A player from the batting team required attention at 1900 [7 p.m.] just as I was leaving the ground, which took around 30 minutes to manage. He should have approached much earlier during the day for better management of my time and more time to deal appropriately with his problem . . . Frustration at player’s demanding thoughtless act. Anger at being late for a scheduled engagement. Disappointed at players action . . . Tried to be calm, positive and professional.

Warn player that taking a course of action would probably be inferior and having advice ignored and injury worsened. Avoid display of anger and ‘I told you so’ reaction and thereby poisoning clinical relationship. Recognise common good is achieved by not castigating, chastising etc and perhaps improving things in the future.

‘Expressing unfelt emotions’ (the last process) consisted of one post-hoc dimension; specifically athlete-related factors. Themes cited within this post-hoc dimension included: appearing empathetic to players who were not fully injured, dealing with players breaking down with injury during competition and expressing disappointment at team loss. The following quotes suggest the control and support this group need to demonstrate while interacting with injured players:

Player having been given appropriate medical advice, took advice from others and attended an alternative therapist which produced prolongation of injury . . . Difficult to feel empathy when previous advice ignored, other methods used and now requiring rapid cure for return to play.

As evident from the above results, athlete-related factors for the ‘direct management support group’ (physiotherapists and doctors) mainly constituted dealing with players’ injury diagnosis and its management. These demands could be especially difficult while dealing with high-profile players or even while taking decisions relating to players 108 who are struggling to maintain their place in the team. Also on many occasions the support staff could be under pressure to clear certain members to play a game because the team panel (i.e., selectors, coach and/or team captain) have an expectation that he is ready to play. Such decisions could be emotionally demanding, as the chances of players worsening their injury can be high. Organisational factors for this group was fewer compared to the other post-hoc dimension (athlete-related factors). Themes cited within this post-hoc dimension for the support group mainly included informing the team panel about player injury and diagnosis. Figure 19 illustrates the reasons provided for performing EL and the coping mechanisms employed. The reasons for performing EL fell under two main categories: Player welfare and organisational commitments. Player welfare reasons included initiating appropriate management, avoiding negative consequences to players and furtherance of working relationship. Organisational reasons mainly included performing EL due to organisational obligations. Coping mechanisms ranged from observation and reframing by focusing on benefits to taking alternative course of action such as acting/faking, reassuring players, and recognising a common goal.

BIii. Perceived Emotional Demands

Some of the other demands encountered by these individuals in the support group included player injury and rehabilitation management, separating professional role from

‘mateship’, pressure from Captains, coaches and selectors regarding injury diagnosis and prognosis, working extended late hours during matches and tours, and family-work conflict.

The statements provide evidence about these demands:

Selectors asking for an opinion on fitness of a player on a Tuesday when the match isn’t until Sunday. Pressure from selectors/senior player to “clear” a player when he is not fully fit and the subsequent worry that I will be blamed if he [player] breaks down . . . Conflict between ‘conservatism’ of medical opinion versus ‘must play whatever’ opinion of players/selectors. 109

Reasons

To initiate appropriate management To avoid negative consequences to player For future clinical relationships with player

To determine players emotional state Player Long-term benefit of player and team Over all management of injury Welfare To avoid aggravation of injury To prepare players for psychological rehabilitation To reduce risk or re-injury to player

Professional reasons To appear part of the team Organisational To focus on performance

Coping

Observation Empathise Listen and look for cues (verbal and non-verbal) Concentrate on task Tried to be calm and positive Strategies Emotional distance Internalised real feelings during team activities Master situation and emotion by expending little energy Focus on benefits Read facial expressions

Kept my mouth shut Recognising common good

Act positively Alternative Grim face- condolences to players Explain approach and step-wise goals Approaches Seek help from other sources Reassure players Block out situation/environment

Figure 19. Reasons for Performing EL and their Management by Support Staff

110

Emotional demands also extend to lifestyle issues outside the cricket team environment. For example, disruption to home life, disruption to usual professional hours and holiday schedules . . . Also, dealing with international teams because players and officials are often stressful and often require to make a major decision without being confident of having all the information at hand.

BII. Direct Management Coaching Group

BIIi. Management of Emotions

The direct coaching group comprised of the team coach, fitness coordinator, and the coaching manager. Figure 20 shows the situations in which these individuals were involved in regulating emotions and performing EL. Similar to the support group, the reasons and coping mechanisms provided for performing the four EL processes were alike, and hence are illustrated in the same figure (i.e., Figure 20). Similar to the results for the support group, the two post-doc dimensions that evolved for this group were athlete-related and organisational factors.

‘Reading emotions of others’ (see Figure 20) involved interacting with players, coaches, and support staff. The two post-hoc dimensions that emerged were athlete-related and organisational factors. The only higher-order dimension within athlete-related factors was related to performance. Athlete-related factors included interactions with team Captain and influential team members, dealing with players in the slump, and providing performance feedback to players. Organisational factors mainly included discussions with staff members, providing feedback to Level 3 (Grade level) coaches and staff reviews. The following quotes illustrates how coaching group organisational personnel engage in

‘reading the emotions of others’:

Trying to understand what a player is going through, particularly when their lack of success brings media and public scrutiny . . . . To know the emotions of player, then can begin to find solutions, which will hopefully lead to a return to what he does well. If I was unsure of where I thought the player was at . . . talk with teammates and others near to person . . . Find an appropriate time and find out ‘how 111

Reading Emotions of Others

Interactions with players in the slump Players losing confidence during game

Tread wearily with influential players Performance Athlete-related Tired players during pre-season camp Providing player performance feedback

Discussions with board members Performance feedback to Level 3 coaches Organisational Staff reviews

Managing Emotions of Others

Player affecting team with inappropriate management of emotions Performance Managing team loss

Deal with players out of form or in the slump Encourage players during training Athlete-related Deal with deselected players Selection

Deal with player’s personal problems Non- performance

Managing coaching officers Organisational Conflict between staff members

Suppressing Emotions

Dealing with deselected and dropped players Young players unable to follow clear game instructions Performance Athlete-related Poor performance by team Players behaving against team guidelines Players challenging advice Player performance reviews

Staff performance reviews Organisational Dealing with District Club coaches

Expressing Unfelt Emotions

Dealing with consecutive failures Win from an impossible situation Performance Athlete-related Remain balanced during wins and losses Playing away from home

Figure 20. Situations for all the four EL processes for the Direct Management Coaching Group 112

he was going’. If player does not offer anything, I would find another time to revisit [talk] or if I felt there was still ‘work in progress’. . . depending on the individual, I may be passive in conversation or challenging.

Managing emotions of others’ mainly involved managing players and staff performance. Athlete-related and Organisational aspects were the post-hoc dimensions identified. The three higher-order themes within athlete-related factors were performance, non-performance, and selection aspects. As shown in Figure 20, instances cited for the post-hoc dimension of this dimension were dealing with team loss, player’s inappropriate emotions, deselected players, players in the slump and encouraging players during training.

Organisational factors included managing coaching officers and staff conflict. The following quotes further explain the manner in which these individuals involved in managing the emotions of others (on and off the field):

Player getting out and carrying on in the rooms [change rooms]- abusing [umpire’s] decision and wicket etc . . . Straight to point of settling as it affects others [players] still playing [to go in to bat].

Some players ‘live in doubt’ of their abilities (as opposed to all players having doubts at certain times) at this level [first class]. As a consequence, the players need ‘stroking’ sometimes paternally, sometimes roughly to shake them and give themselves the best chance of performing . . . . Strategies will range from being very supportive, positive, caring to just a ‘wake-up call’, having the player stop feeling sorry for themselves.

Suppressing emotions comprised of dealing with player and staff performance reviews. Athlete-related and Organisational aspects were the post-hoc dimensions identified. The only higher-order dimension within athlete-related factors was performance. This included dealing with deselected players, younger players being unable to follow game instructions, players challenging coaching advice and poor team performance. Organisational factors involved suppressing emotions during staff reviews 113 and meetings with districts clubs. Similar to the support group, the instances provided were much higher than the other processes.

The following quotes demonstrate why coaching staff suppressed their genuine emotions:

Poor performance by team (e.g., batting collapse) – obvious anger/depressed on my part but important not to show too much emotion as game has to continue and you need to get players up and believing that they can turn things around . . . A coach cannot afford to show extreme emotions – I believe there is a need to be consistent as players respond to your actions, body language and emotions. If I get angry/low/non-talkative players react accordingly. Need to be consistent to keep players focused on job at hand- to encourage if poor performance – to keep focused if on the top . . . Focused on job at hand, encouraged and tried to build belief that job could be done ‘if they [opposition] can do it, we can do it better’ attitude.

Suppress anger and annoyance when a player or team member thinks only of themselves in a situation involving rest, recovery, time away, travel, family etc where others of group have the same (or more difficult) situations to deal with . . . Relate to the environment in which we exist which is unrealistic/ ‘fantasyland’ to norms. Also understand that a big part of the make-up of elite athletes is all about self in order to be successful over a long period of time . . . Maintaining my relationship with the player and group is essential.

Expressing unfelt emotions mainly involved staying positive and upbeat during match situations. The only post-hoc dimension evolving for this EL process was athlete- related factors, and the higher-order dimension emerging for this dimension was again related to performance. Instances mainly related to the competitive environment, which included staying positive while dealing with consecutive failures, winning from almost impossible situations, remaining balanced during wins and losses, and playing away from home. The following quotes demonstrate the effort required to ‘express unfelt emotions’:

Winning or losing matches/tournaments – I remain externally the same (basically calm and positive) while internally I experience similar emotions to everyone – i.e., excitement with winning, frustration/disappointment/anger with losing. As I perceive my role, philosophy and style in role, I think it is important that while others may express a variety of emotions, I try to be balanced, steady, not ride the ‘emotional roller coaster’. It is important to have a ‘reference point’ to return to . . . Try to withdraw or at least sit on the feelings of success.

114

As evident from this section, athlete-related factors for the ‘direct management coaching group’ (i.e., coaches, fitness coordinators, and mangers of team operations) were multi-faceted as they involved performance, non-performance, and selection-related concerns. Selection-related, performance-related and non-performance related aspects were the higher-order categories within this dimension. Surprisingly, the only theme mentioned within selection was dealing with deselected players, and many in this group did not mention this. This could be because performance-related aspects are given much more priority as evident in the Figure 20. Themes within performance included dealing with players in the slump, encouraging players during training, managing team loss and staying positive while dealing with consecutive failures. This shows the amount of emotional resources expended by these individuals during training and competitive situations. Non- performance topics included interacting with the Captain and influential players, dealing with players challenging advice, and dealing with players’ personal problems. Though the number of themes mentioned in this category is lesser than the performance-related themes, non-performance related aspects involve a certain degree of EL. This suggests that the emotional demands related to this group might be much higher than the other groups. These results concur with Woodman and Hardy (2001) who showed that coaching staff are challenged wit numerous demands while working with a professional team. Also, it appears that the coach of a State or National team is expected to remain in control during all situations (success or failure) because of its potential to affect the other team members and subsequently the team performance.

On the other hand, organisational factors for the direct management coaching group were found to have fewer themes. Themes cited by the coaching group related to managing staff members and their conflict. This does not imply that organisational-related factors are not demanding to this group. In fact, the individuals in these groups probably 115 concentrate much more on the athlete and the athlete-environment. Figure 21 illustrates the reasons provided for performing EL and the coping mechanisms employed by this group of organisational personnel. Similar to the support group, the reasons for performing EL fell under two main categories: Player welfare and organisational reasons. Player welfare reasons aimed at focusing on performance, maintaining relationship with players and the team, enhancing player potential, helping player overcome slump(s) and avoid distracting team focus. As we can see the instances are related to performance of the team.

Organisational reasons were related to job roles as a coach, which included control, consistency and a steady approach, demonstration of leadership, and the control of team performance. Coping mechanisms ranged from reframing, focusing and enhancing positives to observation and acting/faking. Faking would involve putting on a show when team was not performing well in order to boost the team moral. This was reported to have happened on a regular basis if the team is not performing well. Alternative strategies included cognitive change (trying to understand the elite-athlete environment), attentional deployment (i.e., focus on the joy of coaching) and deep acting (i.e., explaining various features to players) (Grandey, 2000, Hochschild, 1983).

116

Reasons

To focus on performance Maintain relationship with player and team Developing player at first class level Team performance

Provide support to player To protect player and support his comeback Player Team goals Welfare To avoid disastrous effect on playing team Necessary part of progression Help player to overcome the slump Instill hope and confidence in the team Bring player to the right frame of mind To avoid distracting team focus

To ensure control and maintain discipline A coach’s role is to be steady and controlled Consistent approach Ongoing part of a coach’s role Coach’s job is to deal with emotions of players Organisational To ensure control and maintain discipline For organisational benefit Ensure objective feedback and not subjective To demonstrate leadership Sensitive issue Controlled work performance

Coping

Focus on immediate task Encourage positive emotions with plans Withdraw or sit on feelings Acted/ Faked it like an actor Observing physical and vocal signs Strategies Body language Controlled breathing Positive thinking Focused on the joy of coaching Watch and listen a lot

Talk and provide support to player Direct talk and action Left the room and directed anger elsewhere Alternative Addressed the issue with player Approaches Keep to point and be unemotional Goal setting Resolve disagreement Understand the elite-athlete environment Figure 21. Reasons for Performing EL and their Management by the Coaching Group 117

BIIii. Perceived Emotional Demands The coaching group also encountered numerous additional demands. These included dealing with celebrity ego, committee members, team panels, general public, and disruption to family/personal life. The statements below shed light on these demands:

Often to maintain the best ‘zone’ for the players to operate in, I have to ensure that I am upbeat and positive all the time, whether I feel it or not. I feel this is part of my role [coach], particularly on the road [traveling].

Being in control at all times is the biggest frustration as there are too many individuals/groups/influences about who ‘owns’ the team . . . Emotions are always bubbling while coaching and managing a team due to the nature of the game- it [cricket] is an emotional game.

It is a constant and emotionally draining battle to gradually educate and change the thinking of those who make decisions which affect the short, medium and long term interest of the team- its players and its support structure. This ongoing battle coupled with 1. the constant emotions that separation from family brings 2) maintaining emotional control in an environment of fantasy and ‘celebrity ego’ constitutes my daily need to cope with highs and lows. Coping strategies range from: Poor to very good and everything in between. Poor– feeling sorry for myself, very good – actively confronting, finding a way through by going to a ‘quiet place’, exercise, a talk, a document of action.

BIII. Indirect Management group

As explained earlier, the indirect management group comprised of chief executive officers (CEO’s), team selectors, manager of team operations, club cricket managers, sponsorship coordinators, finance managers, and a curator. The results of the indirect management group were very similar to that of professional players especially with respect to the reasons and coping mechanisms. On the other hand, reasons and coping provided for each EL process by the indirect management group varied. The post-doc dimensions that evolved for this group were athlete-related factors, organisational factors, media-related factors, and client-related factors. 118

BIIIi. Management of Emotions

‘Reading emotions of others’ involved interactions with the athletes, other organisational clients, and the public (see Figure 22). The three post-hoc dimensions that evolved were athlete-related factors, organisational factors and client-related factors. It is essential to mention that these themes were not cited by all the participants due to the variation in their job roles. The two higher-order themes within athlete-related factors were related to selection and performance. The themes cited within this dimension were: selection meetings with players, player reviews, dealing with out of form players, tribunal hearings when a suspension was handed down, and after match meetings with players.

Organisational factors comprised of assessing staff strength on important issues, yearly staff reviews, selection panel meetings, dealing with public anger at sporting events, and after match meetings with umpires. Client-related factors mainly involved gauging sponsorship agents’ feelings, assessing client’s reactions and concerns. The most common reasons given for engaging in this process was to determine future courses of action to mutually benefit all individuals involved. Coping strategies of the team support staff for

‘reading emotions of others’ were identical to those of the players, and predominantly included observation and analysis. The reasons provided for this process were aimed at improving player welfare, organisational reasons and for self-protection. Coping strategies predominantly included observation and analysis. The following quote illustrates how the indirect management organisational personnel engage in ‘reading the emotions of others’:

A regular player was sadly out of form and possibly carrying an injury that he wasn’t telling anyone about. The Selection panel didn’t want him to play and yet I knew the Captain and Coach wanted him in the team. The Captain and Coach, who are a lot closer to the players than the selectors tend to make emotional decisions from the heart and not the head. You have to pre-empt their thoughts in order to take the emotion out of the decision making process.

119

Situations

Selection meetings with players

Listen to player disagreements about deselection Selection

Player reviews Athlete- Discussions with out of form players related Players hiding injury Informing the team Captain about the 12th man

Discussing team options with the Captain Tribunal hearings dealing with suspension Performance Declining players club transfer request Players inspecting pitch After match meetings with players

Strength of staff feelings on important issues Yearly staff reviews Board meetings Selection panel meetings Organisational Providing confidential information to new colleagues Committee meetings Dealing with staff death Dealing with hidden agendas of players, and staff Dealing with public anger After match meetings with umpires

Gauge sponsorship agents feelings Client-related Assess client’s reaction to change in benefit

Reasons

Impact on the team Team benefit Player Welfare Ensure player confidentiality

To determine future course of action Gauge truth of feelings Organisational Confirm to selection collaboration process

Gauge the mood of the committee Avoid inflaming situation

To protect myself and my emotions Self-protection

Figure 22. “Reading Emotions of Others” (Indirect Management Group)

120

Coping

Observed body language and facial features Listen to voice tone Empathetic

Gauge depth of feelings Strategies

Offer individual advice

Observe eye movement

Reaction of committee members

Assure players

Role play in mind

Figure 22 (cont’d.). “Reading Emotions of Others” (Indirect Management Group)

As shown in Figure 23, athlete-related factors and organisational factors were the two post-doc dimensions for ‘managing the emotions of others’. The two higher-order themes within athlete-related factors were related to selection and non-performance.

Themes within athlete-related factors encompassed addressing players on key sports issues

(i.e., drugs), dealing with players’ misdemeanors (i.e., missing player appearances), dealing with high-profile players, informing players of deselection, and dealing with conflict between key players. Organisational factors included dismissing a popular member of staff, dealing with conflict between support staff (i.e., selector and coach), dealing with confrontations between cricket clubs, and managing staff during negative media attention.

The main reasons provided for ‘managing the emotions of others’ were for player welfare, to achieve the desired result and for the organisational benefit. Coping involved explaining consequences, providing examples, inducing humour and at times firm responses. The following quote further explains the manner in which these individuals involve in managing the emotions of others (on and off the field).

121

Situations

Players challenging selection committee decisions Selection Informing players of deselection

Addressing players on key sports issues such as drugs Dealing with players misdemeanors Athlete-related Dealing with high-profile emotional players Players at or near the end of their career Dealing with unreasonable demands from players Non- Conflict between key players performance Dealing with conflict between players and colleagues

Dismissal of a popular member of stall Conflict/tension between support staff Confrontation and conflict between cricket clubs Clubs dishonoring sponsorship obligations Organisational Dealing with internal issues to fulfill obligations to clients Obtaining information from staff in other departments Managing staff during negative media attention

Reasons

Team goal Player Team harmony Welfare Team success

Explain point of view Convey message without lecturing Result-oriented Prevent major disagreements

Organisational obligations Organisational Requested to do so commitments Avoid negative publicity to the organisation

Coping

Explained consequences of their action Provide examples Approaches Induce humour Clear and firm response

Figure 23. “Managing Emotions of Others” (Indirect Management Group)

122

Explaining to a player who had been left out of the team [deselected] who then says he doesn’t agree- merely, state that even though he doesn’t agree he would do well to listen, as this is what people who pick the team believe . . . Maintained a clear, firm and calm response and repeat if required . . . To ensure that he understands the reason for non-selection (he doesn’t however agree) so there can be no misunderstanding at what is being ‘said’.

‘Suppressing emotions’ (the third EL process) usually involved situations wherein sponsorship and selection issues were discussed (Figure 24). The three post-hoc dimensions were athlete-related factors, organisational factors and media-related factors. Athlete- related factors varied from discussing reduction in player contracts, tribunal hearings involving difficult players, and dealings with unnecessary remarks by players regarding playing conditions. Aspects related to non-performance was the only higher-order theme emerging within this dimension. Organisational factors included aspects related to corporate governance, dealing with staff death (i.e., State coach), and dealing with unreasonable expectations of general public. Media-related factors involved dealing with misrepresentation of facts by the media, addressing press conferences regarding the future of the Association, and other media issues. Player welfare, image management and organisational obligations were the reasons for performing this process. Coping strategies ranged from focusing on positives and accomplishments to changing the topic. The following quotes suggest how organisational personnel ‘suppress their emotions’:

For three consecutive games radio commentators and print media criticized the make-up of the team that had been selected to play . . . . We lost the third game with most of the media focus on perceived incorrect selections . . . You have to suppress emotions regularly because the media and the public don’t ever get to find out about key players carrying injuries into games that affect other selections. They don’t get to find out about disciplinary measures taken against certain player and the team plan. You have to suppress emotions to protect player, team and confidentiality . . . Gloat when you win and take it on the chin when you lose . . . Develop a thick skin.

