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Challenges to the Sustainability of Deep-Seabed Mining

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Challenges to the Sustainability of Deep-Seabed Mining REVIEW ARTICLE https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0558-x Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining Lisa A. Levin 1 ✉ , Diva J. Amon2 ✉ and Hannah Lily3 ✉ This Review focuses on whether the emerging industry of deep-seabed mining aligns with the sustainable development agenda. We cover motivations for deep-seabed mining, including to source metals for technology that assists with decarbonization, as well as governance issues surrounding the extraction of minerals. Questions of sustainability and ethics, including environ- mental, legal, social and rights-based challenges, are considered. Slowing the transition from exploration to exploitation and promoting a circular economy may have regulatory, technological and environmental benefits. he deep-sea floor (below 200 m) is presently, along with nickel, cobalt and copper needed to electrify one billion cars, while Antarctica, the only area on Earth where mineral resources releasing only 30% of the greenhouse gases of land mining15. Most Tare not currently extracted commercially1. However, the of the 300 known marine massive sulfide deposits, potentially val- twenty-first century has seen rising concerns over the depletion of ued for copper, zinc, gold and silver precipitated at hydrothermal the most readily available and highest-grade ores of selected miner- vents, are smaller in area and less densely clustered in the ocean als on land, as well as increasing vulnerabilities to political control than on land. Without discovery of new large, off-axis deposits, over resource access2–4. Demand for some minerals is also projected metals within massive sulfide deposits in the deep sea are unlikely to increase, particularly from electrification of the transport sector to exceed those of land-based reserves16 (Table 1). Lithium occurs and renewable energy generation5–8. A recent Intergovernmental in seawater, brines and in some minerals, while rare-earth elements Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicates that 70–85% of may be relatively abundant in deep-sea muds, for example in the all electricity would need to come from renewable sources by 2050 North Pacific Ocean17, but will not be discussed further as there are to limit global warming to 1.5 °C9. These factors, combined with currently no deep-sea extraction plans being seriously considered. the development of a governance structure for international mineral Mining of the deep seabed has yet to take place, but it is expected resources established under the United Nations Convention on the to occur via either modified dredging (for nodules) or cutting (for Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its 1994 Implementing Agreement, massive sulfides and crusts), and transport of the material as a have led to renewed interest in deep-seabed mining4,10. slurry in a riser or basket system to a surface support vessel (Fig. 1). Many metals occur together at economically interesting con- The mineral-bearing material will undergo minimal processing on centrations in the deep ocean. These include copper, cobalt, nickel, board the ship (with wastewater and sediment being returned to the zinc, silver and gold, as well as lithium and rare-earth elements ocean) and be transferred to a barge for transport to shore where it (Table 1). The metals are found in different ore types in different will be further processed to extract the target metals18. Compared to settings (Fig. 1): terrestrial mining, there is less overburden to remove and no per- manent mining infrastructure required19. However, in addition to • Polymetallic nodules on abyssal plains (covering 38 million km2 the wastewater and sediment returned to the ocean, there is likely to at water depths of 3,000–6,500 m; 19% of the known nodules are be solid waste material left after the ore is processed, and disposal in Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)). mechanisms for this waste could be comparable to those used for • Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts which occur between 800– terrestrial mine tailings. Although deep-seabed mining is presented 2,500 m on seamounts (occupying 1.7 million km2 ; 54% of the here as one endeavour, it is important to note that each resource known crusts are in EEZs). type (crusts, nodules and sulfides) would have unique environmen- • Polymetallic sulfdes formed at hydrothermal vents near tal challenges, scales, costs and benefits. mid-ocean ridges and back-arc basins (covering 3.2 million UNCLOS gives rights to and imposes duties upon nation states km2; 42% of the known sulfdes are in EEZs)11–14. and competent international organizations in different jurisdic- tional areas (Box 1). In areas beyond national jurisdiction, the Relative to land-based reserves, the Clarion-Clipperton Zone International Seabed Authority (ISA) holds regulatory responsibil- (CCZ) alone contains 3.4–5 times