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The Impact of Systemic Inflammation on Brain Inflammation

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The Impact of Systemic Inflammation on Brain Inflammation cover 28/6/04 1:00 PM Page 8 Review Article Section The Impact of Systemic Inflammation on Brain Inflammation e have all at one time or another experienced the A major component of this signalling by systemic Wconsequences of a systemic infection – we feel cytokines to the brain is the macrophage populations of unwell or sick. As formalised by Hart (1988)1 systemic the brain the perivascular macrophages and the infections have a profound effect on behaviour giving rise microglia. These macrophage populations signal the pres- to the spectrum of changes known as “sickness behav- ence of systemic inflammation to neurons by synthesising iour”.Sickness behaviour is characterised by changes such inflammatory mediators, including some of the same as fever, reduced appetite, reduced activity and reduced inflammatory cytokines as are induced peripherally. social interaction (see figure). Sickness behaviour is part Microinjection of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1} of our normal homeostasis and evolved not only as a into the appropriate regions of the brain will evoke com- Professor V.Hugh Perry mechanism to fight infections, but also as a possible ponents of sickness behaviour. is Professor of mechanism to protect individuals, or the group, from Since the macrophage populations in the brain play an Experimental spread of infection2. This short review summarises what important role in the transduction of signals from the Neuropathology and we know about how systemic inflammation is communi- peripheral immune system to neuronal populations in Director of Southampton cated to the brain, and highlights how these pathways the brain it is clear that they will also play a key role in Neuroscience Group at may have a significant impact on ongoing brain inflam- determining the gain, or amplitude, of the signal that is the University of mation associated with neurological disease. generated in the brain. It is well established that the resi- Southampton. He has a particular interest in the dent populations of macrophages in the brain are rela- contribution of Systemic inflammation communicates with the tively down regulated or switched off when compared to inflammatory processes brain other tissue macrophages. However, if the perivascular to neurological disease. In response to an infection inflammatory cytokines such macrophages and microglia in the brain are already acti- as interleukin-1}, (IL-1}) tumour necrosis factor-| vated or “primed” by ongoing pathology in the brain we (TNF-|) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) are generated at the site might expect a systemic inflammatory response to now of infection. These cytokines circulate in the blood and have a rather different effect from that seen in a normal communicate with neurons in the brain. There are at least healthy young brain4. four different pathways by which inflammation in peripheral tissues communicate with the brain3. Firstly, Inflammation in the brain the cytokines may by-pass the blood-brain barrier at the Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the cen- circumventricular organs, and there bind to receptors on tral nervous system with well-defined neuropathology. T- macrophages within these organs and activate them. cells and macrophages invade the CNS, they damage the Secondly, the circulating cytokines may activate the cere- blood-brain barrier, cause demyelination and axon bral endothelial cells, which in turn activate the perivas- injury5. The macrophage populations within the focal cular macrophages, that signal to the microglia within the plaques, and distal to the plaques, are more activated than parenchyma. Thirdly, cytokines may activate the sensory those in the normal brain. In chronic neurodegenerative afferents of the vagus nerve within the abdominal and diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s thoracic cavity, which communicate with neuronal popu- disease (PD) there is also an ongoing inflammatory lations within the brainstem. Finally, there is evidence response, albeit highly atypical6. In these chronic neu- that cytokines may be actively transported by the rodegenerative diseases the inflammation is dominated endothelium across the blood-brain barrier. by cells of the mononuclear phagocyte/macrophage lin- Metabolic changes fever Behavioural changes locomotor retardation impairment of self-care behaviours anorexia adipsia fatigue/lethargy Changes in mood and cognitive function depression Proinflammatory anxiety challenge impaired memory functions Other changes activation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis hyperalgesia 8 ACNR • VOLUME 4 NUMBER 3 JULY/AUGUST 2004 cover 28/6/04 1:00 PM Page 9 Review Article eage. Macrophages and microglia in