123

Situations

Discussing reduction in player’s contract Tribunal hearings involving difficult players Players unfulfilling sponsor obligations Non- Athlete-related Players challenging opinion performance Dealing with players who have lost their contract Contract negotiations with players

Corporate governance Dealing with the death of the state coach Announcing former Captain’s cancer diagnosis Disagree with the CEO Organisational Meetings with club representatives Meetings introducing new schemes in grade and state level cricket

Dealing with unreasonable Association members

Dealing with unreasonable general public

Misrepresentation of facts by the media Addressing press conferences regarding the future Media-related of the Association Media issues over releasing players to other states Media criticising playing conditions Media criticism regarding team selection

Reasons

Best interest of player Long-term player and association relationship Player Best interest of the team Welfare

To portray sense of control Display leadership Image To be in control Set example to other staff

Benefit of player and sponsor needs Present organisation in the best light Act professional Organisational For the organisation commitments Bigger picture Maintain professional image of the Association Politically unwise

Figure 24. “Suppressing Emotions” (Indirect Management Group)

124

Coping

Body language Tried to remain calm Maintain same tone and facial expression Strategies Focus on accomplishments Induce humour Focus on benefits

Explain organisational goal calmly

Develop a thick skin Alternative

One on one meeting Approaches

Leave meetings straight away

Change the subject

Figure 24 (cont’d.). “Suppressing Emotions” (Indirect Management Group)

‘Expressing unfelt emotions’ (the fourth EL process) usually involved situations wherein selection issues and client concerns were discussed (Figure 25). The three post-hoc dimensions were athlete-related factors, organisational factors and client-related factors.

The two higher-order themes within athlete-related factors were related to selection and non-performance. It involved selection meetings with players, dealing with athletes playing with an injury, sympathising with unfulfilling organisational obligations, and dealing with financial requests from players’ wives.

Client-related factors mainly included contract negotiations with sponsors, and sponsor meetings when their demands cannot be catered. Players’ welfare, image management and organisational obligations were the reasons for performing this process.

Coping mechanisms included maintaining a positive outlook, putting on a façade, and providing objecting statements.

125

Situations

Selection meetings with players Selection Encouraging deselected players when their chance of selection is slim Athlete-related

Reminding players to fulfill sponsor obligations Sympathising with players escaping organisational Non- obligations (player appearances) performance Dealing with financial requests from players’ wives

Committee meetings regarding financial aspects Praising players in public when there were

disagreements Accepting certain decisions during meetings Organisational Promoting ideas and decisions that you don’t really agree Displaying empathy to three sides [two teams and the umpire] Appearing sympathetic to club presidents

Contract negotiation with sponsors Argue for a result that is not true Client-related Agree with a client’s point of view Sponsor meetings when demands cannot be catered

Reasons

Lead group in same direction To support and encourage player Player Player welfare Welfare Best decision for team and player

Fixing the problem Result- Move forward in negotiation oriented

Image of the Association To maintain the working relationship Organisational Appear empathetic to colleague’s views commitments Portray positive image to stake holders Best interest of the organization Culture of staying positive in all situations

Figure 25. “Expressing Unfelt Emotions” (Indirect Management Group)

126

Coping

Remained calm and in control

Maintain positive outlook Listened

Put on a facade of enthusiasm and motivation Strategies

Maintain non-confrontational language Create/initiate a neutral ‘body language’ Objective statements

Figure 25 (cont’d.). “Expressing Unfelt Emotions” (Indirect Management Group)

The following statements suggest why this process (expressing unfelt emotions) could be difficult:

Sympathise with players not selected in a squad and encourage them to keep persevering when you think the likelihood of them succeeding is fairly remote . . . Through one on one discussions with player.

Announcing the retirement of ‘X’ [former State Captain]. We as administrators had a number of disagreements with him [player] in his last season and then having to praise him upon his retirement was a little difficult . . . From an image viewpoint and State cricket it would not have looked too good to criticize him. I simply acknowledged his [player’s] contribution and not letting other personal feelings interfere with what after all had been a fine career.

As evident from this section, athlete-related factors for the ‘indirect management group’ (CEO’s, team selectors, managers of team operations, managers of club cricket, sponsorship coordinators, finance managers, and a curator) were mainly related to selection and contract regulations. Aspects related to selection, performance, and non-performance were the higher-order categories deduced. Themes within the selection theme included selection meetings, dealing with player disagreements, and informing players of deselection. This aspect seems to exert some degree of emotional energy for players and the indirect management group. Themes within the performance theme included discussions with out of form players, the Captain and players relating to performance and injury. This 127 suggests that even the indirect management group encounter emotional demands pertaining to athletes and their performance. Themes within non-performance included contract negotiations, dealing with player and staff conflict, addressing sports issues and dealing with high-profile players. Though, not directly related to performance, these are important for the performance of players, and could be a source of potential stress to this group to deal with.

Organisational factors appear to be more varied for the indirect management group.

These included dealing with staff on important issues, staff reviews, selection panel meetings, dealing with public anger over sports events, and dealing with staff conflict.

Client-related factors and media-related factors were the additional two post-hoc dimensions which evolved for the indirect management group. Client-related factors mainly included dealing with sponsorship agents and assessing client’s concerns regarding organisation investment. Media-related factors for the most part involved dealing with media issues. The themes included perceived misrepresentation by the media, releasing players to other states, and media criticizing team composition and team selection. These could be especially challenging, since media issues can have a long-term effect on the association, players, and staff. This shows that the demands for each group vary. These results concur to some extent with the EL of barristers (Harris, 2002), which posits that barristers regulate their emotions with a wide range of people. The main antecedents for performing EL by this group of organisational personnel included player welfare, organisational commitments, self-protection, and to achieve desired results. An examination of the emotions revealed that all three groups were mostly involved in suppressing genuine negative emotions and expressing unfelt positive emotions. Coping mechanisms included maintaining a positive outlook, putting on a façade, and providing 128 objecting statements. Alternative strategies included cognitive change, attentional deployment, and deep acting (Grandey, 2000, Hochschild, 1983).

BIIIii. Perceived Demands

Issues management, media relations, player management, dealing with demands from Cricket Australia and a broad range of people maintaining a rapport with players, separating professional role from ‘mateship’, high expectations of players regarding the availability of certain support staff (e.g., physiotherapist), communicating and fulfilling the expectations for a broad range of stakeholders were some of the demands encountered by professional sports personnel. These demands are similar to what evolved from Study one.

The statements provide additional details about these demands:

With regards to the media you never cope with their lack of knowledge of real situations and their misinformed judgments and opinions. You just learn to cope as best you can without giving anything away that could harm individuals or the team.

Dealing with and communicating with players has become increasingly more difficult since big money has come into our game. Players of toady are far different to deal with than player 10 years ago. . . I struggle with their obsession for money in their thought process.

As a former player, club Captain, coach, administrator and selector, I can honestly say that that Chairman of Selectors role is the most emotionally demanding role I have ever done. More than just being a selector there is gratitude shown by anyone towards selectors for the difficult job they have to do.

Virtually everyday there is some kind of issue or demand to be effective. It demands me to be prepared to make a decision, present unpopular points of view and be prepared to be pragmatic and unemotional.

Sport is time dependant – events, games, season launches. Deadlines escalate emotional demands and there are intense periods throughout the year. Other elements in sport are the feeling of delivering/winning to not let the team down.

In summary, the findings from this Study helped confirm to the results of Study 1 suggesting that the organisational personnel of a professional sports team such as cricket 129 encounter numerous emotional demands. In addition, these demands appear to require a substantial amount of emotional management, which suggests that organisational personnel perform EL to the same extent as players, if not more. Jones (2002) contended that the performance oriented environment is as crucial as the actual performance. This implies that the work environment of sport administrators is as important as that of players. If the work place is conducive for both groups, it reduces focus on unwanted tasks, facilitates communication between the two groups (players and management) and ensures undivided attention on performance. Additional post-hoc dimensions identified were Media-related and Client-related factors.

Administrators coping methods included both surface acting (response-focused) and deep acting (antecedent-focused regulation). Response-focused methods included changing physical expression (such as tone of voice, facial expression, grin, and silence).

Antecedent-focused regulation involved trying to change the feeling state (such as inducing humour, role play in mind, goal setting). It appears that these individuals employ both surface and deep acting; however, it was not possible to determine which coping mechanisms they employed more frequently.

Part C. Emotional Labour and Burnout

Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive statistics for the continuous variables are presented in Table 15. For

EL, this sample had moderately high levels of Duration (M = 4.05, SD = .66), moderately high levels of Frequency (M = 10.46, SD = 1.54), and moderate levels of Deep Acting (M =

9.61, SD = 1.97), Surface Acting (M = 8.75, SD = 1.97), Variety (M = 8.70, SD = 2.13), and

Intensity (M = 5.25, SD = 1.31). The mean values for these aspects of EL are consistent with published norms (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003). The internal consistency values for these 130

Table 15

Alpha Coefficients, Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges, Skewness, and Kurtosis for the Study Variables (N = 84)

Alpha Mean SD Range Skewness Kurtosis

ELS Variables

Duration - 4.05 .66 3.00-5.00 -.05 -.63

Frequency .57 10.46 1.54 7.00-14.00 -.05 -.58

Deep Acting .62 9.61 1.97 5.00-15.00 .31 .36

Surface Acting .71 8.75 1.97 3.00-13.00 -.44 .06

Variety .85 8.70 2.13 4.00-14.00 .08 -.58

Intensity .58 5.25 1.31 2.00-9.00 .33 .17

MBI Variables

Professional Efficacy .81 29.13 6.18 12.00-36.00 -.90 -.09

Exhaustion .89 9.63 6.42 0.00-29.00 1.01 .67

Cynicism .72 5.68 4.92 0.00-24.00 1.27 2.03

Note. ELS, Emotional Labour Scale. MBI, Maslach Burnout Inventory.

aspects of EL ranged from a low .57 for Frequency to a high .85 for Variety. The mean alpha for the 5 subscales was .67. With respect to burnout, the participants had high levels of Professional Efficacy (M = 29.13, SD = 6.18), moderately low levels of Exhaustion (M =

9.63, SD = 6.42), and low levels of Cynicism (M = 5.68, SD = 4.92). The mean values for these aspects of burnout are consistent with published norms (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter,

1996). Internal consistency for the MBI subscales was adequate ranging from .72 for

Cynicism to .89 for Exhaustion. The average alpha across the 3 subscales was .81. 131

Preliminary Analyses

A high kurtosis value was found for a subscale of Cynicism. A logarithmic transformation of this variable reduced both skewness and kurtosis values to -.54 and -.50, respectively. The following analyses were initially performed using the untransformed variable in one series and the transformed variable in another series. Each pair of analyses yielded the same results. For ease of interpretation, the analyses reported within were conducted with the untransformed Cynicism variable.

Correlations: Person Variables, EL and Burnout

Correlations between the person variables and psychological variables are presented in Table 16. The related multiple partial correlations were also calculated to examine the unique association between each person variable and the various psychological variables

(controlling for the other person variable). Results indicated that Years in Cricket exhibited a weak but statistically significant unique association with the EL variable Intensity. Group also exhibited weak significant associations with the psychological variables. Specifically, being an Administrator was related to Professional Efficacy and negatively related to both

Deep Acting and Surface Acting. Correlations among the psychological variables had an absolute mean value of .18 and ranged from the -.41 correlation between Professional

Efficacy and Cynicism to the .50 correlation between Exhaustion and Cynicism. The person variables of Years and Group had an absolute correlation of .28. This pattern of intercorrelations among predictor sets did not present any potential multicollinearity concerns for canonical analysis.

132

Table 16 Bivariate and Partial Correlations (Controlling for the Other Person Variable) Between the Person Variables and Psychological Variables

Years Group

r Partial r r Partial r

ELS Variables Duration .06 .08 -.07 -.09

Frequency .19 .16 .14 .10

Deep Acting -.02 .05 -.24* -.25*

Surface Acting -.01 .07 -.24* -.25*

Variety -.02 .00 -.08 -.08

Intensity .30* .27* .19 .11

MBI Variables * * Professional Efficacy .22 .15 .29 .24

Exhaustion .05 .04 .03 .02

Cynicism -.16 -.11 -.20 -.17

Note. * p < .05. Group is coded; player =1, administrator = 2.

133

Canonical Analysis: Person Variables, EL and Burnout

Canonical correlation analysis was performed between the set of individual difference variables and the EL and Burnout variables. Of the two possible canonical functions, only one produced significant relationships between pairs of canonical variates.

Specifically, the dimension reduction analysis produced a significant Wilks Lambda = .64,

F (18,136) = 1.91, p < .05. Subsequent steps in the dimension reduction analysis were not significant.

Table 17 presents the correlations, standardised canonical coefficients, percent of variance, and redundancies between the two sets of variables and their corresponding canonical variates. The total percent of variance and redundancies for each set of variables, and canonical correlation are also shown. The canonical correlation was .57, representing approximately 32% overlapping variance for the pair of canonical variates. The person variate accounted for a total of about 62% of the variance in the person variables, and a total variance redundancy of about 20% with the ELS and MBI variables. In contrast, the

ELS and MBI variate accounted for a total of about 12% of the variance in the ELS and

MBI variables, and a total variance redundancy of about 4% with the person variables. The nature of the canonical relationships can be assessed by examining the canonical structure correlations of the canonical variates. Using a cut off correlation of .30 (Tabachnick &

Fidell, 1996), the person canonical variate was found to be related with Group (structure correlation = .52) and Years (structure correlation = .36). Results also indicated that the

ELS and MBI canonical variate was related to Professional Efficacy (structure correlation =

.32). This pattern of associations between the person and psychological variables indicate that participants who have been in cricket over a long time and tend to be Administrators are related to higher levels of Professional Efficacy.

134

Table 17 Correlations, Standardised Canonical Coefficients, Canonical Correlations, Percent of Variance, and Redundancies Between The Person Variables and Psychological Variables and their Corresponding Canonical Variates

Canonical Variate

Correlation Structure Coefficient Correlation Person Variables Years .64 .36 .42 Group .91 .52 .80

% of Variance 62.40 % of Redundancy 20.01

ELS Variables Duration -.05 -.03 -.21 Frequency .34 .19 .42 Deep Acting -.36 -.20 -.46 Surface Acting -.34 -.19 -.19 Variety -.13 -.07 -.28 Intensity .49 .28 .45 MBI Variables Professional Efficacy .57 .32 .35 Exhaustion .06 .05 .42 Cynicism -.40 -.23 -.34

% of Variance 12.30 % of Redundancy 3.94 Canonical Correlation .57

Note. Canonical structure correlations and cross-correlations greater than .30 are presented in boldface to indicate that they were interpreted as significantly contributing to the multivariate relationships. Group is coded; players = 1, administrators = 2.

135

Correlations: EL and Burnout

Correlations between the ELS variables and the MBI variables are presented in

Table 18. The related multiple partial correlations were also calculated to examine the unique association between each ELS variable and the various MBI variables (controlling for all other MBI variables). Results indicated that Professional Efficacy exhibited a moderate but statistically significant unique association with Frequency. Professional

Efficacy also exhibited weak but statistically significant unique associations with Duration and Intensity. Exhaustion exhibited a weak but statistically significant unique association with Surface Acting. Finally, Cynicism did not exhibit significant associations with any of the ELS variables after controlling for the other MBI variables. Correlations among the

ELS variables had an absolute mean value of .30 and ranged from the .05 correlation between Surface Acting and Intensity to the .46 correlation between Frequency and Deep

Acting. The MBI variable intercorrelations had an absolute mean value of -.05 and ranged from the -.41 correlation between Professional Efficacy and Cynicism to .50 between

Exhaustion and Cynicism. This pattern of intercorrelations among predictor sets did not present any particular multicollinearity concerns for canonical analysis.

136

Table 18

Bivariate and Partial Correlations (Controlling for MBI Variables) between the ELS Variables and MBI Variables

Professional Efficacy Exhaustion Cynicism

ELS Variables r Partial r r Partial r r Partial r

Duration .30** .29** .09 .18 -.10 -.06

Frequency .41*** .43*** .03 .09 -.06 .08

Deep Acting .10 .11 -.05 -.05 .01 .06

Surface Acting -.06 .07 .34** .24* .29* .16

Variety .03 .13 .22 .15 .20 .15

Intensity .25* .27* .06 .10 -.02 .04

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

Canonical Analysis: EL and Burnout

Canonical correlation analysis was performed between the ELS variables and the

MBI variables. Of the three possible canonical functions, only two produced significant relationships between pairs of canonical variates. Specifically, the dimension reduction analysis produced a significant Wilks Lambda = .53, F (18, 198) = 2.74, p < .001 with all three canonical correlations included, and a Wilks Lambda = .75, F (10, 142) = 2.21, p <

.021 with the first canonical correlation removed. Subsequent steps in the dimension reduction analysis were not significant.

Table 19 presents the correlations, standardised canonical coefficients, percent of variance and redundancies between the two sets of variables, their corresponding canonical variates, the total percent of variance, redundancies for each set of variables, and canonical correlations. The first canonical correlation was .54, representing approximately 29% overlapping variance for the pair of canonical variates. The ELS variates accounted for a 137

Table 19 Correlations, Standardised Canonical Coefficients, Canonical Correlations, Percent of Variance, and Redundancies Between The ELS Variables and MBI Variables and their Corresponding Canonical Variates

First Canonical Variate Second Canonical Variate

Correlation Cross Coefficient Correlation Cross Coefficient Correlation Correlation Emotional Labor Variables Duration .62 .33 .48 .18 .08 .07 Frequency .79 .42 .82 .16 .08 -.08 Deep Acting .16 .09 -.28 -.03 -.02 -.59 Surface Acting -.01 -.01 -.12 .77 .37 .90 Variety .12 .06 -.33 .54 .26 .49 Intensity .50 .27 .26 .18 .09 .14

% of Variance 21.76 16.24 Tot.=38.00 % of Redundancy 6.26 3.81 Tot.=10.07

Burnout Variables Professional Efficacy .98 .52 .99 -.16 -.08 .19 Exhaustion -.03 -.02 .24 .94 .46 .78 Cynicism -.38 -.20 -.10 .72 .35 .41

% of Variance 36.74 47.74 Tot.=84.48 % of Redundancy 10.56 11.20 Tot.=21.76 Canonical Correlation .54 .48

Note. Canonical structure correlations greater than .30 are presented in boldface to indicate that they were interpreted as significantly contributing to the multivariate relationships.

total of about 22% of the variance in the ELS variables, and a total variance redundancy of about 6% with the MBI variables. In contrast, the MBI variate accounted for a total of about 37% of the variance in the MBI variables, and a total variance redundancy of about

11% with the ELS variables. The second canonical correlation was .48, representing 138 approximately 23% overlapping variance for the pair of canonical variates. The ELS variate accounted for a total of about 16% of the variance in the ELS variables, and a total variance redundancy of about 4% with the MBI variables. In contrast, the MBI variate accounted for a total of about 48% of the variance in the MBI variables, and a total variance redundancy of about 11% with the ELS variables.

The nature of the canonical relationships can be assessed by examining the canonical structure correlations and the canonical cross correlations of the canonical variates. Using a cut-off correlation of .30 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996), results showed that the first ELS canonical variate was related with Frequency (structure correlation = .42) and Duration (structure correlation = .33), and that the first MBI canonical variate was related only to Personal Efficacy (structure correlation = .52). This pattern of associations between the ELS and MBI variables indicates that participants who have greater Frequency and greater Duration in cricket have higher levels of Professional Efficacy. Results also showed that the second ELS canonical variate was related to Surface Acting (structure correlation = .37) and that the second MBI canonical variate was related to Emotional

Exhaustion (structure correlation = .46) and Cynicism (structure correlation = .35). This pattern of associations between the ELS and MBI variables indicates that participants who have greater Surface Acting also have higher levels of Exhaustion and Cynicism.

Discussion

The participants sampled in the current study displayed for the aspects of EL high levels of duration, moderately high levels of frequency, and moderate levels of deep acting, surface acting, and intensity. It was also found that with regards to aspects of Burnout, the participants reported high levels of professional efficacy, moderately low levels of exhaustion, and low levels of cynicism. The unique relationships found between the person 139 variables and aspects of EL and Burnout revealed rather weak associations. However, there were several potentially meaningful associations. For instance, participants who had been involved in cricket for a long time tended to express their emotions more intensely.

Additionally, administrators tended to be associated with higher levels of professional efficacy. They also tended not to use deep acting and surface acting when expressing their emotions.

The canonical correlation analysis examining the personal factors of years and group, and the psychological factors of EL and Burnout indicated one canonical dimension which accounted for the covariation between the personal and psychological variables.

Relationships within this interpretable dimension indicated that the participants who were administrators and had been in cricket for a while (for example ten years) were associated with higher levels of professional efficacy. Professional efficacy is a measure of personal accomplishment and it makes sense that the relationship found here that individuals who have worked for a time in their profession and are in positions of authority (i.e.,

Administrators) have a stronger sense of accomplishment within their organisation.