more cobalt, 1.8–3 times more ity for both mineral activities on the seafloor (the Area), and the nickel, 1.2 times more manganese; and 20–30% of the copper and protection of the marine environment from the impacts of those lithium and 88% of the silver (Table 1). An equal amount of cobalt activities. UNCLOS deems the mineral resources in the Area to be in the CCZ is present on seamounts in the Pacific Prime Crust Zone ‘the common heritage of mankind’ and charges the ISA to manage (Table 1). A recent report commissioned by a deep-seabed mining seabed mineral activities for the benefit of mankind as a whole, with company with two exploration contracts in the CCZ suggests that particular consideration for the interests and needs of developing extracting half of the CCZ nodules would provide the manganese, countries. Since 2001, 30 exploration contracts have been approved 1Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation and Integrative Oceanography Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA. 2Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK. 3Independent Consultant, London, UK. ✉e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] NATURE SUSTAINABILITY | www.nature.com/natsustain REVIEW ARTICLE NATURE SUSTAINABILITY Table 1 | Major uses, production and potential supply in selected seabed deposits relative to land-based reserves for metals targeted for deep-seabed mining Metal Uses Deep-sea Annual Annual Metal supply in the Metal supply in Inferred metal sources production projected Clarion-Clipperton the Prime Crust supply in seafoor in 2017 demand in Zone (×103 t). Zone (×103 t)c. massive sulfdes (×103 t)a 2050 (×103 t) The percentage The percentage (×103 t)d. The from low of land-based of land-based percentage carbon energy reserves is given in reserves is given in of land-based technology parenthesesb parenthesesb reserves is given in parenthesesb Copper (Cu) Used in electricity Polymetallic 19,700 1,378 226,000e (23–30%) 7,400 (0.7%) 21,600 (2%) production and sulfides at (Chile, Peru, distribution—wires, hydrothermal USA) telecommunication vents; cables, circuit boards. polymetallic Non-corrosive Cu–Ni nodules on alloys are used as ship abyssal plains. hulls. Cobalt (Co) Used to produce Cobalt-rich 110 (DRC, 644 44,000 50,000 (380%) N/A high-temperature crusts on Australia, (340–600%) super alloys (for seamounts; China) example, for aircraft polymetallic gas turbo-engines, nodules on rechargeable abyssal plains. lithium-ion batteries). Zinc (Zn) Used to galvanize Polymetallic 12,800 N/A N/A N/A 47,400 (21%) steel or iron to sulfides at (China, prevent rusting, in the hydrothermal Peru, production of brass vents. Australia) and bronze, paint, dietary supplements. Manganese Used in construction Cobalt-rich 16,000 694 5,922,000 (114%) 1,714,000 (33%) N/A (Mn) for sulfur fixing, crusts on (China, deoxidizing, alloying seamounts; Australia, properties. polymetallic South nodules on Africa) abyssal plains. Silver (Ag) Used in mobile Polymetallic 25 (Peru, 15 N/A N/A 69 (4.3%) phones, personal sulfides at China, computers, batteries. hydrothermal Mexico) Also used in mirrors, vents. jewellery, cutlery and for antibiotic properties. Gold (Au) Used in jewellery and Polymetallic 2.5–3 N/A N/A N/A 1.02 (0.002%) electrical products sulfides at (China, (metal–gold alloys). hydrothermal Australia, vents. USA) Lithium (Li) High performance Cobalt-rich 43 (Chile, 415 2,800 (25%) 20 N/A alloys for aircraft; crusts on Australia, electrical, optical, seamounts; China) magnetic and catalytic marine applications for hybrid sediments. and electric cars. Nickel (Ni) Stainless steel Cobalt-rich 2,100 2,268 270,000e 32,000 (21%) N/A (automobiles, crusts on (Russia, (180–340%) construction), weapons seamounts; Indonesia, and armour. polymetallic Canada) nodules on abyssal plains. Data included in the table were compiled from refs. 5,12,13,16,86,93. aThe top three land producers are shown in parentheses. bNote that the land-based reserves are known with enough certainty that they can be mined economically whereas the seafloor estimates are far from this level of certainty. cBased on 7,533,000 thousand metric tons in the Prime Crust Zone. dBased on 600,000 thousand metric tons in the neovolcanic zone with grades determined as averages of analysis of surface samples. eIndia’s 75,000 km2 nodule claim in the Indian Ocean contains another 7,000 thousand metric tons of Cu and Ni. DRC, Democratic Republic of Congo. N/A, not available. NATURE SUSTAINABILITY | www.nature.com/natsustain NATURE SUSTAINABILITY REVIEW ARTICLE a b c d e f g Cobalt crusts Polymetallic sulfides Polymetallic nodules Refined Refined Subsurface ore ore Refined waste dump ore Autonomous extractors and pump lines 800–2,500 m 1,000–4,000 m 3,000–6,500 m depth depth depth Fig. 1 | Examples of primary mineral resources, associated habitats and extraction mode schematic. a–f, Images of primary mineral resources (a–c) and associated habitats (d–f) targeted for deep-seabed minerals mining in international waters. g, Schematic of extraction mode.
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