the brains of AD and of blood monocytes and raised blood cytokine levels PD patients are morphologically and phenotypically acti- occur more readily in aged than in younger subjects16. vated and express, or synthesise de novo, a number of cell Thus infections, surgery, or injuries in the elderly may surface or cytoplasmic antigens not present on resting or generate a more pronounced systemic inflammatory quiescent microglia7. The contribution of this atypical cytokine synthesis even before these effects are amplified inflammatory response to disease onset and progression within the brain. is a matter of interest and debate. In the ageing brain it is also apparent that the resident Conclusion macrophage populations are no longer as down regulated The evidence available suggests that if the macrophage as that found in the brains of younger persons8. Indeed in populations in the brain are activated by ongoing neu- a recent community based neuropathology study, it was ropathology, or as a consequence of ageing, the signals found that in the brains of at least 30% of elderly persons from a systemic inflammatory condition may lead to who were cognitively normal, there was significant neu- these brain macrophage populations generating excess ropathology comparable with that seen in the demented cytokines which in turn leads to exacerbation of a clinical cohort9, and this is likely to be associated with microglia condition. The extent to which systemic inflammation or activation. disease may accelerate the rates of neuronal degeneration, Thus, in diverse disease states, and also as a part of age- cognitive decline and other permanent behavioural ing, the resident macrophage populations of the central deficits remains to be studied. nervous system “escape” from the mechanisms that nor- mally control their highly down regulated phenotype. References However the fact that the macrophages/microglia in these 1. Hart BL. Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals. Neurosci circumstances are morphologically activated does not Biobehav Rev. 1988:12(2):123-37. imply that they synthesise the entire plethora of pro- 2. Kiesecker JM, Skelly DK, Beard KH, Preisser E. Behavioral reduction inflammatory molecules that macrophages are capable of of infection risk. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999;96(16):9165-8. making6. Indeed these macrophages appear to be 3. Konsman JP, Parnet P, Dantzer R. Cytokine-induced sickness “primed” and thus susceptible to a secondary stimulus. behaviour: mechanisms and implications. Trends Neurosci. The primed or activated macrophage populations in the 2002;25(3):154-9. diseased or aged brain are likely to amplify signals that 4. Perry VH, Newman TA, Cunningham C. The impact of systemic pass from the immune system to the brain during the infection on the progression of neurodegenerative disease. Nat Rev course of a systemic inflammatory insult or infection. Neurosci. 2003;4(2):103-12. 5. Compston A, Coles A. Multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2002 6;359(9313):1221-31. Interactions between systemic and brain inflammation 6. Perry VH, Cunningham C, Boche D. Atypical inflammation in the central nervous system in prion disease. Curr Opin Neurol. It has been shown in a number of studies that at least 2002;15(3):349-54 30% of all relapses that take place in patients with 7. McGeer PL, McGeer EG. Inflammation, autotoxicity and multiple sclerosis are preceded by a systemic infection, Alzheimer disease. Neurobiol Aging. 2001;22(6):799-809. 10 commonly an upper respiratory infection . In the animal 8. Sheng JG, Mrak RE, Griffin WS. Enlarged and phagocytic, but not model of multiple sclerosis, experimental allergic primed, interleukin-1 alpha-immunoreactive microglia increase encephalomyelitis (EAE), animals challenged systemically with age in normal human brain. Acta Neuropathol (Berl). with agents that reactivate the immune system, results in 1998;95(3):229-34. relapse or exacerbation of clinical disease11. 9. Neuropathology Group MRC CFAS Pathological correlate of late- The impact of systemic infections on cognition and onset dementia in a multicentre, community-based population in other aspects of behaviour in the elderly and demented is England and Wales. Lancet 2001: 357: 169-75. clinically well known: a systemic infection may lead to 10. Buljevac D, Flach HZ, Hop WC, Hijdra D, Laman JD, Savelkoul delirium, a state characterised by confusion, loss of cog- HF, van Der Meche FG, van Doorn PA, Hintzen RQ.Prospective nition and hallucinations. Delirium in the demented has study on the relationship between infections and multiple sclerosis exacerbations. Brain. 2002;125(Pt 5):952-60. a poor prognosis and carries a significant risk factor for rapid decline and an early death12. The cellular and mole- 11. Crisi GM, Santambrogio L, Hochwald GM, Smith SR, Carlino JA, Thorbecke GJ. Staphylococcal enterotoxin B
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