This result agrees with the lifespan and aging literature which suggests that over a period of time emotional regulation strategies improve as a function of age and experience

(Carstensen, 1992). Past research has shown that more experienced adults employ more functional emotion-focused coping strategies (i.e., internal and cognitively focused) and less blame-oriented and aggressive strategies compared with younger adults (Blanchard-

Fields, & Irion, 1988). Furthermore, control over one’s emotions was found to increase with age (Lawton, Kleban, Rajagopal, & Dean, 1992).

Our examination of the relationships between the psychological factors of EL and

Burnout revealed some interesting findings. A moderate unique relationship was found for participants high in the professional efficacy and the frequency of emotions. This suggests 140 that the more frequently emotional displays are expressed successfully, participants feel more professionally accomplished. The other weaker unique associations found for professional efficacy was the positive one with duration. Perhaps this is because the longer the durations of EL may result in greater internalisation of role expectations (Morris &

Feldman, 1997). Considering that role identification or internalisation refers to the degree to which people identify with their job and job values, it is possible that this in turn this leads to higher feelings of satisfaction related to their job roles and accomplishments.

Finally, the participants experiencing emotional exhaustion were related to the use surface acting. This seems to indicate that participants employing surface acting (i.e., faking or masking emotions) are more likely to experience higher levels of exhaustion. Despite exhibiting weak associations in this study, similar relationships have also been reported in the literature by Brotheridge & Grandey (2002), Grandey (2003), Kruml & Geddes (2000) and Zapf and Holz (2006).

The canonical correlation analysis examining EL and Burnout indicated that two canonical dimensions accounted for the covariation between the person variables and the psychological variables. Relationships within the first interpretable dimension suggested that participants who were high in professional efficacy were associated with frequency of emotions and duration of interactions.

The second canonical relationship found in this sample of professional cricketers and administrators indicated that those experiencing high levels of emotional exhaustion and cynicism were associated with the use of surface acting. Thus, participants reporting symptoms of Burnout tended to hide their true emotions and display emotions not consistent with the emotions they wanted to display. Such findings are in line with the results obtained by Grandey (2003) and Brotheridge and Lee (2002, 2003). This latter finding has implications for practitioners. It has been suggested that the use of Surface 141

Acting will reduce one’s sense of well-being (Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne, & Ilardi, 1997).

If this is the case, then once an athlete has been diagnosed as suffering from burnout, practitioners should be aware that such athletes may tend to mask their emotions. Thus, they may be called upon to help burnout athletes to express their true emotions, and provide a supportive environment for airing of these emotions.

Conclusion

The study results contributed substantially to the organisational literature.

Specifically, the study aimed to confirm or not the issues evolving from Study 1. The study also examined the relationship between EL and burnout. In line with the findings of Study

1, the results from this Study (Study 2) indicate that professional cricket players and organisational personnel perform EL either through ‘reading emotions of others, ‘managing emotions of others,’ ‘suppressing emotions’ or ‘expressing unfelt emotions’ on a regular basis. Also, professional cricket players found some of the ICC codes difficult to adhere to.

Additionally, Work-life Balance and Image Management evolved as particularly demanding to professional players. Professional players performed EL mainly due to organisational display rules, individual goals, team goals, and image management.

Similarly, organisational personnel engaged in EL for team perspective and organisational rules. Both the groups employed both types of acting (surface and deep acting), though it was not possible which method is more frequently and in what context. Cannonical relationships indicated that older participants who were high in professional efficacy were associated with frequency of emotions and duration of interactions. Also, high levels of emotional exhaustion and cynicism were associated with the use of surface acting. 142

The main strength of the study was to utilise the mixed-methods approach to analyse the data. Qualitative data analysis helped in gathering rich data to further understand the concept of EL. Quantitative data analysis helped in understanding the consequences of EL and burnout to some degree. However, the methodology used to gather the information on EL was self-report, and questionnaire based. The use of self-report measures to assess psychological phenomenon such as EL is open to participant-bias. In other words, the responses made by the participant may not reflect what they actually do but may reflect what they think the researcher would like to know or how they would like to be perceived by others. Despite this, it is an accepted way of accessing such information, and has been used widely in sport psychology research. Additionally, the difficulty in accessing professional athletes made it a practical method of obtaining such information from them.

The questionnaire-based examination of EL in cricket was economical and versatile, allowing an examination of EL across individuals in natural settings. However, the use of a checklist to the exclusion of other approaches has limited the findings in this study to the general categories of EL defined by Brotheridge and Lee (2003). It is possible that a number of cricketers and organisational personnel expressed forms of EL not measured by the ELS. Also, due to the limited number of participants, the results of all the participants were combined while analysing quantitative data. Moreover, the results do not aid in understanding how professional cricket players perform EL during competitive and non- competitive situations. In-depth interview methods could be carried out to survey the idiosyncratic ways in which individuals express emotions.

143

CHAPTER 5: STUDY THREE

CASE STUDY APPROACH OF AUSTRALIAN PLAYERS

Purpose

The two previous studies provided a comprehensive picture of emotional labour

(EL) by exploring the processes through which EL is performed. The results revealed that both professional cricketers and organisational personnel mostly performed EL either through ‘reading emotions of others, ‘managing emotions of others,’ ‘suppressing emotions’, and/ or ‘expressing unfelt emotions.’ Professional cricketers also found some of the players’ codes of conduct (ICC & CA) difficult with which to deal.

The present study sought to further verify and confirm the issues evolving out of the first two studies. The study also intended to probe into the emotional demands players encounter during game situations through video analysis or incident based techniques. The information obtained through video analysis method assist in analysing the challenges faced by professional performers during pre-game and post-game situations, both on and off the field. They also help in determining whether the responses to these demands were appropriate and adequate.

Method

Participants

Three professional Australian cricketers aged 20, 25 and 29 years respectively participated in the study. Only current first-class male cricketers with more than two years experience in first class cricket were chosen. Names and other identifying characteristics were avoided to ensure confidentiality and negative ramifications to participants. Two players were employed in part-time jobs (outside cricket). Following Sparkes (2003)

144 recommendation players were purposively chosen via scrutiny of media reports and consultation with administrators and coaches. Participants included two batsmen and one bowler, of which two were experienced players (one bowler and a batsman), and one player was relatively inexperienced (batsman). The categorisation of experienced and inexperienced players was determined in consultation with the coaches. Specifically, players below 25 years were considered relatively inexperienced, and those above 25 were considered relatively experienced. The three cricketers were from urban and rural areas of Australia. This combination was considered ideal since it helped in obtaining information from players with a variety of perspectives. More specifically, it involved gathering data from experienced and inexperienced players.

Procedure

Coaches and administrators from a State Cricket Association assisted in establishing initial contacts with participants. An administrator introduced the participants; the participants were then informed of the purpose of the study and invited to participate. All the participants indicated interest in the study, and face-to face interviews were conducted at a time and location of their choice. The cricketers were provided with an information sheet, and written consent was obtained prior to conducting the interviews. This case study approach was considered the most appropriate method of enquiry because it allowed the researcher to focus on contemporary events in great detail (Yin, 2003). In addition, participants were free to discuss individual experiences in their own words rather than through research-imposed constructs and language (Walter, 2000). The information obtained during the interviews was subsequently verified through alternate sources such as media reports and discussion with administrators and coaches. Source triangulation was

145 preferred to participant checks as a validity mechanism due to negative associations with the terms EL and managing emotions (Cresswell & Eklund, 2006).

As mentioned in the earlier studies, the term EL can have negative connotations, hence it was not mentioned at any stage of the data collection process. Questions were framed to address the processes of EL without directly referring to it. The study therefore employed a semi-structured and an indirect interview approach (Paton, 1990). Furthermore, due to the sensitive nature of the study and the high-profile status of these players, probing was conducted in an indirect manner, and at times included challenging some of the participants’ statements. The interview questions were aimed at eliciting information on the processes of EL, which includes suppressing or faking emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading the emotions of others, and lastly managing the emotions of others

(Hochschild, 1983). Since participants in the previous two studies highlighted their involvement in suppressing emotions and dealing with mixed emotions, the interview questions aimed to unravel this aspect in more detail. Furthermore, players illustrated instances that related to experiencing EL. This indirect method of inquiry was employed to elicit responses from players without causing them inconvenience.

The first interview aimed to elicit information about the professional challenges encountered by professional cricketers and player perceptions of the management of EL

(see Appendix C for interview questions). In addition, participants’ perceptions were obtained on a list of ICC Codes to determine if certain codes were emotionally challenging to adhere to (see Table 32). The second interview utilised a video-prompting technique to facilitate discussion on the nature of the demands encountered during these games and the manner in which they were handled. The second interview also investigated the ‘role of

146

Table 20

ICC Code of Conduct for Players and Team Officials that was provided to players during the interview

1. The Captain is responsible at all times for ensuring that play is conducted within the spirit of the game as well as within the Laws.

2. The Captain shall be held responsible if his team does not meet the minimum over rate requirements.

3. Players and Team Officials must at all times accept the Umpire’s decision. Players must not show dissent at the Umpire’s decision. This includes disappointment with an umpire’s decision with specific actions such as shaking of the head, snatching cap from umpire, pointing at pad or inside edge, other displays of anger or abusive language directed at the umpire or excessive delay in resuming play or leaving the wicket.

4. Players and Team Officials shall not use crude or abusive language (known as “sledging”) nor make offensive gestures. This also includes swearing in frustration at one’s own poor play.

5. Players and Team Officials shall not make any public announcement or media comment regarding match officials or players or teams against which they have played.

6. Players and Team Officials shall not abuse cricket equipment or clothing, ground equipment or fixtures and fittings.

7. Players and Team Officials shall not engage in excessive appealing. This includes the practice of celebrating a dismissal before the decision has been given.

8. Gesturing towards the pavilion in an aggressive manner by a bowler or other members of the fielding side upon the dismissal of a batsman is not allowed.

9. Deliberate physical contact (walk/run into or shoulder another player) between players in the course of play should be avoided.

10. Players and Team Officials shall not engage in any act of violence on the field of play.

11. Players and Team Officials breaching the code of conduct and committing any of the offences (Level I- IV) will be penalized. This can include 50 to 100% fine of their match fees or being banned from a few matches depending on the level of offence.

147 culture’ in professional cricket. More specifically, two video clips from The Ashes (2006) were shown to the players. Video-clips (see Figure 26) from the Ashes series were chosen to elicit responses from the players to obtain information about such encounters, since it involves a clash between two archrivals: Australia and England. The first video-clip displayed was of previous Australian bowler Shane Warne’s unsuccessful appeals and his reaction when the umpire ruled against him (favoring the batsman) three times in close succession in the first test match of the Ashes (2006). More specifically, Warne stopped in the middle of the pitch and stared at the umpire, in a questioning manner. He also took sometime before he resumed play. The second clip shown was the dismissal of the

Australian Captain Ricky Ponting and his reaction when he was adjudged ‘out’ in the third test match of the Ashes (2006). Ponting was adjudged ‘out’ for a caught behind appeal at a crucial stage of the game as Australia had already lost eight wickets, and hence was left with two tail-enders (specialist bowlers) wickets. So, it appeared that the match was in

England’s favour. However, the order of the video-clip shown depended on whether the participant was a bowler or batsmen. This would enable to obtain the players specialist role

(batsmen, bowler or all rounder) in the team, as well as that of others. For example, a specialist batsman’s perspective on batsmen (Ponting’s video-clip) and then of bowlers

(Warne’s video-clip).

These video-clips were chosen to elicit responses as to how players cope with such situations. Video analysis of competitive matches against archrivals (e.g., Australia versus

England) would enable the exploration of EL from a new dimension. That is, it could clarify the difficulty of coping with these demands during such games, which creates expectations from their respective organisations, from sport admirers (fans), and also the media. Hence, perceptions of playing against the England team and the pressure that may

148

Figure 26. Images of the Video-clip Shown to Australian Players

149 be involved were potentially revealing. In most instances, professional players exercise caution when questioned directly about matters related to other teams and players. This incident-based prompting was used to increase the probability that players would express themselves in an unrestrained manner. The role of ‘culture’ was also examined in order to determine whether it could affect the performance and management of EL. Since surface acting and deep acting are methods through which players (employees) perform EL

(Hochschild, 1983), interview questions also aimed to unravel the type of acting players performed. As explained earlier (in Chapter 2) surface acting refers to simply exhibiting an emotional display that is not genuinely felt or inhibiting the expression of a genuinely felt emotion. Hence, surface acting is also called “faking in bad faith” (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987, p. 32) because players (employees) conform to the display rules to keep their job, not to please the cricket fans (customer) or the organisation. On the other hand, deep acting is called “faking in good faith” (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987, p. 32) because it involves the intent to change the actual emotional state of the actor. Deep acting has two variations. In one case, actors imagine that they feel the actual emotion and present a display accordingly. In the other case, actors exhort themselves to feel the appropriate emotion and then present the associated display as the employee genuinely believes and tries to feel the emotion. Deep acting, however, still requires EL as “felt emotion must still be translated into appropriate emotional displays, though it may be comparatively lesser (to surface acting) as the employee genuinely believes in the emotion” (Morris & Feldman, 1996. p. 992).

Data Analysis

As mentioned elsewhere (Chapter 3, Study 1), though the researcher did not play cricket at a competitive level, she played cricket during her early childhood years. In addition, her father had played the game at the competitive level, and she had grown up in a

150 joint-family setting where cricket matches featuring India were rarely missed. Moreover, prior to conducting this research, the researcher had worked as a sport psychology consultant with the Indian National teams for three years. The same researcher conducted all the interviews in Australia over a period of two and a half months.

Two interviews were conducted with each participant, with the exception of one participant who was only interviewed once since he was hesitant (in the first interview) to express his views and experiences related to cricket. All the interviews were audio taped and lasted from 20 to 90 minutes. Verbatim reports were transcribed and qualitatively analysed. Face-to-face discussions with coaches and administrators, behavioral observations during the sessions and media reports were incorporated while presenting the case study data. Data were analysed using both inductive and deductive methods to extract vital themes related to the cricketers’ emotional demands. Data saturation occurred when participants provided the same examples for different questions or repeated what other participants in the research had previously stated, thereby not adding anything to the findings.

It is noteworthy to mention that all the three players were first interviewed during

Australia’s domestic cricket season. This helped in obtaining valuable information pertaining to competition, as players were able to recall specific recent incidents in detail.

Due to the heavy travel and competition commitments, the second interview was held shortly after the completion of the cricket season in Australia. The timing of these interviews was beneficial because players summarised the competitive season and their related feelings.

151

Results and Discussion

In-depth case study of participants is presented in detail. Individual interview sessions with players are also presented separately. The results and discussion are presented in three sections. The first section deals with the management of emotions from an EL perspective. The second section discusses perceived demands that players believed resulted in perceptions of EL. The third and final section addresses the public EL which includes cricket-related demands such as media and cricket fans, which could play a role in performing EL.

Case Study 1 – “Steve”, First Interview: An Insight into the Emotional Challenges of

Professional Cricketers.

A Brief Background and Overview

“Steve” is a professional cricketer with six years experience in first class cricket. In addition to his main role as a specialist batsman, he is a part-time bowler in the team. Steve was first interviewed after the team had lost a close match, but he felt that this contest did not affect his responses. Since it was the cricketing season, Steve was able to discuss many instances with specific details. Steve appeared relaxed and friendly, and he was able to clearly express the emotional challenges he encountered as a junior player (when he first started playing at the first class level). Furthermore, he addressed the many emotional demands the Captain of a cricket team is likely to encounter. In addition, commercialisation of cricket, media hype, “macho” cricket culture, and expectations of cricket fans emerged as central themes in dealing with the public display of emotions in professional cricket.

152

Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

The interview questions were aimed at eliciting information on the processes of EL, which includes suppressing or faking emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading the emotions of others, and lastly managing the emotions of others (Hochschild, 1979). Players illustrated instances that related to experiencing EL. Specifically, on-field illustrations were chiefly associated to organisational rules such as ICC codes (written and unwritten) and other organisational factors; off-field examples were connected to cricket-related aspects such as media and commercialisation.

Suppressing Genuine Emotions

Steve reported that he frequently managed his emotions mainly through the suppression of negative emotions. He provided an example of a recent game where he was required to suppress his emotions. Steve explained that he had to suppress his emotions when the umpire turned down an LBW (leg before wicket) appeal. Also, Steve felt he had to regulate his emotions to avoid any unwanted display of negative emotions that could lead to code breach and penalty. In addition, he stated that such decisions and consequent emotional regulation was a regular feature of competitive cricket.

The prime example is when a decision doesn’t go your way, either batting or bowling . . . . I was bowling and thought I had an LBW but it was not given out . . . . wasn’t a TV game or anything but you do have to suppress your emotions, you can’t say anything or do anything out of turn that could get you into trouble [avoid penalty]. I mean those sort of examples happen all the time in our sport.

Steve stated that professional cricket involved numerous physical and mental challenges. “You are challenged a lot during the game both physically and mentally.” As a consequence, Steve felt the game necessitated managing emotions to a certain extent. In

153 fact, Steve believed that emotional regulation would be much more in cricket than other sports due to the length of cricket games. “You do definitely get times when you do have to keep those emotions in check, and I think that is more prevalent in our game than most other games just because of the length.”

Mixed Emotions

Steve also drew light on an interesting facet in team sports that is ‘mixed emotions’.

There can be two situations when this happens: Firstly, when a player has performed well but the team loses. The player’s happiness over his good form and performance is apparent; however, it is disappointing that the team lost and hence team goals were not achieved.

There have been many occasions when players’ personal milestones have been shadowed by the team’s loss. Secondly, it could be the other way round wherein the team has done exceptionally well and won the game but the bowler may have had a very bad game. The second situation may not be very difficult to deal with since the team has won and the player’s poor form or inconsistent performance takes a back seat. Experiencing mixed emotions seems to be a frequent occurrence in cricket. This could be because cricket is a combination of individual and team goals.

Steve stated that he had experienced mixed emotions on few occasions. He provided an example of a recent game in which he had scored lot of runs but the team lost in the final over of the game. Further still, Steve explained it was extremely disappointing to lose the match in such a manner, and his performance was of little value because the result of the match was of more significance. Furthermore, Steve observed that he was more disappointed at the team’s loss and hence didn’t savour his good form and performance.

154

Also in such situations, Steve was confident about his performance in future matches but was not sure about the team’s performance.

I have been in that situation quite a few times actually . . . we were chasing 400 and odd runs, I scored *** not out [lot of runs] and we lost in the last over . . . . The fact that we lost was shattering; yeah doing well was great . . . . and that has happened a couple of times where I personally have done well but the team hasn’t and so your still feeling quite empty and quite disappointment about it all . . . . I guess for me personally I have plenty of confidence in my personal form going into the next game. As a whole team we were just flat and not prepared as well as we could have been.

Coping Steve stated that he mainly employed rationalisation and reframing to deal with the emotional challenges of the game. “Okay it has happened now, it hasn’t happened in your favour, you got to get on with it.” Also, he believed it was essential to give vent to his frustration to avoid emotional leakage. “And then you try and get it all out because if you keep boiling it up, then it explodes.” Steve suggested that taking his mind off cricket helped in dealing with the numerous demands of cricket. “May be a break away from the game and you think absolutely nothing about the game or may be have a big night out.”

This section showed that Steve manages his emotions mainly through suppressing his emotions and at times dealing with mixed emotions. However, the type of acting he may employ is unclear.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC Codes

Steve stated that he did not have any major concerns regarding the ICC and CA codes and rules. He stated: “I don’t seem to have a massive, massive issue with it but obviously they are there and there are pretty set guidelines for what you need to do.” Thus,

155 he views off-field codes as part of his job, and hence observed that cricketers need to be aware of their behaviour even off the field. “You are in public spot light and people are aware of what you do, what you say and how you conduct yourself”. However, he felt professional cricketers exercise caution to avoid making comments that might be detrimental to the player and the organisation they represent. This suggests that professional cricketers strive to present a good impression about themselves and the organisation, which would involve the regulation of emotions to a significant extent.

At times, there are probably things that you would like to say or you would like to express but sometimes unable to because it becomes detrimental to you and to your whole Association as well. In that sort of respect, you do have to keep an eye on what you do say and what you can and can’t do.

Nevertheless, as the session progressed Steve revealed that it was challenging to find the right balance between focusing on performing to his best caliber while adhering to the ICC codes, as it includes managing emotions and behaving in an appropriate manner.

Also, like most elite cricketers he stated the ‘heat of the moment’ axiom, which can be stated as any occurrence that happens due to the intense involvement of the game. Steve believed that it was challenging to be persistently emotionally regulated due to this heat of the moment phenomenon.

Definitely it is hard to balance because you want to be doing everything you can in the game and then you understand that you’ve got these sort of codes that are governing your behaviour in some sort of way . . . . There’s always going to be that time at the heat of the moment where it might just happen and it might just come out. I don’t know what you can really do about that.

In cricket, umpiring decisions are final and players are not supposed to show dissent to the umpire’s decision (Table 20, ICC code # 3). Steve observed: “I guess our on-field

156 conduct is determined by these codes so you can’t show dissent”. Steve explained that it was difficult to modulate emotions while dealing with perceived unfair umpiring decisions.

Also, he observed that when such a decision has been given, the emotions that usually need to be restrained are extreme anger and disappointment. Furthermore, Steve felt managing emotions during a player’s lean phase or an important stage of the game could be especially difficult.

Extreme anger is probably one and extreme disappointment is probably two and when you combine the two, it is very, very difficult to keep your emotions in check, especially if it is an important time of the game. Even if it’s not an important time of the game, or you if are not doing well, and all of a sudden you get another bad umpiring decision. In that instance, it can be so frustrating.

In line with the results of Study 1 and 2, Steve’s above statements suggest that emotions which require suppression include anger and disappointment. As discussed later this could have significant health affect. Though Steve believed it was difficult to regulate emotions in certain situations, Steve observed that emotions were restrained only until players were out of public view.

It is a hard thing to do; it is a hard thing to keep emotions in check. I guess the thing is it is only for a short period of time that you do and you can let it all out as soon as you are back in the change room or whatever . . . . On the field, there is nothing you can do about it.

In this regard it might be more difficult for bowlers (than batsmen) to regulate their emotions because they cannot leave the field till the completion of the game. In addition to batting, Steve is also a part-time bowler, and therefore elaborated that it was especially difficult to focus on bowling the next few balls (or deliveries) and completing the over after a very close LBW appeal was turned down. “It is hard, it is hard to completely wipe that and go on to bowl the next ball and finish the over out”. Steve provided an example of a

157 perceived unfair umpiring decision wherein he was required to suppress his frustration while bowling. He explained that it was even more frustrating because the umpire’s decision was crucial and it could have turned the match in his team’s favour.

The immediate sort of feelings were frustration and anger, and it was coming down to the third or fourth last over of the game, it could have been a decision where if we got it; it could have changed the game. That sort of intensifies it a bit . . . . I just stood there, didn’t say anything or didn’t question the decision in any way but just stood there and took a few moments to gather my thoughts a little bit; I guess you have to. If you say it affected me a little bit, yes it did a little bit, not a whole lot but it is certainly there at the back of my mind and the frustration is sort of there. At the end of the over, as I was walking away and let out my frustration where it wasn’t audible I probably let out a bit of frustration there, you just sort of have to hold it till then . . . . Those couple of balls after that decision were quite tough.

The above example suggests that a bowler’s emotions might be repressed for a much longer period because he cannot leave the field, whereas a batsman can vent it out in the dressing room when adjudged ‘out’. His perception when adjudged ‘out’ as a batsman was: “As soon as I get into the change rooms, I’m out of public view then all the emotion comes out, whether be it smashing things or yelling or whatever.” Hence, an all rounder

(who bowls and bats) like Steve might be managing emotions to a larger extent than a batsmen or bowler.

Steve also threw light on how crucial umpiring decisions might affect a player’s career. “It is our livelihood and it can sometimes be determined by these people and it is out of our control.” This is because a player’s performance evaluation does not take into consideration such perceived unfair decisions. As a result, the chances of deselection may be high if a player has not scored adequate runs (for batsman) or adequate wickets (for bowlers). In this context batsmen may feel the axe more than bowlers, as bowlers do not solely depend on an umpire’s decision when claiming wickets. Of course, the LBW

158 decision solely depends on the umpire’s decision; however, there are other methods to claim wickets for the bowler.

Coping or dealing with umpiring decision appears to get better with age and experience. Steve found it relatively difficult to deal with umpiring decisions early in his career but he felt he is coping much better due to the experience.

I think the more I have played the game and the more experience I have got that becomes less of an issue. I think early on definitely, definitely; if I got a bad decision I would not let it go for a couple of days . . . you are constantly thinking about it. But I think now that I am a bit older, a bit more mature, experienced; I have learnt to say ‘well, there is nothing I can do about it now. I have got to get on with the game’.

Steve stated that he has Captained his Club team and hence knew the demands associated with managing the entire team. In this respect, he perceived that is was unjust for the Captain (Table 20, ICC code# 1) to be held responsible for the conduct of the entire team. “I just think that it is a tough thing for a Captain to take the fault for the entire team.”

According to this code, if the Captain of a team fails to control his team the Captain can get fined up to 50 percent of his match pay. Steve further stated that it was unfair to hold the

Captain responsible for the misdemeanor of the entire team.

I understand that may be the blame has to go somewhere but does the blame have to go solely on one person’s shoulders? Whether or not it then becomes his entire and sole responsibility to make sure the team is doing the right thing, I’m not too sure.

Steve felt that the ICC rules clearly stated that players should not ‘swear in frustration’ (Table 20, ICC code # 4), and believed that this code was mainly included for the benefit of television viewers and cricket fans. “I guess it is not socially acceptable to be swearing out loud on TV basically . . . it still has to be brought into check.” In order to

159 preserve and promote the spirit of the game, cameras and microphone are installed in the cricket pitch. This appears to be a good move by the ICC as it curbs physical aggression and abuses to a certain extent. However, Steve observed that he employs this (swearing at self) as a motivational strategy, and Steve felt it was especially difficult to curb swearing when he has committed a mistake.

I think just when you have made a mistake or you get hit for runs . . . sometimes you’d just love to let out a massive big expletive and then get on with it but that is something you’ve got to curb. The ICC defines ‘sledging’ as crude or abusive language (Table 20, ICC code 4).

Sledging is the verbal exchange between players in cricket. More specifically, it can be described as a process where in a player uses words or phrases with the intention to

‘psyche’ or destabilise his opponent (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2006). Although the

ICC code specifically states that players should not engage in sledging, it is a well-known fact that players employ sledging to gain a psychological edge over their opponent and it occurs during most international matches. Also, sledging is mainly employed by bowlers to gain a psychological edge over their opponent batsmen. Australian, English and South

African cricketers are most noted for sledging, though the South-Asian countries cannot be totally excluded from it. South Asian teams employ sledging in their own fashion.

Steve stated that he does not engage in sledging but believed it was employed as a mental strategy to distract the opposition. “It is the mental edge, it doesn’t have to be threatening or anything, it could be something really bizarre and they are thinking, ‘what the **** is he talking about’ and then you have done your job.” Steve explained that even a hilarious comment about the player (opponent) batting can sometimes distract the batsman’s focus, and as a consequence he might get dismissed due to lapse in concentration. Hence, Steve believed it was essential to focus on his task as a batter, and not on the sledging by his opponents.

160

As soon you let them start getting to you, then they are doing their job but you are not thinking about what you have to do . . . . It’s what you have to deal with, make sure it does not worry you and make sure you are focusing on what you need to do.

A few seldging quotes are listed to explain Steve’s point that focusing on one’s performance when such comments are made might be a little demanding. Australian Merv

Hughes to Englishman Robin Smith: "Does your husband play cricket as well?" Mark

Waugh to James Ormond coming out to bat in an Ashes match: “Mate, what are you doing out here, there’s no way you’re good enough to play for England.” Ormond: “Maybe not, but at least I'm the best player in my family.” (Mark's twin brother Steve was captain of the team). Austalain Ian Healy to Srilankan Arjuna Ranatunga when he called for a runner during a one day match: "You don't get a runner for being an overweight, unfit, fat ****!"

(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia). This section suggests that Steve perceives some of the

ICC codes as emotionally challenging. More specifically, he felt dealing with unfair umpiring decisions required a certain degree of emotional control. Also, Steve’s restraint from swearing in frustration, the Captains code, and dealing with sledging were reasonably challenging and required emotional management to a substantial extent.

Organisational Expectations

At the outset, Steve exercised some caution while addressing certain aspects about the organisation, for example when enquired about organisational expectation, his reply was: “How am I trying to word this . . . [pause] I think a lot more is expected of you.”

However, as the session progressed Steve was much more open and stated that the expectations on cricketers have increased, and he related this mainly to the financial remuneration players enjoy. Due to these financial benefits, Steve believed the organisation

161 expected a lot more from players, and this included more training commitments, media work and player appearances.

I definitely think that our expectations have increased and I think it has a lot to do with how much we are paid. Because we are so well paid these days, I don’t know if the Associations think they need more of us or whatever. It has become so much more professional now . . . . whether it might be through your training commitment or it might just be some media stuff or it might be player appearances . . . All these things take up a lot your time now. I think that has all come about because people [cricketers] don’t have to work anymore and because we do get paid so well, they do expect a lot more of our time for those sort of things to promote the game.

The above-mentioned quote suggests that professional cricketers are faced with numerous challenges and expectations. These challenges would certainly involve emotional management to a significant extent.

Pre-game

Pre-game jitters may also be considered EL since players are trying to cover/hide negative emotions. Furthermore, professional cricketers are under tremendous pressure to prove their credibility in every match. As Steve explains, it appears that dealing with this aspect is especially tough on rookie and younger players who are trying to establish themselves in the team. “For me, particularly early, it was important to show that confident body language and confident approach about it- to not show those nerves because I was nervous, nervous as ****, but I was trying my best not to show that.” Hence players attempt to cover up these emotions and this might require expending energy. Due to these reasons, pre-game jitters was considered worthy of examination.

Nerves, definitely nerves . . . I think it was a lot more prevalent when I first started; I guess you get nervous and you have doubts about your own ability that’s why you get nervous because you have this fear of failure.

162

Also, Steve felt it was essential to appear confident because batsmen will encounter sledging from the opposition. “You sort of stick your chest out when you go into bat and just show confident body language because as soon as you go out there in the middle, there is going to be chirp [sledging] from the other team.” Moreover, Steve explained that if players do not portray confidence, then the opposition is bound to take advantage of the player’s situation and utilise it to their advantage. Steve observed: “When I’m fielding if we see a guy is nervous, we are going to do it twice as much to him.”

Indirect Cricket-related Demands

Commercialisation and Media

Steve felt the media was interested in interviewing him when he performed well. He commented: “The media really only want to talk to me when I have done well anyway.”

Steve also believed it was important for professional sportsmen to exercise caution regarding their off-field behaviour because they are under constant media attention. He provided the example of a famous football players who had been involved in some media controversy. Furthermore, Steve commented on the manner in which media hyped incidents with reference to elite sportsmen.

X [football player] is a brilliant example isn’t it? Obviously his profile is fairly big . . . . whether or not he is innocent that’s not how it is portrayed but it does make you realise that you are in the spotlight a fair bit and you do have to be aware . . . . I guess because of our profile we need to keep that in mind.

Steve addressed the commercial aspect of the game. He believed that new rules were added to the existing ICC codes due to the immense popularity of cricket. “I think a lot of the reasons why these codes are put in place is because lots of people are watching

163 these games on TV.” In addition, he commented on the stringent schedules and the tediousness of cricket due to the amount of cricket played by professional cricketers.

Our schedule is pretty fixed and tight. When we have players from other teams coming over, it becomes a money issue; you can’t have teams having a 3-4 day gap in between games. It would be very hard scheduling in with the amount of cricket we do play.

Steve remarked that cricket has changed tremendously in the past ten years and felt it was much more commercial. He also emphasised that due to the immense popularity of the game, cricketers enjoy greater financial remuneration than cricketers in the past.

However, he felt that to continue enjoying further benefits, more revenue needs to be created and this is possible by attracting more spectators through cricket.

Yeah definitely and that’s again a money thing, I don’t think people [cricketers] were earning so much money back then . . . . I guess the promotion of the game has increased the amount of money that we’ve got, hundred times. Now we’ve seen the benefits of this, it’s just sort of like a circular thing in order to create that revenue and in order to get paid well I guess.

This section suggests that aspects indirectly related to cricket could influence the management of emotions significantly.

Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour

This section focuses on the consequences of EL. Steve observed that he is usually physically and emotionally drained towards the end of the cricket season. He immediately related this exhaustion to the amount of emotional regulation required, especially the suppression of emotions. “At the end of the cricketing season I am not only physically tired but I’m just mentally absolutely drained and that is because of these emotions that you have to suppress sometimes.” Besides, Steve felt the physical and emotional exhaustion could be

164 experienced after a four-day game because of the length of cricket. Steve further added that it was essential to release his emotions; if not Steve felt it could get built-up over a period of time, which could prove detrimental to self and others. Previous research has associated

EL with emotional exhaustion and emotional leakage (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003; Grandey,

2003).

I think it tires you out having to constantly do that sort of stuff [suppress emotions] and it is not only after a season it could be after a four-day game, you are just so physically and mentally exhausted because of that sort of thing . . . . I need that release because if I don’t get that, it just builds up and builds up; it’s not good for me or anybody else.

The importance of support network was also highlighted; Steve stated that if it was not adequate it could make playing tougher since cricket is a very emotional game. This also suggests that support networks outside cricket are important in managing the emotional challenges of the game.

Massively because as I said we have so many highs and lows in this game; my family, my girl friend and my friends are so important to me to be able to get support from them, particularly when I need it.

The evidence collected in this interview suggests that Steve usually manages his emotions mainly through suppressing his emotions and at times by dealing with mixed emotions. Steve reported that some of the ICC codes were emotionally challenging. More specifically, the ICC codes pertaining to perceived unfair umpiring decisions, restrictions on swearing in frustration, the Captains code and sledging were considered reasonably challenging to adhere to, and it required a significant amount of emotional regulation. Also, indirect-cricket related aspects such as the media and game commercialisation could influence the management of emotions to a certain degree. Steve highlighted the need to switch-off from cricket, and also emphasised the role of support networks in dealing with

165 the emotion management of professional cricket. Finally, though Steve was mostly open and unrestrained about his experiences, he was cautious regarding the way he presented certain facets about the organisation. This suggests the pressure on professional players to present themselves and the organisation in a favorable manner.

Case Study 1 – “Steve”, Second Interview: Video-analysis of match situations and player perceptions of the ‘role of culture’ in professional cricket.

Video-analysis: Focusing on the Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

As explained in the methodology section, two video-clips were shown to the players. Since Steve is a specialist batsman, it was deemed suitable to obtain his opinion regarding Ponting’s dismissal from a batsmen’s perspective at the outset. This also helped in enquiring into the emotional demands of batsmen in greater detail. Hence, Steve was first shown Ricky Ponting’s (batsman) clip, and then the second clip of Shane Warne’s

(bowler) apparent disappointment following his unsuccessful LBW appeals.

Ricky Ponting’s Dismissal

The first clip shown was the dismissal of the Australian Captain Ricky Ponting and his reaction when he was adjudged ‘out’. Steve felt Ricky Ponting handled himself and regulated his emotions extremely well. “I think he has done pretty well there to be honest.”

Furthermore, Steve believed that Ponting was experiencing much more disappointment than what he expressed in the clip. “Obviously he has shown a little bit of disappointment, but I bet you he is feeling 100 times more than what he is showing at the moment [in the clip].” In addition, Steve commented on the crucial situation at which Ponting was

166 adjudged ‘out’. “Especially in that situation where that game was so important and he has done well for so long and to get out just before the end . . . . Australia had one wicket to go.”

Steve also stated that it was a close decision that went against Ponting, as Steve felt it was difficult to gauge whether or not Ponting was actually ‘out’ from the clip. So Steve credited Ponting for handling his emotions in such a way that it was difficult for an observer to determine whether Ponting was disappointed at the umpire’s unfair decision or at getting out in that situation.

I don’t think you can tell from the clip whether it was out or not. And that is credit to him because you can’t tell whether he is disappointed at getting out or disappointed at getting a bad decision. It isn’t easy to tell, is it?

In addition, Steve felt that despite the disappointment at being given out, Ponting did not behave in a manner that could be categorised as dissent by the ICC. In fact, Steve believed that Ponting regulated his emotions very well and avoided showing any dissent, which could have led to a code breach and penalty. Also, Steve stated that such decisions were part of the game.

He [Ponting] obviously showed disappointment but compared to what he was feeling, I thought he was pretty well refrained from showing any emotional dissent. I think his reaction was not dissent in anyway, I think he did extremely well and that is part of the game isn’t it? You do get such decisions.

Steve highlighted that most cricketers needed to suppress their emotions to a reasonable degree, and he felt Ricky Ponting’s clip was a good example to explain this aspect. He also commented that Ponting managed his emotions on the cricket ground well and what he did once he was off the field did not matter, as the spectators don’t get to view

167 it. This was because as Steve states Ponting had a run into few spectators in the crowd on his way to the change rooms.

I think that is a good, perfect clip because it shows that we do have to suppress those emotions at times, whether you got off the field and ran into the crowds you never know but from a viewers perspective that is all they get to see.

Shane Warne’s LBW Appeals

The second clip shown was Shane Warne’s disappointment because he was unable to convince the umpire to rule in his favor in three close appeals. Steve’s initial comments on Shane Warne’s clip was that it was a typical bowlers reaction of applying pressure on the umpire to adjudge a decision in the bowlers favour. Also, Steve felt Warne was behaving in that manner (looking frustrated and questioning the umpire in disbelief) with a specific purpose of pressurising the umpire. “I think that is typical Warni - that is just him putting pressure on the umpire, obviously he genuinely thinks it is out.” We also need to bear in mind that in addition to batting, Steve is also a part-time bowler.

Steve felt the appeals by Warne and the Australian fielders were genuine, as they believed the batsman was out. Hence, he stated that Warne might have been questioning the umpire by standing in the middle of the pitch and looking at the umpire in disbelief before bowling the next ball. In the clip, Warne actually takes more than the stipulated time to get back to his bowling. Furthermore, Steve stated that through constant appealing, Warne sometimes convinced the umpires to adjudge in his favour.

To me they [Australian team was fielding] genuinely think it is out, I don’t think it is over the top or it is excessive appealing but at the same time I bet you Warni was asking the umpire why that was not out or what is the problem with that appeal or just continually chipping [questioning through body language] away at the umpire as he does. He puts pressure on them like that by these appeals and eventually sometimes he gets favorable decisions because of that.

168

Moreover, Steve believed that if a batsman reacted similar to Shane Warne (in the clip), then the batsman could be fined for dissent because Steve believes bowlers have more flexibility (than batsmen) regarding expressing emotions when the umpire turns down their appeal. This suggests that there is some leniency towards bowlers regarding emotion management when compared to batsmen.

He [Warne] is obviously very disappointed but if you were a batter and gave that reaction, you could be fined for dissent I am sure. Bowlers I guess they have a little bit more leeway at times because they are normally upset when it is given ‘not out’ rather than given ‘out’.

Steve believed bowlers have numerous opportunities to claim a batsman’s wicket as they have 10 ‘overs’ to bowl in a one-day match and unlimited overs in a test match.

Whereas, once a batsman is adjudged out or dismissed by the bowler, it is the end of his innings. Also, Steve felt it was much more difficult to cope if a batsman was given a tough decision, which might not have been ‘out’. Such situations would involve the management of emotions to a reasonable degree. This suggests that the duration and intensity of managing emotions may vary for batsmen and bowlers. As the quote below suggests, bowlers are required to manage their emotions for a much longer duration because they cannot leave the field till the end of the innings. On the other hand, the intensity of emotions may be higher for batsmen as they are provided with a single opportunity in a one-day game.

I guess the beauty of being a bowler is you always get another chance; whereas, as a batter if you get a bad decision, you are out- that is it- you are finished. In that sense, it is more difficult . . . . if a bowler gets hit for a four, he goes back to his mark and bowls but once a batsman is out, he is finished. That is why it is tough as a batsman and particularly when you get a tough decision, it magnifies even more.

169

However, he felt even bowlers are required to manage their emotions, especially when the umpire turns down a close appeal. But he perceived that it was essential to focus on the task through rationalisation and reframing. Steve also believed that experienced bowlers are better at handling such challenges due to their experience.

I guess the more experienced the bowler, they are better at doing it. They are probably better at saying ‘well okay no point in dwelling on it, there is nothing you can do about it -let’s move on and bowl the next ball’.

Steve felt dropping a catch was similar to an umpire turning down an appeal. He stated that it was frustrating when a close appeal was turned down by the umpire, and more so when the entire team believed the batsmen was out but the umpire decides otherwise. He stated that such decisions could at times dampen the team spirit, especially if the batsman makes a big score.

It is like you drop a catch or if you genuinely think you have got someone out and they are given ‘not-out’, then every run they score is frustrating and it can make things worse, especially if the whole team thinks that person is out and it gets given ‘not out’, it can actually bring the whole team down. And if that person goes on and makes a big hundred, it can be quite demoralising. I think the challenge is to think, ‘it is gone, there is nothing we can do about it – let’s try and get him out again or how are we going to get him out now’ but it can mentally deflate the whole team and sometimes it can cost you a fair bit.

Steve observed that it was less challenging to manage emotions with his teammates, even when a catch was dropped of his bowling. This is because Steve believed that it was unintentional and the player who dropped the catch would feel a lot worse. But the same does not apply to umpiring decisions. In fact, Steve stated that it was easy forgiving a teammate who dropped a catch than the umpire for turning down a close appeal.

As a bowler you might be disappointed but you know that no one ever means to drop the catch. I can promise you that the amount you are probably annoyed about it, you can times it by a million for the bloke who dropped the catch . . . I don’t

170

think anyone is going to be harsh than the person who dropped the catch. In that sense, I don’t get mad or upset at people [players] who drop catches of my bowling because they didn’t mean to do it and nothing good is going to come out if you blame him for it . . . . At the heat of the moment I might be disappointed but I feel that is easier to move on than if I thought someone was out and got given not out [by umpire].

This leniency towards teammates is understandable since cricket is a team game.

Also, Steve observed that there have been many occasions when he has dropped catches and felt bad about it. So players are able to deal with on-field mistakes by teammates as they have been in the same situation many a times. He observed: “I have dropped plenty of catches and it is exactly the same thing- every run the bloke makes after that you are just going ‘oh, no’. It is a horrible, horrible feeling.”

Steve also felt that wicket keepers might be under much more pressure because they are judged by their ‘keeping’ skills. And this would be especially difficult because they need to focus on every ball while fielding. This suggests that the amount of emotional regulation performed by wicket keepers might be considerably more than other players.

There is probably more pressure on them because that is what they are judged by- how well they do keep and what they do catch and what they don’t catch. I guess it is probably even more magnified for them because it is their specialist role in the team and that is what they are in the team to do.

This section suggests that Steve believes that players manage their emotions mainly by suppressing their emotions pertaining to on-field aspects (such as umpiring) more than dealing with teammates (dropped catches). Also, Steve addressed that the duration and intensity of emotional regulation varies for batsman and bowlers.

171

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC Codes

Steve felt the ICC and CA rules clearly stated the behaviour that was accepted from professional cricketers. Though he understands that these rules have been enforced to enhance the spirit of cricket, Steve observed that it was reasonably challenging to adhere to these rules at all times. Hence, he felt players might breach codes during certain crucial situations.

All these codes of behaviour have come in and they sort of draw a line with what you can and cannot do . . . . I understand why they got these things [ICC & CA rules] in place but sometimes they can be a bit hard to follow . . . just being able to express yourself, there are boundaries and you can overstep those boundaries sometimes.

Since players’ emotions are governed to a large extent by the ICC and CA rules,

Steve felt it was better to regulate emotions and adhere to the rules, and thereby, avoid the consequences associated with expressing any negative emotion. Furthermore, Steve observed it would help to modulate emotions on the cricket field, and release emotions once he was out off the cricket field.

We do show emotions but unfortunately it is governed so much these days and you are going to pay the penalty for it, particularly if it is in a negative fashion. And that is what we have to learn how to do- not to let it get the better of us, may be wait till you get off the ground.

Besides, Steve observed that it was challenging to a certain degree to watch a teammate dismissed by an unfair umpiring decision. This is similar to Gilchrist’s incident explained after the quote.

172

It is a bit hard when you are at the non-strikers and you think the striker has got a horrible decision. I have seen that before where the guy [batsman] at the other end is just going ‘you are kidding me, how can you possibly give that out’.

Figure 27 shows Adam Gilchrist reacting in anger at an umpiring decision against his teammate Symmonds (who was batting). Mike Procter fined Australian vice-captain

Gilchrist half his match fee for showing dissent at umpire Peter Manuel when he raised his finger to signal Symonds dismissal (Tribune India, 25 February, 2004). Television replays showed a furious Gilchrist shouting at the umpire. However, Manuel called Symonds back after consulting with fellow umpire Billy Bowden. ICC match referee Procter said Gilchrist twice spoke to Manuel saying, "what is going on here" and then threw down his batting gloves. Procter summed-up the offence by saying, "Gilchrist's defence was that he was showing his emotions, he is a very emotional guy. I think it is tough on him as he's a very fair cricketer, but, in my opinion, he was showing dissent" (ABC sport, 25 February, 2004).

Gilchrist had been fined twice before this incident; in fact, in the fifth Ashes Test against

England in 2004, he was reprimanded for swearing when an appeal was turned down.

Steve observed that the pressure during crucial situations could result in players reacting and behaving in an unsportsmanlike manner; similar to the way Gilchrist reacted in the above example. However, he stated that it was a challenge to be emotionally regulated and restrained during high-pressure situations, and react akin to Ricky Ponting (in the first clip) who walked off the ground feeling disappointed but regulated his emotions so well that he did not show any dissent.

It is just the pressure of the situation. If you are going really well, it doesn’t matter . . . . I think they could be built on the situation or just the intensity of the situation and sometimes you do react badly or may be how you should not react and that is a hard thing to do. For example, as Ricky Ponting did [in the first clip] just put your head down and walk off, sometimes it is not that easy.

173

Figure 27. Australian vice-captain Adam Gilchrist reacts in anger at the umpire’s decision against his Teammate. (Source: http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040225/sports.htm)

174

Steve stated that the State team was quite flexible and the team discussed emotions within the team environment. In fact, he felt it was important to have some release and as he states, without appropriate release, emotions are bound to get built-up, and it might eventually be expressed in some manner.

We are pretty open about emotions, especially in the change rooms. Sometimes you need to talk about it to get that release, if you just keep it in you - it just builds up and gets cracked somewhere along the lines. We certainly talk about it, it is ‘in- house’ [within the team environment], so you are not talking to the press about it or to your mates, and it is in the team environment.

Most instances pertaining to this section was related to perceived unfair umpiring decisions and the emotional regulation required in such situations, suggesting that players constantly deal with this source of strain during competitive games to a substantial degree.

Indirect Cricket-related Demands

Commercialisation and Media

Similar to the first interview, Steve addressed the commercial aspect of cricket due to the emphasis on one-day cricket. He commented that the popularity of cricket has increased, and hence there was much more pressure and expectations on players. Also, he related some of this pressure due to the high-profile status of these players as they are normally seen as ambassadors for the country they represent.

The pressure I think comes down because it has become so much more commercialised with one-day cricket and all that stuff. Whereas, 20 years ago there wasn’t so much cricket on TV and they weren’t playing nearly as much cricket as they are playing now, I guess there are those pressures and expectancies to do well. The pressure comes from being such high-profile players and they are ambassadors because it is such a popular sport, people do watch it but they do expect you to do well also.

175

Furthermore, Steve related the emphasis and expectation on winning to the financial remuneration professional cricketers enjoy. He also felt that cricket fans expect Australia to win because they have been performing well in the past few years. In fact, Australia has won the World Cup three times in a row.

And I guess, particularly, now considering how well cricketers are paid - there is a certain level of expectancy because they get so paid well and because they [Australia] have been so successful, there is almost the expectancy that they are going to win and they are going to perform well.

Steve observed that the immense negative media attention the Australian team received after they lost the Ashes in 2005 was not justified. On the other hand, he also stated that the loss helped Australian cricket because Steve believed it renewed cricket interest in the country. Furthermore, Steve felt the country was shocked when the

Australian team lost the Ashes last year (2005), and as Steve stated the shocked reaction was because Australia is one of the best teams in the world. This suggests the pressure on

Australian professional cricketers to live up to the standards of the World Champions.

However, Steve also remarked that professional cricketers could become complacent because they were playing too much cricket.

Even to a certain extent the Ashes last year when Australia lost the Ashes [in 2005], I mean that was blown up by the media. But having said that I think it was a good thing for Australian cricket because it just created that much interest for this upcoming series [2006] . . . . I guess because Australia has dominated for so long, to actually lose was an absolute shock . . . . And especially with the amount of cricket being played now, it is quite easy to get a little complacent.

In addition, Steve observed that first class cricketers are under constant pressure to perform consistently, especially when a player is not in good form or when they get a

176 perceived unfair umpiring decision. This suggests that career concerns are paramount to professional players.

It is your livelihood - that is how you make your living as well. That is another big pressure on you as well because if you are not performing then all of sudden you get dropped – that is how you make your living at the moment, there is that pressure as well . . . . I think if you get a bad decision or you’re having a bad run, it can affect your livelihood.

Steve’s comments suggest that cricket-related aspects can impact the management of emotions, especially since intense competition and commercialisation are usually accompanied by career concerns.

Cultural Influences

Steve felt that culture played an important part in his game since values about the game were instilled at an early stage. “You are brought up with certain values about the game and that is instilled in you at quite a young age.” He also felt the National cricket team could significantly influence younger and State players. “I guess it all stems from the

National team and their culture, and that flows through the whole country.”

Steve observed that appearing strong and in control of the situation was an

Australian trait. Also, not showing pain when hit by a ball was also an Australian characteristic.

As a general rule I think it is un-Australian to speak a ‘dummy’ [not show dissent] . . . . It is un-Australian to show dissent; we pride ourselves in not letting it get to us so much . . . . It is the Australian way not to show pain if you get hit by a ball.

The other main characteristic feature of Australia as Steve explained is the emphasis on winning. Furthermore, he felt players were treated unfairly when they encountered

177 failure. He explained this aspect with the intense negative media attention the Australian team received when the encountered defeat prior to the World Cup in 2007.

There is this winning culture within Australia because everyone wants to be the best at what they do. It is a bit unfair because when we don’t win [pause] . . . I mean you take the example when we [Australia] lost those one-dayers [one-day matches] in New Zealand, the amount of press and the amount of crap we got for it.

While not exhaustive, Steve’s comments do suggest that culture has influenced his approach to the game, which would include the way emotions are governed or regulated.

Cricket Culture

Steve observed that sledging and drinking beer was part of the cricket culture.

“Sledging is probably part of it, may be having a beer after the game . . . . I suppose that

[drinking beer] is the Australian cricket culture.” However, Steve believed in exercising restrain as a batsman when sledged, as he felt the bowler would eventually claim his wicket as a batsman.

For me as a batsman I never say anything back because I have the opinion that they are always going to get the last laugh, unless you make five million [impossible score] they are always going to get the last laugh.

He also explained that the fielding team’s spirit is enhanced when a batsmen sledges the bowler or the fielders. This could be because batsmen rarely sledge, as the opposition team surrounds the two lonesome batters. However, there are few exceptions; for example, previous Australian Captain Steve Waugh enjoyed sledging and chirping with the opposition while batting.

And I know if I am out there fielding and the batsman is chirping at our bowler or one our fielders, all of a sudden you lift and your whole team lifts - there is a bit of intensity out there because this batsman has something to say back.

178

Steve observed that sledging and ‘chirping’ (verbal banter) with the opposition depended on the individual player because some players perform better when sledged and it affected others negatively. Hence, players like Steve Waugh thrive under such conditions, and Steve felt it was better not to sledge such players as they enjoy sledging and perform better. On the other hand, some players were affected by sledging, and Steve remarked it was good to gain a mental edge over such players.

I think it is almost a person-by-person situation, some people you can talk to and others you know you don’t say a word to them because they thrive under that. For some people if you get under their skin and they dig back [sledge or react badly], you know you have them but some people love having a chat, so you don’t say anything to them and that is also trying to get on top of them.

Steve stated that most of the fast bowlers he encountered had an aggressive mindset. And this aggression could be expressed through body language, bowling or dominating the batsmen through eye contact. On a lighter note, Steve commented that he did not expect a fast bowler to be polite to him when he was batting against the bowler. This suggests that

Steve expects some degree of aggressiveness from fast bowlers.

I have never come across, particularly at the first class level, a fast bowler that doesn’t have an aggressive side to him . . . . I think aggression can come in many ways – just the way they approach you, the way they bowl at you can be aggressive or a look or something like that. I have never had a fast bowler come down and smile at me, and then walk back to his mark, unless I can’t hit him and he is probably laughing at me.

It appears that competitive cricket involves a degree of banter and aggression between players, and Steve believes it is best to equip himself to encounter these mental and physical challenges.

179

Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour

Steve provided the example of a teammate who got three bad decisions in a row, which then resulted in showing dissent at the umpire, as the player was emotionally unregulated. Steve attributed this behaviour to the pent-up frustration, and felt the players built-up emotions could no longer be restrained. Hence, Steve perceived it was important to have a release, and avoid emotional leakage on the cricket-field.

A brilliant example is one of our guys - he got two really bad decisions in our last game and then went back to grade cricket the following week and got another bad decision, so he got three bad decisions in a row. He just exploded, abused the umpire and just carried on- it was just built-up so much that ‘bang’, it just came out. To see that happen, it does show that for some people it does build-up and if you don’t have an outlet it is going to come out eventually, and if you are in the middle off the field it is going to be costly.

Also, Steve observed that in such situations the player would be labeled as a bad sport because he disputed the umpire’s decision and behaved unsportsmanly. Furthermore,

Steve felt that players who were emotional would find it a lot more difficult to suppress and regulate emotions. Steve believed that he was emotionally well regulated; yet he has been upset and given vent to his emotions in the change rooms when a decision has gone against him.

If you do get reported and suspended, then all of a sudden everyone has this idea of you as someone who disputes the umpires’ decisions or someone who is a bad sport because they got a bad decision and it carried on . . . . Some people do show their emotions naturally more than others, in that sense for them to suppress it would probably be more difficult. I don’t think I am an overly emotional player, so it is not as difficult for me. Having said that I have thrown a few good tantrums in the change rooms if I have got a bad decision or something like that.

Steve did not state it was difficult playing cricket for lengthy periods. He felt, however, that it was physically and mentally challenging to be away from his family during

180 that time. This suggests that dealing with emotional challenges could be a lot more difficult when a major source network (family) is unavailable for lengthy periods, as players are constantly on tour. This has been called ‘life on the wheels’ (Dixon, et al., 2006).

It is tough, particularly when you are away from home so much as well. To not see your family and your friends . . . not have those people for a good period of time. I know during our summer I am away, I am away a **** of a lot and that is quite difficult, and it is mentally and physically quite challenging.

Steve reported that he tried to remain controlled even when he was not doing well at cricket or if he had a few bad decisions. Yet, he exclaimed this was difficult to do at all times. He also reported that it was unfair to displace his frustration about cricket on his family. This suggests that work-related frustration may affect other areas, such as personal life (Wharton & Erickson, 1993).

If I had got a bad decision and I am in the dumps, I try and leave that at cricket- when I get home I try and not be this person who has got a shitty decision . . . Whether I have done well or badly, I try and be the same the person at home- I might be a bit different at cricket . . . . And that is unrealistic in a literal sense, I don’t think it is possible to be completely the same but I try and do that as much as I can because at the end of the day it is not anyone else’s fault at home that I got a bad decision or I am not playing well at the moment, so I think it is a little unfair to take it out on them.

The importance of releasing pent-up emotions was addressed in this section with concrete example. Also, Steve explained how managing emotions on the field could have an impact on other aspects of a player’s life such as personal life.

In this interview, Steve once again emphasised that professional cricketers mainly managed their emotions by suppressing their emotions. The video-clips facilitated in obtaining further information regarding emotional management pertaining to competitive aspects (such as umpiring). Also, Steve addressed that the duration and intensity of

181 emotional regulation varies for batsman and bowlers. Furthermore, his comments suggest that the media, commercialisation of the game, culture and cricket culture could influence the management of emotions to a substantial degree. Finally, Steve observed that the consequences of regulating emotions over lengthy periods could be detrimental to the player’s career and personal life to a significant extent.

Case Study 2 – “Shane”: An Insight into the Emotional Challenges of Professional

Cricketers.

A Brief Background and Overview

“Shane” is a specialist bowler with five years experience in professional cricket. Shane was interviewed around the same time as Steve (first case study). However, the difference in their responses was striking. In fact, Shane came across as a reserved individual and he did not express much; the interview ended within 20 minutes. Shane was hesitant to discuss the emotional challenges related to cricket. Moreover, his response to most questions was,

“no problem, it is all good” and “I don’t know”. He took a good couple of minutes before answering any question, indicating that he was thoughtful and probably mindful of his actions.

Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

Suppressing Emotions

In line with Hochschild’s (1983) view, Shane reported that he managed his emotions to a certain extent. “Definitely we need to manage emotions.” However, Shane prefered to keep his emotions under control and to himself. “I get emotional but I don’t

182 show it . . . I keep it inside, to myself.” But, he also stated that he would express his emotions if it got too much to handle. “If it gets too much I will express.” This suggests that in addition to managing his emotions, Shane might not be releasing his frustrations.

Furthermore, Shane felt cricket is an emotional game, and hence he suppressed his emotions to a certain degree. “It is a pretty emotional game because you cannot say many things you want to say.” He also believed that managing emotions could affect performance. “It can affect your performance because you can get emotional and stuff like that.” This comment suggests that Shane believes that unregulated emotions could be detrimental to performance.

Mixed Emotions

Shane observed that it was not pleasant to encounter mixed emotions. In a recent game, Shane explained that he had performed extremely well but the team lost. “I was happy that I got ** [a big score] but disappointed that the team lost, it was a weird situation.” Though, Shane was disappointed about the team result, he observed that he was relieved with his performance. “I am disappointed but also relieved that I did well.” This suggests that professional cricketers might be dealing with numerous forms of emotional regulation than what is described in the literature. This aspect will be dealt in detail in the discussion chapter.

Coping

Shane did not provide an adequate explanation regarding his coping mechanisms.

183

This is what he said: “. . . wait till I get into the dressing rooms . . . I keep quiet, I don’t know actually; I am disappointed but I get over it pretty quickly.” Hence, it is unclear whether he is able to handle these emotional challenges effectively.

This section showed that Shane managed his emotions mainly through suppressing emotions, and also by dealing with mixed emotions. However, the type of acting performed and his coping mechanisms are unclear.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC Codes

Shane stated that he was absolutely fine with all the written ICC codes. “I think they are fine, no problem at all.” In fact, he stated that accepting these rules and codes was part of a cricketer’s job. “It is your job; it is a choice you make as a cricketer. It is part and parcel of cricket.” Abiding to these rules involves a certain amount of emotional regulation, and hence Shane might be performing EL to a certain degree, though the kind of acting performed is unclear. Also, Shane believed it was in his best interest to exercise caution regarding his off-field action because professional players are under constant scrutiny by the media and public. “Obviously, being a sportsperson you are going to be in the spotlight, and you have got to realise what you can do and what you cannot do.”

Shane stated that perceived unfair umpiring decisions were frustrating but he accepts them as part of the game, since such decisions are final and it cannot be disputed.

Shane stated that he already had three umpiring decisions go against him early in the season. This reveals the many facets on which cricketers have absolutely no control, yet, these factors could affect their game and emotions to a substantial extent.

184

I have already had three decisions this year that have gone against me . . . . three in a row . . . but you cannot do anything about it, you can’t go tell the umpire that you are not out . . . Obviously you are disappointed that you got a bad decision but that is the game of cricket, you get good and bad ones.

Shane mainly coped with perceived unfair umpiring decisions by reframing and focusing on future games but not on missed opportunities. Also, Shane felt it was important to get past a bad decision to perform well in the next game.

Obviously I am angry at the decision, I am angry with the umpire . . . . it does affect you but there is nothing I can do about it, so get over it and focus on doing well in the next game . . . . Not dwelling about it or thinking too much about it, having a clear head and trying to forget about it.

Shane reported that he found the challenges of professional cricket tougher when he started his professional career as a young player. In addition to mastering the technical aspect of the game, Shane felt it was imperative to be mentally tough since cricket is mostly played in the mind. This suggests that managing and regulating emotions might be much more difficult for younger and/or rookie players.

I pretty much dominated junior cricket, so I thought it would be the same, it’s completely different. It’s 90 percent in your mind at this level; you have to be pretty mentally tough . . . . It was pretty difficult because I didn’t really understand what I had to do to be successful at this level.

Shane considers ‘sledging’ (Table 20, ICC code # 4) as an inherent component of the game but Shane focuses on his performance by blocking out sledging. Also, he revealed that he did not sledge unless the opposition provoked him; however, he felt it did not affect his concentration and/or performance.

I think it is just part of the game. If a bowler or a group of fielders are having a go at me, I just try and block it out . . . . I don’t sledge back because it will get to you . . .

185

. I don’t sledge unless someone throws something to me, I might say something back but I am not a big sledger.

Regarding pre-game thoughts, Shane felt it was important to appear confident in competitive sport. He revealed that it was a lot more difficult when he first started playing cricket at the first class level. This was mainly because he did not anticipate the demands in professional cricket and hence he did not know how to cope with them.

Definitely, I am nervous all the time. I have improved over time. I was pretty young when I started and didn’t really know what it was all about . . . . I try to look confident all the time. If you show your weakness that you are worried or look nervous, they are going to get on top of you. So obviously, you need to look confident and stick your chest out a bit, I think that helps.

Shane also observed the challenges and differences between one-day and four-day cricket. It was apparent from Shane’s comment that the demands are much more in one-day cricket because of the pressure to win the game in a shorter span. This means total concentration on every ball while fielding and scoring maximum runs at the quickest rate while batting. This would involve managing emotions, and more so under a certain degree of pressure.

You are probably more tired in a four-day game but you don’t have to focus on every ball as in one-day. The pressure is a lot more in a one-day game as you are thinking about every ball. It is more upbeat in one-day, try to score runs and take wickets quickly.

This section showed that emotional regulation is required regarding many aspects of cricket. More specifically, the pressure encountered by Shane during his debutant days, suggest the pressure on rookie and new players.

186

Indirect Cricket-related Demands

Cricket Admirers (fans), Media and Commercialisation of Cricket

Shane felt the pace of cricket has become much quicker than what it was earlier, especially since the Aussies are performing very well. “A lot quicker, the tempo is a lot quicker. The way the Australians are playing now, the tempo is huge.” Due to this fast pace and the growing popularity of cricket, it becomes essential for cricketers to entertain the cricket fans. Shane observed: “We just try to put up a good show for the audience.” Also,

Shane observed that he tries to utilise the crowd to improve his performance; however, he stated that he blocked off the crowd if they were not supportive. “I try to use the crowd to my advantage…. If they are not supporting then I just smile at them, I try and ignore them and block them out of my thoughts.” This suggests that players need to regulate emotions related to the game, and also with external factors, such as the crowd.

Shane’s experiences with the media have generally been good but he admitted that negative criticism affects him to some degree. “Obviously they write stuff about you when you are not playing well . . . . Yeah it can get you down a little bit . . . . I probably wont read it, just hear it.”

This section suggests that cricket related demands might necessitate a certain amount of emotional regulation.

Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour

Shane felt cricket might affect a player’s personal life. This may be because it involves managing emotions to a significant extent. He made this comment with reference to Marcus Trescothick’s incident. The England opening batsman abruptly withdrew from the Ashes series in 2006. However, this is the second time the player backed out prior to a

187 game. It has been speculated that severe stress and pressure associated with cricket and inadequate support in his personal life were the main reasons for Trescothick’s depression

(The Advertiser, November 15, 2006). “Definitely, especially if you have a wife and kids, it will get you upset a fair bit and for being away from them.”

It is apparent from the interview that Shane was not comfortable discussing aspects related to his game or the organisation. However, he stated that cricket requires managing emotions to a significant extent; but he did not consider it as demanding. He addressed the challenges he faced as a young cricketer at the professional level. No other conclusions can be drawn from his comments. Due to his hesitancy to speak, Shane was interviewed only once.

Case Study 3 – “Martin”, First Interview: An Insight into the Emotional Challenges of

Professional Cricketers.

A Brief Background and Overview

“Martin” is a professional cricketer with three years experience in first class cricket.

Though predominantly a bowler, Martin is considered an all rounder in the team due to his prowess in batting as well as bowling. Similar to Steve (first case study), Martin provided numerous examples since he was interviewed during the cricket season. Martin also provided insight into the emotional challenges of rookie (younger) players. Also, he believed that older players were better at handling emotions and the pressures of the game.

188

Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

Suppressing Emotions

Martin believed that professional cricket necessitated the management of emotions to a significant extent. “It is all about how you deal with things emotionally during the whole day . . . you could be emotionally up and down quite erratically.” He related this to the emotional nature of cricket. “I think it is 80 percent mental; international and first class cricket it is more mental.” Hence, Martin believed a player’s emotions could involve suppressing anger, frustrations and similar emotions for the entire duration of the game, which Martin perceives is around seven hours. “So you’ve got to suppress anger and frustration and all that for the whole seven hours.” It may be argued that these demands are related to the game per se, however, it involves regulating emotions to abide by the ICC rules; and hence may involve EL to some degree.

Furthermore, Martin stated that players suppressed and regulated their emotions on the cricket field, and vented/released their frustration once they were in the dressing room:

“Once you are in closed doors, you can do what you want- a lot of frustration there, a lot at stake because it is a pretty high-pressure stuff.” The reference to high-pressure might involve selection/career concerns and that of competitive matches. This might be because players’ continuity in the team depends on their performance; hence, the pressure to perform consistently is paramount. This would be especially difficult for young entrants like Martin who might be trying to establish their place in the team.

Also, displaying sportsmanship for the audience or cricket spectators is essential.

Martin explains it in the following manner: “So once you have your back towards the spectators and no one can see it, you are on your own you can do what you want.”

However, Martin believed it was important to regulate emotions because it could affect

189 performance. “If you are emotionally up and down, I think it will affect your performance like really, really.” Also, Martin perceived that older cricketers are able to handle their emotions effectively due to their age and experience. “They know how to handle their emotions much better during the game due to their experience.”

Mixed Emotions

Similar to the two participants, Martin also commented on mixed emotions. Since cricket is a team game constituting eleven players, the occurrence of mixed emotions is not surprising, hence as Martin explained, players tend to modulate emotions for themselves and also for the team. “That sort of situation is a little bit hard in cricket because it is an individual game, yet it is such a team game as well where you sort of have to curb your emotions for the team and not for yourself.” Martin provided instances where he had dealt with such situations. In the first, Martin stated he was happy because he performed exceptionally well but disappointed that the team lost the match. “I got a ten wicket haul in the match and we lost by few runs . . . It’s a bit of both you are happy but not. It’s a little disappointing, hard and I’m angry but more batsmanly.” In the second situation the team had the won the match but Martin was disappointed with his poor performance: “At times the team wins, you are happy but then you got a duck and no runs but you got to be happy because the team won.”

Coping

Martin explained that triggers and switches helped him to focus on the task at hand, which helped in managing emotions and performance. “A lot of it is about letting go and focusing. Also, I have been working a lot on triggers and rituals.” Martin reported that he

190 strives to maintain a pre-delivery routine even while training and Martin felt it helps him during match situations. “I practice it at training as well, I practice it at routines, so every single ball I bowl I do exactly the same thing.” Furthermore, Martin models himself according to a reputed previous Australian bowler. He regards this player as emotionally well-regulated. “The biggest person I look at for emotions is X (previous Australian bowler).” In addition, Martin felt his role model’s experience and age aided in managing emotions. “I think also his age comes in; the older you are the better you are at managing your emotions.”

It is clear that Martin manages his emotions mainly through suppression; however, the player does not view it as harmful. In fact, Martin believes it is good to be emotionally regulated. This suggests that EL can have positive or negative consequences, depending on the individual perception of the situation. This will be further explained in detail in the discussion chapter.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC Codes

Martin’s initial comments regarding ICC codes were that they were quite easy to adhere to. “I think all of them are pretty much fair.” However, when questioned about specific codes, he stated that it was emotionally challenging to adhere to a few of these codes. More specifically, Martin provided an example where he showed dissent at the umpire’s decision (Table 20, ICC code # 3) and was subsequently fined for his action. “I was done for one match suspension . . . they were really harsh, I didn’t swear, I kicked the stump.” Martin believed the fine that included a one-match suspension was severe because

191 the officials didn’t take into account his previous good or clean record. “But at that time it was sort of quite a frustrating time generally and they didn’t really take into account the good record I had.” Moreover, Martin felt he would have escaped the fine if the spectators had not commented on it. “The spectators saw it and a spectator made a comment and that is when the umpire took note. If no one saw it and it was only the umpires, it would have been fine.” Hence, Martin perceived if cricket actions did not leave the field, they would be ignored and forgotten. “And that is the biggest issue if what happens on the field stays on the field and no one else can hear or see it, it gets shoved under the carpet but when the spectators can hear it, that’s when they take action.” He explained that his frustration was built up over the previous few deliveries where crucial and close LBW decisions went against him. Also, his teammates had misfielded in a few instances. As a result, Martin believed that his emotions were built-up. This suggests that pent-up feelings might leak in an unexpected manner at emotionally charged crucial moments (Bailey & McCollough,

2000; Ekman, 1992).

I had few LBW [leg before wicket] decisions – big one’s go against me. These were LBW’s I was absolutely sure but the umpire gave it ‘not out’ so that sort of built up a bit . . . . And the fielding in the side I was playing was very poor [not good] as well. There were few shots I bowled that got hit to the fielders went through their legs [misfielding] for fours and that built up to the frustration.

Martin felt the Captains code (Table 20, ICC code # 1) was a strict rule because the team Captain is responsible for the actions of the entire team, and stated that the other players ought to understand the Captain’s demanding role. “It is a little bit hard, I think the other ten blokes in the side have to be aware of that rule and know how hard it is [for the

Captain].” Martin once again emphasised that cricket is an individual game but within a team setting, and hence felt players need to take responsibility for their actions. “It is built

192 on individuals but in a team environment.” This is because Martin felt a player’s individual performance was as important as the team’s. “So I go in there and bowl for myself and if I get five wickets, I am really, really happy but I’ve done well for the team.”

Martin’s views on sledging (Table 20, ICC code # 4) revealed that if a player seemed angry, edgy or nervous the opposition would take advantage of his predicament.

This might be especially difficult for a debutant player and players returning from poor form (slump). Also, such situations might require the expenditure of a significant amount of emotional resources.

Massively . . . if he [a bowler] just runs to his mark, rushes in and gets really angry and frustrated, you feel ‘oh I am on top of him’. . . . If you are bowling at a person who gets easily distracted, aggressive and angry, you keep on sledging and niggling at him [batsman] until he loses the plot and plays a rash shot or bowls a bad ball . . . and that is sort of where you get targeted and lose.

Martin remarked that there was a difference in adhering to the rules (ICC & CA) at first class cricket and international cricket. He explained this by citing how swearing

(Table 20, ICC code # 4) was interpreted at the first-class level. Martin felt the umpires were lenient towards players as far their swearing was not audible to spectators, as it would lead to criticism by the spectators and the player could face reprimand and penalties.

There is a little bit of difference between first class and international cricket; in first class cricket there is quite a bit of swearing going on but if the swearing can be heard by the spectators, then the umpires will take some action but if the swearing is just on the field and the spectators can’t listen to it, then that is ok.

Furthermore, Martin believed that at the first class level umpires were more lenient to the players. Hence, Martin felt sledging, excessive appealing and aggression by fast

193 bowlers was expected to a certain degree, and players were reported only when they repeatedly committed these offences.

I think what they say on paper and what the umpires put up with when you are out in the field is a little different. So there is sledging that goes on and the umpires let it go because it is part and parcel of the game. So a lot of the rules can be bent a bit as long as it is not broken. Similarly, sledging, excessive appealing and aggressive manner towards batsmen or bowlers are accepted . . . . and they [umpires] give you a couple of warnings but if they [players] do it the third time they [umpires] will step in and say ‘you have breached the conduct’.

On the other hand, Martin felt interpretation of ICC rules was a lot stricter in international matches. This perception stems from the fact that a player’s perspective is not taken into consideration when fined for dissent. However, Martin felt it was necessary for the ICC officials to look into the circumstances behind a player’s misdemeanor because there might be an important reason behind it, such as a player’s selection could depend on the performance of this match.

I think in international games it is a bit over the top sometimes with sort of a bad LBW decision or a bad umpiring decision; the umpires do take view if he has shown any dissent at all; they will have a go at him and ping [fine] him than sitting back and think why he has been upset. And he could be playing for the position in his side; he could have got four of five bad scores and suddenly get a bad umpiring decision and that will sort of restrict the score and then he will be dropped from the side.

This section indicates that Martin considers some of the ICC codes challenging to adhere to, and the management of these involve a certain amount of emotional regulation.

Organisational Expectations

Martin believed that organisational expectation increased with a player’s age and experience because he felt older players can handle the challenges and expectations much more effectively. “I think the more the expectation gets put on you, the older you are

194 getting”. Martin also feels that younger players between 19 to 21 years of age might not be able to handle the responsibility during the early phases of their career, and as a result many drop out during the early stages of their career.

If you are really young and a good player, if lot of people put their expectations, they can’t handle it. So that’s where you get lot of younger players like 19-21 [years] who fall off on the wayside [drop out] because they can’t handle the pressure. Whereas, when you are older like 25 [years] and lot of expectations get put on you, you can handle it because you are a bit older and you know your game.

Martin felt the pressure on him was increasing since he has been playing in the team for few years. “I think it is getting more at the moment; I am getting up at the moment.” His perception also takes into consideration the monetary aspect involved, which Martin believed was important. “I have only started getting paid and getting more money and that comes into it as well.”

Indirect Cricket-related Demands

Cricket Admirers (fans) and Media

Martin believed it was essential to exercise caution while expressing his views to the media. “Basically you chat to the media and whatever you say does come out, so you have to be a little careful and be on the safer side.” Also, Martin stated that he refrained from making any negative comments on other sports personalities because he did not want to provide the media any opportunity to present his views in a controversial manner and/or disrupt the team spirit. “The big issue is I don’t talk about anyone like if someone is testing positive for drugs or someone doing something wrong, then you just say ‘no comment’ and let them sort it out.”

195

Furthermore, Martin felt the media was interested in interviewing him only when he performed well. “And if they do it’s only when you have done well anyways, so you just talk about yourself and how you bowled.” Martin admitted that the media could invade on player’s privacy, but he mentioned that the organisational media personnel handled such aspects. “Yeah they can be a little intrusive sometimes but obviously we have got media guys to sort of separate the players from the media.”

Martin also explained that abusive crowds were common in many first class and international matches. He provided an instance when the team received abuse from the spectators, and Martin related this to the influence of alcohol. Though Martin admitted that it was challenging to cope with such situations, he believed it was essential to focus on the game and his performance. Focusing on performance under such circumstances would necessitate a good amount of emotional regulation.

It happens a lot in first class cricket like we went to the country [side] and drink [alcohol] takes effect. As a result a lot of the blokes [players] were getting abuse from the crowd and some of it was serious abuse and you don’t really need it. There was some really nasty comments made but at the end of the day you just have to cope with it . . . . It can be hard sometimes but you just have to take it and ‘shut off’ and keep doing what you have to do.

Martin’s comments in this section suggest the need for professional players to portray themselves and the organisation in a positive light, indicating the amount of EL professional players perform on a regular basis.

Similar to the previous two case studies, Martin manages his emotions mainly through suppression and by dealing with mixed emotions. However, the participant believed it was essential to regulate emotions to perform well. This suggests that Martin might be performing more deep acting than surface acting. This is because he regulates his performance as he thinks it is essential for performance and not just due to organisational

196 rules. Yet, he also provided instances where bottled-up emotions could leak out during unexpected, critical situations. This suggests that players switch between the types of acting performed depending on the situational context (Brotheridge & Lee, 1998). Also, Martin stated that the ICC codes pertaining to umpiring decisions, sledging and swearing at self were challenging and required emotional regulation. In addition, he addressed the discrepancy between first class and international cricket regarding ICC rules. Finally,

Martin observed the effect cricket audience and media could have on players’ emotional regulation, suggesting the constant performance of EL by professional cricketers.

Case Study 3 – “Martin”, Second Interview: Video-analysis of match situations and player perceptions of the ‘role of culture’ in professional cricket.

Video-analysis: Focusing on the Management of Emotions form an EL Perspective

Shane Warne’s LBW Appeals

The clip displayed Warne’s unsuccessful appeals and his reaction when the umpire ruled against him (favouring batsmen) three times in the first test match of the Ashes in

2006. According to Martin, Shane Warne was very frustrated (in the clip) and Martin related Warne’s frustration to the umpire for turning down three close appeals (LBW’s). He commented: “I think he [Shane Warne] is feeling a lot of frustration, especially at the umpires.” Also, Martin linked Warne’s frustration to the high-pressure associated with the

‘Ashes’, more so because it was the first test match of the series. In most instances, both teams would be eager to gain a psychological advantage and win the first test match of the series.

Yeah considering how frustrating it can be with the umpire and with the situation of the game [Ashes]. He would have wanted to get wickets, and with sort of three

197

close LB’s [LBW] . . . . Obviously the Ashes is a pretty intense game, so we sort of have to look at the situation as well.

He then explained the difference between a high-pressure Ashes series with

England to a relatively low-pressure test match against minnows Bangladesh. Furthermore,

Martin felt Warne was under much more pressure to perform well due to his responsibility as a senior player. Hence, Martin believed that Warne handled himself very well considering the situation, high-pressure and the frustrations of the first test match of an

Ashes series.

It [Ashes] is a massive game, probably if it was against Bangladesh and it was just a test it wouldn’t have been so important. But because it is the Ashes, it is a big test and a big series at the start of it as well, he [Warne] is under a lot more pressure and responsibility to do well, so his frustrations would have come a lot more and I thought he handled it really, really well to be honest . . . . I think he [Warne] handled himself massively well.

Martin also made an interesting observation regarding Warne’s persistent appeals.

Martin explained this from a bowler’s point of view, since he is a specialist bowler similar to Shane Warne. Martin felt Warne’s first LBW appeal (in the clip) was very close but since the umpire turned it down, Warne applied continual pressure on the umpire while appealing for the other two decisions, and as explained by Martin this was typical of bowlers (in this instance it was Warne) to pressurise the umpire to make up for their previous judgment.

May be the first LB [of Warne’s] coming from a bowler’s point of view was pretty close, and the others might have been appeals where they weren’t that close, but he has appealed so that hopefully the umpire will make up for the bad decision earlier. So, Warni will keep on appealing [in the next two] - so the umpire will go ‘all right that one is out because I sort of made a blue [wrong decision] 20 minutes ago, so I want to make up for that’.

198

In this regard, Martin felt bowlers ought to apply pressure on the umpires to adjudge a decision favoring the bowler. “In all these games you also have to put pressure on the umpires.” And Martin believed that Warne was applying pressure on the umpire with his persistent appeals. “He [Warne] puts pressure on the umpire to try and give him decisions

[in favour of bowler], so that is why I think he appeals a lot.” Though not the primary purpose of this study, these comments highlight the amount of pressure umpires encounter in such situations, which would involve the modulation of emotions to a substantial extent.

Furthermore, similar to the first interview Martin emphasised that the umpires and officials ought to consider the circumstances before reporting or penalising a player for breaching codes (e.g., excessive appealing, emotional outbursts). This perception stems because Martin believed high-pressure games such as the Ashes involves tremendous pressure, and hence, emotions could get out of control. Also, he expressed concerns because the ICC was currently not taking into consideration these aspects while reporting or penalising a player.

If it is a high-pressure game, the aspect of leniency towards bowlers is needed . . . . I don’t think they [umpire] do unfortunately but I think they should definitely because there is a lot more pressure on players and lot more feeling in the game and emotions can get over flown lot quicker in such games . . . . I think the umpires need to look into that sometimes, look at the circumstances and situations they are in.

As Martin states above, high-pressure games such as the Ashes involve much more pressure and correspondingly higher emotional regulation.

Ricky Ponting’s Dismissal

The second clip shown was the dismissal of the Australian Captain Ricky Ponting and his reaction when he was adjudged ‘out’ (by the umpire) in the third test match of

199

Ashes 2006. Martin felt Ricky Ponting managed his emotions remarkably well, especially since he believed that Ponting was ‘not-out’. He commented: “I think he handled himself well, brilliantly, and it was definitely, definitely ‘not-out’ . . . . The way Ponting handled himself was second to none.” Furthermore, Martin believed that England players exerted immense pressure on the umpire with their appeal, and hence Martin felt the umpire ruled in favor of England (against Australia’s Captain Ponting). “First of all I think England put a lot of pressure on the umpire as well.” Interestingly, he stated that in similar situations, he would also apply the same amount of pressure on the umpire to rule in his favour. “I know that is exactly the same thing I would do.”

In addition to the players exerting pressure on the umpires, Martin felt England also had the home crowd advantage, which he believed added further pressure on the umpires to decide in favor of the host country (England). In most instances, the host country would have tremendous support from the spectators. So in this instance, when the English players appealed for Ponting’s wicket, they were backed from many English supporters in the stadium. The quote below also highlights the pressure experienced by on-field umpires.

The appeal that went up and also the home crowd [test match was played in England] . . . it made a big difference. I think it makes a huge difference when the whole crowd goes up. And it can have an effect on the umpires, although they are professionals – I think the crowd and noise still does influence them a little bit. And when all the eleven blokes [fielding team] like England go up on a huge appeal, it is an important wicket and under huge circumstances, the umpire would surely be pressured.

Besides, Martin emphasised that the pressure on umpires would be different in different countries. He believed that umpires could be under much more pressure while umpiring at the Eden Garden stadium in India than at New Zealand. This is because Indians passionately follow cricket and as described by Martin the entire crowd would be cheering

200 and appealing most deliveries bowled by Indian, especially spinners. The chances of an

LBW or caught behind is more frequent when spinners bowl, compared to that of a fast bowler. Also, Martin felt the pressure was immense on the umpire and players in such situations. In this instance, he exclaimed that the pressure to perform and win matches was more on Indian players. This suggests that the potential for EL might be relatively high among Indian cricketers.

Different countries will have lot more pressures than others, like 100 thousand people in Eden Gardens in India, and X and Y [Indian spinners] bowling, there would be more pressure [on the umpires] instead of a test [match] in New Zealand with a couple of seam bowlers bowling. I think it is still high-stakes but I think just the pressures on umpires is different. I couldn’t imagine a 100 thousand people going up for an appeal every single ball [in India], just shows how much pressure umpires and players would be under . . . . I think the pressure is bigger in India.

Martin’s Examples

Martin provided an example of a situation wherein he failed to regulate his emotions. Martin explained that in a match, the umpire ruled a close LBW decision against him, and in the very next ball a catch was dropped. Both these incidents affected Martin negatively and as he explains below, he failed to modulate his emotions. Specifically, he questioned the umpire and also kicked the ground and stumps, which is a breach of the ICC code (Table 20, ICC code # 3 & 6). As a result, Martin was reported for code breach and suspended for a match.

I have definitely been in few situations where I have lost it a little bit. One time I bowled and it was a really, really close LBW, I thought it was out, everyone thought it was out, even the batsman thought it was out but the umpire decided not to give it out. And I sort of questioned the umpire . . . And then the next ball the bloke sort of French cut locked between bat and pad [an LBW appeal], it went to fine leg and it was dropped. And somewhere I just lost it, so I kicked the ground and kicked the stumps as well. So I got reported and got suspended for a match.

201

Furthermore, Martin revealed that these two incidents affected his performance for the rest of the match. In addition, Martin felt his performance deteriorated since he lost confidence, and his emotions had taken over. In spite of bowling a few more overs after the incident, Martin stated that he did not bowl well.

Yeah I kept bowling but I bowled poorly, so emotions took over a lot . . . . I was disappointed and lost confidence because I was not getting wickets. You have two wickets but unfortunately the umpire did not give you the decision, and also your teammates are not backing up to catch it when you did get a wicket because some one dropped a wicket as well.

In this regard, Martin once again emphasised that the ICC officials ought to provide players with an opportunity to explain their case before they are fined and/or suspended. He felt it would help if a player’s circumstance behind a code breach was taken into consideration.

When there is a report and chatting to players, they should take into account what happened that day, what happened in the past and what sort of pressure the player is under . . . . It’s good if they know the circumstances under which such things happen.

Also, Martin believed that in some situations it was much more difficult for bowlers

(than batsmen) to regulate their emotions. This was because Martin felt bowlers have to continue bowling and focus on their role of dismissing batsmen (claiming wickets), and this could be difficult when a bowler has had one or two close decisions ruled against him. On the other hand, Martin observed that was once a batsman was dismissed, he has a couple of hours to vent out his frustration and manage his emotions. This indicates that bowlers may need to regulate their emotions for extended time. Steve (first participant) expressed similar views.

202

I didn’t show any emotion on the field but when I got into the change room that’s when you sort of let your emotions out a little bit. And I think when you bat and you are given out, you can afford to let your emotions go because you are not going to be batting or fielding for sometime after that. It is a lot different to bowling because when you bowl 20 seconds later you have to bowl the next ball, so you have to keep going. Whereas batting once you’re out - obviously you are out [of the game] and you have few hours to think about it. So I think it is a lot harder for bowlers some times get some bad decisions and keep going, you have to be a lot more mentally tougher in such situations as a bowler than as a batsmen.

Similar to Steve (case-study 1), Martin’s examples of emotional regulation were related to umpiring decision, suggesting the amount of emotional restrained required by professional cricketers in most competitive matches, and it could be much more during high-pressure games such as the Ashes.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC Codes

Martin expressed that there were many occasions when an umpiring decision has gone against him. Yet, he believed the sooner he overcame the disappointment, the better it was for him.

Oh all the time, it happens. The umpires are usually pretty good but you have times when they don’t make the right decision and I think you just have to get over it. The quicker you get over it, the better you will be.

Since, the rules (Table 20, ICC Code # 3) require the appropriate handling of emotions, Martin stated that he tries to regulate his emotions when dealing with frustrations over umpiring decisions. Focusing on ‘routines’ has helped Martin to cope a lot better with perceived unfair umpiring decisions. His action shows that routines help him in concentrating on the present rather than the past or the future. Also, Martin believed that

203 regulating emotions is a sign of mental toughness. This suggests that regulating emotions is considered an important facet in cricket.

I think if you sort of control yourself and control those emotions in those sort of situations. You can’t get it out . . . . Something I have done a lot this year is ‘routines’. . . . You don’t sort of worry about the past and you don’t worry about the future either. If a bad decision has gone your way, that is gone, you can’t do anything about it. I think routines definitely help and if you don’t show many emotions, you are mentally very, very tough.

Martin perceived sledging (Table 20, ICC code # 4) as a sign of confidence and arrogance. For example, “I think it is just more when they are confident in their own abilities and sledging is just a form of arrogance.” He explained that sledging could become abusive in many situations. Martin illustrated that in a match he faced abuses (such as weakling) because he had ‘retired’ hurt from the field. However, these abusive comments did not affect Martin. But, Martin observed that such abuses and comments linger off-the field, even though it was meant to be left on the field.

It does get abusive, one game this year got very abusive . . . . I was batting. I was injured so I came off the field, and then went back to bat, so when I started scoring runs they started sledging me saying ‘my injury wasn’t as bad as what I made it to be’, they called me weak and sledged me a lot but it didn’t affect me a lot and you just say ‘whatever’. . . . I think there is a borderline when they say ‘what goes on the field, stays on the field’. I think it can get too heated and too abusive, it does linger off the field.

Martin coped with sledging mainly by switching-off, as it did not break his concentration. Instead of involving in a verbal duel, Martin stated that he tried to keep his emotions under control and concentrate on the game.

I just deal with it by switching off; a lot of it is a waste of breath from them. So when they sledge, I listen to it- you can’t not listen to it, some blokes tell them to shut up and that works for them. But I tend to stick to my game and try not to let my emotions take away. Whereas if you do get involved in sledging, sometimes you get

204

too involved by trying to tell them to shut up and you lose concentration on what you are trying to do, so I just try to concentrate on the game.

Aspects related to the game such as umpiring decisions, sledging and abuses from the opponents require a substantial amount of emotional regulation. Yet, as Martin observed it is essential to block out distractions and focus on performance. This might be especially tough on younger players like Martin; yet, it appears that he is coping reasonably well with the challenges of professional cricket by employing various techniques such as routines (pre-game deliveries) and rationalisation.

Selection

Martin expressed disappointment as he was dropped from the State team for a few games to accommodate a senior Australian player. This comment suggests that performance might not be the only criterion employed for the selection of a player.

“Unfortunately I was dropped for a few games because an Australian player came down.”

Martin also addressed the manner in which a dropped player was side lined and ignored by teammates and coaching staff. “When someone is not playing in the side . . . they just get pushed aside- a little bit in the corner, and no one is really worried about that player.” This suggests that professional cricketers might require additional sources of support-network to deal with deselection and related concerns.

On the other hand, Martin believed deselected players ought to treat such situations as a challenge and seek help, whether it was from senior players or elsewhere. Hence,

Martin coped with de-selection through reframing and rationalisation.

It is also up to the player to seek help and sometimes when you are down in the dumps, you just want to be left alone and consolidate yourself. I think that is

205

sometime poor [not good], the player has to get up and treat it as a setback, so not worry about it and look to the future . . . . It is a lot harder than it sounds.

Also, Martin believed emotional management was influenced a great deal by the situation, especially with players’ selection concerns. In this regard, he felt emotions could leak out when players are under immense pressure to perform.

Different situations can affect such decisions in a different manner. Let’s say, for example you need to perform that game or you are going to get dropped, so that could spill over and let your emotions out because you have to get wickets to keep your spot. So selection issues come into it . . . . I think quite a lot of pressures come into it at different moments.

Similar to the first two studies, selection concerns appear to be a particularly sensitive topic. This is also in line with the findings of Woodman and Hardy (2001). In this case, we also need to bear in mind that Martin is a young and up-coming player, who is trying to find a permanent place in the team. This also suggests that these concerns could play a crucial role in a player’s emotion management of a particular situation.

Team Atmosphere

Martin reported that interacting and seeking advice from teammates has helped him in dealing with his emotions. As Martin describes below, the macho culture of not expressing feelings to teammates has taken a back seat. Also, Martin felt having a good and approachable team was important for performance and the management of emotions, especially since players are touring for lengthy periods. This suggests that if the team atmosphere is unfriendly, it may add to the existing pressures of high-profile cricket.

I find the most value when you talk to your teammates and confide in them because they are the blokes that help you on tour and the mental skills trainer can’t travel away with us on tours. So players turn into your real mates and that is who you talk

206

to; so this idea about being macho and not talking about your feelings to your mates has taken a bit of a side-step now, you do talk to your mates about your emotions and feelings . . . . Also, when you have really good teammates around you it makes a big difference like when you are not going that great, you have your teammates to pep you up.

As explained by Martin, unfair umpiring decisions sledging and selection matters require the management of emotions to a certain degree. Hence, this suggests that perceived demands might significantly influence the performance of EL.

Indirect Cricket-related Demands

Media and Senior Cricketers

Martin’s experiences with the media have been a mixture of good and bad instances.

Martin stated that he preferred to read favorable performance reviews and tries to be disconcerted by unfavorable reviews. “Good and bad, usually pretty good . . . . I try and not take it that much like I read it – if it is good I read it and if it is bad, I don’t worry about it.”

Martin also felt the media exaggerated most events because their aim was to reach more clientele. However, Martin felt events reported by a spectator or media spokesperson was quite different from the actual proceedings on the cricket field.

A lot of it is hyped up a lot . . . they report on what they watch whereas if they are out in the middle it is a different feeling. And I think with media, they are there to sell newspapers so they are not going to write anything boring and very truthfully. They want to sell newspapers and they have got a job to do, it is part and parcel.

Martin believed the pressure on first class cricketers has increased, and he instantly linked this pressure to the commercial nature of cricket and the media hype. In order to handle these challenges related to cricket effectively, Martin felt there was a need for more support and welfare staff.

207

I think the pressure now on cricketers is probably a little bit more with the money and the media thing, a lot of things coming into it now and there is lot more pressure on players. That is why I think there has to be more of support staff like helping players- welfare people who work on players.

Martin felt the media’s emphasis on winning every match was exaggerated to a certain extent. Also, Martin believed it was important to enjoy the game as much as winning a match.

I think it is sometimes poor from the media about winning all the time, it is really important but it is not everything. That is what I have tried to do this season - I have worked really, really hard but come to game days what happens, happens like you can’t control those things that happen. At the end of the day you’ve got to love the game and enjoy it, enjoy the training and enjoy the hard work.

Martin also commented on the criticism he had received by cricketers and cricket- related people. Though Martin perceived that such criticism affected him to a certain extent, Martin felt it was up to the player to accept the criticism as a challenge and prove it wrong or feel low about the criticism.

Sometimes people criticise me, not so much the media, but other people and other cricketers . . . . It affects a bit but also when people do criticise, it can work in two ways. You can say I will listen to him and sort of lose confidence or you say ‘no, I am a very good cricketer’ and prove them wrong. So it can work both ways.

It appears that cricket-related criticism and the media can influence the management of emotions and performance to a significant extent.

Cultural Influences

Martin believed the foremost characteristics of Australian culture included the attitude of hard work, never say die and play to win attitude. He felt these characteristics

208 were an inherent part of the Australian society and it would not change for the next fifty years.

The main culture is never say die, never give up, always work very hard, and also play the game to win but fairly- these characteristics of Australian culture will never sort of go. I think it has been there for fifty years and it will be there for another fifty years.

On the other hand, Martin believed the Australian cultural emphasis on ‘win at all cost’ was overrated, especially with the younger age groups. He felt this pressure should not be applied from an early age. Furthermore, as Martin states the ‘win at all cost’ attitude includes ‘you are not there to make friends’ concept; however, he perceived it was important to communicate with the opposition team.

I think Australians are brought up to win, sometimes win at all costs, which I think is too much, especially with different age groups, it is about winning at all cost . . . . It is definitely important in Australia but when you can cope with it, like a 12 year old shouldn’t be put on like ‘you have to win, you have to do this and have to do that’. . . . I think the idea in Australia is ‘you are not there to make friends’ so that is come into the game a bit, I think you should still be able to talk to your opposition.

Martin revealed that the Australian cricket culture did not influence him much because his views regarding certain aspects were different from the National teams.

Specifically, he refrained from sledging and demonstrating emotions on the field, two characteristics that Martin felt was a part of the Australian team. Also, he did not feel the need to follow the Australian cricket culture regarding these and other aspects.

It does not help me a great deal; I don’t really look up to it. With the culture I keep to what I like doing personally like I don’t go there and sledge, I don’t sledge at all . . . . and I don’t really get emotional on the field, it is a little bit hard sometimes. I don’t try to follow the Australian cricket culture.

209

Martin’s statements suggest that the Australian cricket culture has not influenced him to a great extent. Also, Martin doesn’t feel the need to follow Australian culture’s emphasis on ‘winning at all cost’.

Cricket Culture

Martin addressed the changing trends of modern cricket, emphasising the professional attitude of the Australian cricket team. However, Martin felt the emphasis on professionalism was taking more precedence than cricket, and playing the game for sheer joy. He believed most cricketers were adapting to the highly professional attitude to get better than other players; abstaining from alcohol, fitness and nutrition were examples provided to explain the emphasis on professionalism. The following comment expresses his perception regarding the changing trends in Australian cricket.

I think it is changing in Australia, like the Australian culture used to be quite beer drinking, have a good time and not sort of really professional, but now it has turned into a very, very professional game. Like 20 years ago if a nutritionist came and talked to an Australian side, they would get laughed at but now they are all very keen towards nutrition and fitness and be the best possible athlete they can be and sometimes cricket can take a back-seat which I think is bad. I think you should work hard on your skills, and then your fitness and nutrition is second but I think it is getting a lot more professional and everyone is trying to look for that one percent to get better, whether it is not drinking alcohol at all or things like that.

On the other hand, there were also some positive changes. For example, he expressed that cricketers these days were much open regarding their feelings and emotions.

He felt players could talk about their emotions to mental skills trainers and also to senior players, and benefit from their experiences.

I think with the modern day cricket you can talk about emotions, there are lot of people like coaches and mental skills trainers who can help you out . . . . they might be ex-players [coaches] who are about 50 or 60 years old but they have been through what you been through because cricket is the same, it never changes. A young cricketer would go through exactly the same.

210

Martin addressed the emphasis on professionalism in this section, which put cricket on the back seat. It also suggests the highly competitive nature of professional cricket with each player trying to gain an edge over the other in order to retain his spot.

Consequences of Performing Emotional Labour

Martin considered regulating emotions would help him to retain focus on the game, and this in turn would ensure consistent performance. This is consistent with the findings of

Wharton (1993), because they found that EL was found to correlate positively with job satisfaction.

It helps to be more consistent with your performances. Whereas, if your emotions waver a lot and you either get really, really stressed when you do badly or you are happy when you are doing well and that is when your consistency wavers a lot in your performances . . . . And that is when consistent performances get helped out a lot . . . I think it is so important to keep your emotions in check and keep them constant.

On the other hand, Martin also emphasised that it was not always possible to regulate emotions, especially during high-pressure games since he felt emotions were much stronger. Also, he added that if frustrations were built-up over a period of time, it could leak out, either on the cricket field or elsewhere. This corresponds to the findings on breaking character (Bailey & McCollough, 2000). Breaking character refers to an employee reacting in a manner not appropriate to the organisation such as expressing negative moods or reactions to customers (Bailey & McCollough, 2000). Ekman (1992) revealed that as suppressed negative feelings can leak out.

You can say ‘I am never going to let my emotions out’ but sometimes you can’t help it because circumstances come in, especially in high-pressure games your emotions can be a lot stronger. Therefore, if something doesn’t go your way and

211

you have built it up and built it up, it has to come out somewhere and hopefully it is not on the cricket field.

Besides, Martin felt it was essential to discuss about one’s feelings and emotions.

He made the following comment on Marcus Trescothick’s stress-related break down prior to the Ashes of 2006-2007. “I think you have definitely have to talk about your emotions a lot in cricket.” He also stated that the personality of a player would eventually emerge at some stage, even if the player tried to control and regulate his feelings. For example, he stated that if a player was temperamental and angry by nature, he would be abusive on the field.

Natural personality still comes out in the field, I am not going to sledge or get abusive, whereas, players who are angry off the field are quite abusive on the field. So it is different for different personalities.

Switching-off from cricket has helped Martin to manage his emotions effectively both on and off the cricket field. Martin explained that his part-time job was unrelated to cricket and this aided in switching focus from cricket to his job.

Personally I am pretty good with emotions because I have got things outside cricket. So I am not one of those who just comes for training and that is the only thing I do during the day, like I work and that is really, really important . . . . I think because I work [part-time work outside cricket] I am focused on my work and not just cricket.

Furthermore, Martin believed it was essential to mentally detach from cricket related activities. He emphasised the importance of non-cricket related activities because he felt thinking and playing cricket over a period of time could lead to a lot of frustration, especially without proper sources for release of emotions. Also, bottling-up emotions

212 related to cricket over a period of time could spill over to other areas, and as Martin explains below it could get displaced into the player’s personal life.

You need to definitely mentally detach yourself because cricket is more mental than physical. A four-day game is more mentally draining so you definitely need time away from it mentally . . . . It helps massively because I think as a person if you think about cricket day-in and day-out you get wound up and you haven’t got any release. So it keeps on bottling up like all your emotions and you let your frustrations out on people who don’t deserve it like your parents or your girl friend. So if something little happens, you just snap at them.

Finally, he summarised that senior players handled emotions a lot better than younger players, and this was because he believed their age and experience helped in dealing with the emotional challenges of the game. Again, these views are consistent with

Steve’s (first case-study).

I think with emotions, the older you are and the more experienced the better you get at it . . . . I think experienced players are a lot more consistent and a lot better because they handle their emotions a lot better than an 18 year old due to their experience.

The evidence from this interview suggests that Martin perceives that high-pressure games such as the Ashes could necessitate larger expenditure of emotional resources due to the pressure and intensity of the game. However, Martin also believed that suppressed or unexpressed emotion and frustration over extended lengths of time would eventually leak out. Also, Martin felt aspects related to perceived unfair umpiring decisions, abusive sledging and selection aspects require the management of emotions to a certain degree.

Finally, Martin reported that the Australian culture in general and the Australian cricket culture did not influence him a great deal.

213

Summary and Conclusions

From the study data, it is evident that all the three professional cricketers in this study stated that they manage their emotions. This could be due to organisational rules

(Morris & Feldman, 1996; Harris, 2002), societal rules (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993), cultural expectations (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Hofstede, 1980), audience expectations

(Fineman, 1993; Harris, 2002). In addition, most of this emotional management requires the suppression of genuine emotions and handling of mixed emotions. Also apparent in the data was that most emotional management instances quoted related to performance and umpiring decisions, and not organisational factors. Firstly, this could possibly be due to the primary purpose of this study which was to identify EL during performance and competitive situations. Secondly, since it was a face-to-face interview and participants exercised some caution while addressing aspects related to the organisation and organisational rules, involving in a form of impression management for the organisation and themselves (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993).

Once again selection related aspects evolved as a pressing issue to the players.

These results concur with that of Woodman and Hardy (2001). In addition media, spectators and commercialisation evolved as central issues in the public management of emotions. Harris (2002) suggested that barristers manage their emotions and ‘act’ to appease their audience. Likewise, professional cricketers in this study stated that they manage their emotions in a manner expected by the audience; however, this could vary according to the culture of a particular place (Singh & Hofstede, 1990). Furthermore, the consequences of regulating emotions privately and publicly could be positive or negative depending on the role internalisation, job satisfaction and situational context (Ashforth &

Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2003). Though, definite conclusions cannot be drawn regarding

214 the method of acting employed (deep or surface acting) by these players. Moreover, the participants employ both surface (response-focused) and deep acting (antecedent-focused) methods to perform depending on the context. However, it appears that younger players employ surface acting (Hoschschild, 1983) or response-focused regulation (Gross, 1998b) much more than older players.

In-depth case study analysis along with video-prompting techniques helped in understanding the EL phenomenon. However, due to the sensitive nature of the study and the high-profile status of these cricketers, validity was restricted to source triangulation. In addition, the three participants interviewed were from Australia. In order to understand the cultural perspective more adequately, it is essential to conduct in-depth interviews on cricketers from a culturally distinct context. Study 4 was specifically designed for this purpose.

215

CHAPTER 6: STUDY FOUR

CASE STUDY APPROACH OF INDIAN PLAYERS

Having examined emotional labour (EL) within the Australian cricket setting with a variety of techniques (i.e., focus groups, survey and in-depth interviews), it was considered important to explore the EL phenomenon in a culturally distinct context. Hence, four international Indian cricketers with similar backgrounds to the Australian cricketers were interviewed regarding their perceptions of the emotional demands in cricket.

A brief background of cricket in India is provided to explain the importance of cricket in the sub-continent. Cricket in India is equivalent to Australian Rules Football in

Australia. Though hockey is the national game of India, cricket is the de facto national sport due to the wide following by its populace (Bose, 2006; Majumdar, 2007). As a consequence, fans turn out in large numbers, cricket stadiums are generally full, and cricket matches have a festive atmosphere. There are tri-colored Indian flags waving everywhere, thousands of fans wearing the official Indian cricket t-shirt or painting their faces and hands with the Indian flag, and drums beating in the corner. The loud cheer that the Indian team receives as they enter the pavilion is deafening.

Support for the Indian team is also seen in countrires like Australia and England due to the large number of Indian immigrants in these countries. A number of official fan groups have also been formed over the years, including the Swami Army or Bharat Army, the Indian equivalent of England’s Barmy Army. These fan groups are very active in their support when India tours abroad. For example, the Swami Army were highly visible when

India toured Australia in 2003/2004. A number of popular Indian songs have also focused on the cricket team.

216

Cross-border tensions and fanatical support have led to a strong rivalry between the

Indian cricket team and the Pakistan cricket team. India-Pakistan matches can be rightly called the subcontinental equivalent of the Ashes (Australia–England matches). Cricket visas are often employed to accomodate the thousands of fans wishing to cross the border to watch these encounters. This ardent fan following is one of the major factors in the

Indian Cricket Board's financial success (Gooptu, 2004; Businessline, August 19, 1998).

There is, however, a down-side to the intense support for cricket in India. Losses are not received well by the cricket-loving population. In some instances, defeats against archrival Pakistan or a string of poor performances have led to player effigies being burnt in the streets and vandalism of player homes. On many occassions, high-profile players have received negative media attention, and it has been specualted that such negative attention was one of the main reasons for Saurav Ganguly (previous Indian Captain) to be left out of the Indian team during 2005. Similar scenes of vandalism and negative attention occurred after the recent debacle of India at the World Cup in May, 2007.

At times, poor performances or controversies have resulted in public debacles. For example, when India was losing to Sri Lanka at the World Cup semi-finals in 1996, the match (played at the Eden Garden stadium in Kolkata, India) was abandoned due to disrputive crowd behaviour. Most of this disruptive fan behaviour was directed at the

Indian team for their lacklustre performance. In that instance, an armed guard had to be placed at the home of the team captain Mohammad Azharuddin to ensure his safety. At the same time, however, poor performances are soon forgotten by the loyal fans, and the next series is characterised by intense passion and support for the team. Furthermore, victories against archrival Pakistan or victories in major tournaments such as the World Cup are greeted with particular enthusiasm by the Indian fans.

217

Because cricket is a national obsession in India, cricketers are publicly adored and admired. They enjoy a high-profile and a high-social status, with countless youngsters viewing them as role models (Bose, 2006; Majumdar, 2007). The financial remuneration cricketers receive from the Board of Cricket Control in India (BCCI) and their sponsors is tremendous. This level of financial support is possible because the BCCI is the richest cricket organisation in the world, even richer than the International Cricket Council (ICC)

(Chatterjee & Unnikrishnan, October 24, 2004). Moreover, the Indian Cricket Team is currently the highest paid sports team in the world based on sponsorships (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2006). In view of these factors, it is plausible that Indian cricketers would be under reasonable pressure to present the organisation and the game in a favourable manner. Some of this pressure occurs because the ICC and BCCI expect players to adhere to written and unwritten codes of conduct. Additional pressure is exerted by fans and the media, who hold certain expectations about how players should perform and behave. Internal sources of pressure may also exist due to the expectations that players have for themselves and their desire to project a positive public image. Thus, there is considerable potential for EL to occur within the role of a high-profile Indian cricketer. An analysis of how and why this occurs as well as how it is managed will therefore be informative for obtaining greater understanding of the EL phenomenon.

Purpose

This study explored the extent to which EL exists within the Indian cricket context and how it affects international cricketers in India (whose social status is arguably different than that of cricketers from other countries) (Bose, 2006; Gooptu, 2004; Majumdar, 2004).

The role that culture plays in the EL phenomenon was also explored.

218

Method

Participants

Four professional Indian cricketers aged 20, 24, 31 and 34 years participated in the study. Only current first-class male cricketers were chosen. All the athletes had more than two years experience in international cricket as members of the Indian cricket team. Names and other identifying characteristics were avoided to ensure confidentiality and negative ramifications to participants. While two players were pursuing their education at the tertiary and masters level, the other two were employed in part-time jobs (outside cricket). In India, many organisations offer jobs to sportsmen for public relations and marketing purposes.

Cricketers are wooed by organisations, especially if a player has been performing reasonably well for his State and is therefore seen as a definite prospect for the Indian

National team. In addition, employers provide generous leave packages to accommodate sporting schedules and allow the athletes to concentrate on their sports career.

Players were purposively chosen via scrutiny of media reports and consultation with

Indian administrators and coaches. Participants included two batsmen and two bowlers, of which two were experienced players (one bowler and a batsman), and the other two were relatively inexperienced players (one bowler and a batsman). The categorisation of experienced and inexperienced players was determined in consultation with Indian coaches.

Specifically, players below 25 years were considered relatively inexperienced, and those above 25 were considered relatively experienced. This is because in most cases, players would have represented India A (Junior National Team) until around 21 years. The four professional cricketers were from urban areas of India and were key players for the States they represented. This combination was considered ideal since it helped in obtaining information from players with a variety of perspectives. More specifically, it involved

219 gathering data from experienced and inexperienced batsman as well as experienced and inexperienced bowlers.

Procedure

Coaches and administrators from the National Cricket Academy (NCA) in India assisted in establishing initial contacts with participants. An Indian administrator introduced two of the participants; the other two were contacted through telephone. They were then informed the purpose of the study and invited to participate. All the participants indicated that they were keen to take part in the study, and face-to face interviews were conducted at a time and location of their choice. The cricketers were provided with an information sheet, and written consent was obtained prior to conducting the interviews.

This case study approach was considered the most appropriate method of enquiry because it allowed the researcher to focus on contemporary events in great detail. In addition, participants were free to discuss individual experiences in their own words rather than through research-imposed constructs and language (Walter, 2000). The information obtained during the interviews was subsequently verified through alternate sources such as media reports and discussion with administrators and coaches. Source triangulation was preferred to participant checks as a validity mechanism due to negative associations with the terms EL and managing emotions.

Since the term EL can have negative connotations, it was not mentioned at any stage of the data collection process. Questions were framed to address aspects of EL without directly referring to it. The study therefore employed a semi-structured and an indirect interview approach [see Cresswell & Eklund, 2006]. Furthermore, due to the sensitive nature of the study and the high-profile status of these players, probing was

220 conducted in an indirect manner, which at times included challenging some of participants’ statements. The interview questions were modified and finalised after conducting a pilot interview with a (previous) junior level female cricketer.

Similar to the previous chapter (Australian case studies), the first interview focused on eliciting information about the meaning of EL to Indian cricketers and how it was manifested within the Indian setting. Also, participants’ perceptions were obtained on a list of ICC Codes to determine if certain codes were emotionally challenging to adhere to (see

Table 21). The second interview utilised a video-prompting technique. Specifically, a clip from the India-Pakistan Hutch Cup (2006) was shown to the players. The incident occurred towards the end of the first one-day match in Peshawar, Pakistan. The clip shown was that of a visibly distressed Indian team walking back to the pavilion after Pakistan was declared winners by employing the Duckworth-Lewis (D/L) method due to bad lighting. In fact, the match was very close, and either of the two teams could have won if the match had not been abandoned due to bad light. Pakistan needed 18 runs from 18 balls with three wickets in hand. The Pakistani team was accused of taking advantage of the situation since they refused to play when the umpires offered them light.

The clip (see Figure 28) showed the dialogue between the umpires and Pakistani players before they left the field. It also displayed the disappointed Indian team walking off the field. Even the normally placid and emotionally regulated Indian Captain Rahul Dravid failed to cover his disappointment. It was shown to obtain information regarding how players dealt with circumstances (weather, light) that were not under their control, what they felt, how they coped with these situations, and how they prepared for the remaining matches in the series. In fact, the team had not breached any code and was in a position to

221

Figure 28. Images of the Video-clip Shown to Indian Players

222 win the match, but they were declared losers due to uncontrollable external conditions.

Also, this happened against India’s archrival Pakistan. Hence, perceptions of playing against the Pakistani team and the pressure that may be involved were potentially revealing.

Moreover, there was considerable pressure on the Indian team to perform well since they were defeated by Pakistan in the test series played in India in December 2005. In most instances, elite players exercise caution when questioned directly about matters related to other teams and players. This incident-based prompting was used to increase the probability that players would express themselves in an unrestrained manner because the clip showed the whole group and did not focus on anyone in particular. Snyder & Ammons (1993) used similar incident-based techniques to elicit information regarding the emotions they experienced during game situations.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted by the same researcher who conducted the interviews and focus group discussions. Two interviews were conducted with each participant, with the exception of one participant who was only interviewed once due to heavy travel and competition commitments. All the interviews were audio taped and lasted from 40 to 100 minutes. Verbatim reports were transcribed and qualitatively analysed. Face-to-face discussions with coaches and administrators, behavioral observations during the sessions and media reports were incorporated while presenting the case study data. Language issues were not a problem because the researcher was born in India and was fluent in most Indian dialects. Data were analysed using both inductive and deductive methods to extract vital themes related to the cricketers’ emotional demands. Data saturation occurred when participants provided the same examples for different questions or repeated what other

223 participants in the research had previously stated, thereby not adding anything to the findings.

Results and Discussion

Case study data for each participant is presented in detail. Individual interview sessions with players are also presented separately. The results and discussion are presented in three sections. The first section deals with the management of emotions from an EL perspective. The second section discusses perceived demands that players believed resulted in perceptions of EL. The third and final section addresses indirect cricket-related demands such as media and cricket fans.

Case Study 1 – “Jim”, First Interview: An Insight into the Emotional Challenges of

Professional Cricketers.

A Brief Background and Overview

Jim is an elite male cricketer, a batsman with six years experience in first class cricket. The first interview was held on the evening of a National Day, which is celebrated with vigour and enthusiasm. Most international players, especially cricketers, are honoured at various public functions. Moreover, Jim had scored 85 runs in a match the same afternoon, and his team had won convincingly. His score is considered reasonably good for a one-day match, and he seemed happy and jubilant. He also appeared keen and interested to talk about his experiences in cricket. Jim’s body language was open and relaxed, and he greeted the interviewer with National Day wishes.

When first questioned, Jim stated he could handle any emotional challenge effectively. Later, when probed, he expressed how doing so had bothered him or changed

224 him as a person and/or cricketer. Firstly, this could be due to the fact that he is an up-and- coming cricketer who probably does not want to reveal his weaknesses, especially to an

“outsider”. Image management is very important to cricketers in India, as they are under constant scrutiny, and it may have been especially important to Jim given his status as a newcomer. Thus, Jim seemed eager to convey that he was very tough and could effectively handle the challenges of being an elite cricketer in India.

Jim came across as an emotional person and cricketer. He revealed that he has learnt to manage emotions, especially negative emotions, as failure to do so could jeopardise his future selection and also affect his relations with teammates. In addition, he addressed the emotional challenges of rookie (debutant) players. The role ‘culture’ exerts in expressing or dealing with emotions was also obvious in the interview. The cultural surroundings of an individual influence his emotional management strategies, as do local organisational rules that are sometimes different from those of the ICC. In addition, commercialisation of cricket, media hype, and expectations of cricket fans emerged as central themes in dealing with the public display of emotions in elite cricket.

Management of Emotions from an EL Perspective

Hochschild (1983) suggested that EL is performed by suppressing genuine emotions, expressing unfelt emotions, reading emotions of others and managing emotions of others. The interview questions aimed to address these EL processes. As mentioned in the previous study (Australian interviews), questions regarding reading emotions of others were merged with managing the emotions of others. This is because results from the first two studies implied that managing emotions of others involves reading the emotions of others to some degree.

225

Suppressing Genuine Emotions

Jim reported that he frequently managed his emotions mainly through the suppression of negative emotions. “Oh I suppress negative emotions all the time actually.”

He also stated that this was because he is a highly emotional player. “I am very emotional on the field, I am very expressive.” Due to this emotional nature, Jim stated that he generally expressed his feelings when frustrated with his teammates. However, he felt he needed to regulate his emotions in many situations, especially when interacting with seniors.

If I am upset about something, I just go ahead with the person but there are times when you are playing with cricketers who have played a lot more than you have and who have seen a lot more than you have. There are times when you can’t really express yourself.

Unrestrained emotional displays in the past have affected Jim both personally and professionally. He stated that it was in his best interest to refrain from expressing himself, as it would ensure that he does not get into the wrong books of people in authority.

I think there are times when you can be so emotional and express yourself, that can turn negative sometime . . . . People [teammates, coach, administrators] can take it in a negative manner. So I think there are times when you have to control. If it is positive, that’s fine but when it is negative you have to control . . . . You don’t mean it but people take it wrongly, so you have to manage your emotions to a certain level.

This quote suggests the extent of surface acting Jim might be performing since he controls his emotions because he is expected to. Surface acting refers to exhibiting an emotional display that is not genuinely felt or inhibiting the expression of a genuinely felt emotion. Jim felt the need to suppress negative emotions because it is not acceptable and hence it could lead him into further trouble. Surface acting is called “faking in bad faith”

226

(Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987, p. 32) because players conform to the display rules to protect themselves, not to help the organisation, the game or the fans. Also, the above quote suggests that positive emotions can be expressed but not negative emotions. This view is in line with the gentlemanly spirit of cricket. Furthermore, managing emotions for players who are highly emotional by nature might be inherently more difficult. In addition to dealing with the stressor, these players require a continual monitoring and suppression of their natural reactions to avoid unwanted displays of emotion. Failure to do so could hamper chances of future selection and invite disciplinary action to be taken against them.

Vinod Kambli, one of India’s ex-batsmen, is still remembered for crying when the 1996

World Cup semi-final match between India and Sri Lanka was disrupted due to crowd misbehaviour, and Sri Lanka was declared the winner.

Figure 29 shows another player (blue cap) comforting Vinod Kambli (with bat) as the latter was leaving the field in tears. Later in an interview Kambli explained why he broke down in public, “I think I just became very emotional, at that point. Losing more so, having the match abandoned, going down without fighting all the way, felt very bad”

(Vinod Kambli Encyclopedia, 2005).

Jim also elaborated that being one of the younger, newer members of the team; he needs to regulate his emotions while interacting with senior teammates. This suggests that the “private” EL (Harris, 2002) of younger players could be much more demanding and different to that of senior or established players.

227

Figure 29. Vinod Kambli leaving the ground in tears following India’s loss to Sri Lanka during the semi-final of the Cricket World Cup in 1996. (Source: http://experts.about.com/e/v/vi/Vinod_Kambli.htm)

The additional pressure junior players encounter along these lines is evident from the following quote:

There are times when you can’t really express yourself, especially like I have joined the Indian team, you know a junior; all of them have played a lot more cricket than I have and they know the international scene a lot better than I do.

In the above quote Jim addressed the unique pressure rookie players experience in terms of emotional demands. In addition to conforming to the organisational rules, younger or junior players are also expected to be respectful towards their senior counterparts.

Younger players expressing their opinion may not be seen in the best light. This is consistent with the general culture of India, where contradicting and/or disagreeing with elders (whether it is a coach, selector, parent or older sibling) is discouraged from a young age. In the 80’s and 90’s, senior Indian cricketers would not mingle with younger players off the field. This trend has changed to a large extent, but senior players still demand

228 considerable respect. Indeed, during the interview this participant referred to senior players as ‘bhai’. Bhai in Indian refers to brother, and the use of this term illustrates the respect senior players command. The need to publicly convey such respect is an example of the type of pressure younger players encounter, while interacting with senior cricketers in terms of emotional regulation.

Managing Emotions of Others

In addition to managing his own emotions, Jim expressed how he also managed emotions of others to a significant extent. He reported that he tried to be as positive as he could while interacting with teammates. As Jim stated, he had received unwanted negative remarks from senior players, and hence he did not want to treat his juniors or other teammates in this manner.

Yeah when I am playing cricket, I am very conscious about myself, I am very conscious about what I say, I make sure I say the right thing. I have seen even with me seniors [players] coming and saying things and suddenly you think, ‘oh god’. Is it the right thing that he says, have I done something wrong somewhere? I have felt that through people before and I don’t want others to feel that through me, so I am very positive with my thoughts and my words with all of that.

This quote demonstrates that Jim could also be performing deep acting on a daily basis. As explained elsewhere, deep acting has two variations. In the first variant, actors imagine that they feel the actual emotion and present a display accordingly. In the other variant, actors exhort themselves to feel the appropriate emotion and then present the associated display because they genuinely believe and feel the emotion (Morris & Feldman,

1996).

229

Coping

Initially when Jim started playing first class cricket, he was not very adept at controlling and managing his emotions or the emotions of others. This got him into trouble with the team administration. In his own words:

When I was playing junior cricket I used to be very, very aggressive and people would never take that in a positive manner . . . and they took it in a very negative manner [coaches and administrators], which back-fired on me really hard, so I have had to [control emotions] . . . that’s where I have learned about controlled aggression . . . . There was a time when I was playing cricket where I would just go to the ground; bat, bowl, field not talk to anyone just come back home. You know just to change the complete impression of how I could be . . . . and I knew the only way to do that was to control my aggression and bring it out in a more controlled manner . . . . The thing here [India] is what happens on the field is taken out of the field also, if you can leave what is done on the field, on the field that’s good.

Jim is talking about backbiting wherein on-field exchanges and/or clashes between teammates and/or opposition members reach administrators and coaches. “Aussie rules are good . . . it is different in India than elsewhere. I think it’s quite different.” This mainly occurs due to the immense competition between players to get selected into the Indian team or even the State teams at the next level down. Since cricket is a team game, in addition to performing well, players are required to demonstrate good attitude and gel reasonably well with teammates.

Jim stated that international exposure with the Indian National team has helped him to learn to manage emotions effectively: “A lot, lot better now, since international cricket a lot better now.” However, he felt he was still in the process of learning the best way to manage emotions. Consciously analysing the situation and focusing on the positives seem to be helping the player:

I say to myself ‘probably not this, I could have done this instead of that.’ I look at it like that. That’s the way I kind of suppress my emotions, I don’t really express

230

myself completely. I try to learn a lot, I watch and just try and grasp as much as I can.

This is probably a good way to cope since it appears that suppressing and managing emotions happens day-in and day-out in high-level cricket. This also suggests that players engage in surface acting initially and deep acting later (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002).

Jim regards certain Indian cricketers very highly and tries to model them. Having role models, especially from one’s own team, can be beneficial since there is constant interaction and therefore numerous opportunities for vicarious learning.

I have always wanted to be as cool as ‘X’ is; he is in total control of what he is doing. You can see the man; he is a complete icon by himself . . . you know there is so much inside but it is not coming out . . . Comes out in short spans; once or twice in a year or once in six months, it just comes out. It does not come out otherwise.

It is fairly evident from the above quote that Jim wants to emulate player ‘X’ who happens to be one of the most respected players in international cricket. While it may be helpful to learn from ‘X’, the standards he is setting regarding emotion management might be unrealistic at this early stage of Jim’s career. In India, young players are expected to conduct themselves in a stately manner by emulating Sachin Tendulkar, Rahul Dravid or

Anil Kumble (three internationally respected players). This could be due to the expectation of the organisation, seniors and media (including fans) regarding the manner they conduct themselves on and off the field. Also, this throws light on the extent to which other players could be regulating their emotions.

This section showed that Tim manages his emotions mainly through suppressing his emotions and at times managing the emotions of others. Expressing unfelt emotions was

231 not considered to be emotionally challenging by this player, hence it was not examined in detail.

Perceived Emotional Demands

Organisational and Performance-related Demands

ICC Codes

Jim initially reported that most of the on-field codes (Table 21) were fair and easy to adhere to. However, as the session progressed he stated there were some codes that were difficult to adhere to since they were not entirely under his control. More specifically, Jim expressed difficulty in complying with the ICC code referring to ‘swearing in frustration at one’s own play’ (Table 21, ICC code # 4). This code was moderately difficult since

‘swearing in frustration at one’s own play’ was directed at the self and it came out involuntarily. Jim stated that it was often used as an arousal strategy when things were not going well. It could also be used as a cue to concentrate on the task and not on other distractions, such as sledging by opponents or the noise in the stadium: “There are times when you do something wrong [technically] and you tell self ‘ahh, come on man’. It just comes out, it is very involuntary, not intentional and that is a little hard.”

‘Agreeing with the umpire’s decision at all times’ (Table 21, ICC code # 3) was also found to be challenging, especially when Jim perceived he was ‘not out’ and the umpire adjudged him ‘out’. At times, due to intense involvement in the game, Jim reported that he tried in vain to explain (e.g., gesture at hand or point at pad) to the umpire when an umpiring decision (LBW) went against him. He observed:

Sometimes it does happen because you are working so hard, trying so hard to do something; to perform for your country and suddenly [you get an LBW decision], you know it’s just an error, it is not intentional. It is just an error [by the umpire], where you want to tell no, no, it’s not; where you are just saying it’s not true, and this is what actually happened. It’s not like you are fighting a decision, just trying to explain to him. It is more like a plea than an argument.

232

Table 21 ICC Code of Conduct for Players and Team Officials that was provided to players during the interview (same as Table 20)