Cragin Watershed Protection Project

Geologic Resources Report

For the Final EA

Prepared by:

Polly Haessig

Project Manager/IDT Leader, Geologist for: Coconino National Forest

Date: March 13, 2017; revised December 27, 2017, revised April 20, 2018

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Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 2 Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policy ...... 2 Federal Laws and Regulations ...... 2 Forest Service Manuals and Handbooks ...... 2 Forest Plan Guidelines for Caves and Karst Resources ...... 4 Management Areas and Special Area Designations ...... 8 Topics and Issues Addressed in This Analysis ...... 8 Purpose and Need ...... 8 Proposed Action ...... 8 Issues ...... 8 Resource Indicators and Measures ...... 8 Methodology ...... 9 Incomplete and Unavailable Information...... 10 Spatial and Temporal Context for Effects Analysis ...... 10 Affected Environment and Existing Conditions ...... 10 Terminology ...... 10 Caves and Karst Terrain of the CWPP Area ...... 12 Resource Protection Buffers ...... 15 Sites with Stream Buffers ...... 17 Environmental Consequences ...... 18 Alternative 1 – No Action ...... 18 Alternative 2 – Proposed Action ...... 18 Cumulative Effects ...... 22 Summary of Effects ...... 23 Compliance with LRMP and Other Relevant Laws, Regulations, Policies and Plans ...... 24 References ...... 28 Education and Professional Experience ...... 28

List of Figures

Figure 1. Generalized block diagram showing typical karst landscape in Kentucky and also found on the Coconino National Forest. Other types of karst features occur that are not illustrated...... 11 Figure 2. Karst and potential karst areas in the CWPP area consisting of carbonate karst and evaporate karst at or near the surface and at depth in the subsurface...... 13 Figure 3. LiDAR imagery showing several examples of large sinkholes in karst terrain...... 14 Figure 4. Two examples of karst features and their buffers...... 16 Figure 5. This is a graphical representation of karst protection buffers around a sinkhole...... 16 Figure 6. The picture above is an example of a large sinkhole with a cave and another small sinkhole and associated protection buffers and AMZs...... 17

List of Tables

Table 1. 2017 Coconino Forest Plan Components for Caves and Karst ...... 5 Table 2. Karst Type and Feature Type, CWPP ...... 15 Table 3. Karst Protection Buffers ...... 15 Table 4. Design features to protect cave and karst features...... 19 1

Table 5. Comparison of Alternatives for Cave and Karst Resources...... 23 Table 6. How CWPP complies with laws, regulations, policy and the Forest Plan...... 24

Introduction This report provides input for the Cragin Watershed Protection Project (CWPP) Final EA. The report and analysis follows guidance and direction in the current 2018 Land and Resource Management Plan for the Coconino National Forest (Forest Plan). The purpose of this report is to provide new information pertaining to caves and karst resources of the CWPP for the environmental documentation record and to provide guidance for resource protection of cave and karst resources for implementation of the CWPP project activities during thinning and prescribed burning activities. Definitions of geologic terms relating to caves and karst are found in the Affected Environment section of this report. Relevant Laws, Regulations, and Policy

Federal Laws and Regulations Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988, 16 U.S.C. 4301-4309. The act is to secure, protect and preserve significant caves on Federal lands for the perpetual use, enjoyment and benefit of all people and to foster increased cooperation and exchange of information between governmental authorities and those who utilize caves located on Federal lands for scientific, education, or recreational purposes.

CFR Title 36: Parks, Forest and Public Property, Part 290 Cave Resources Management. June 17, 1994. These are the implementing regulations applying to cave management on National Forest System lands. These rules, in conjunction with rules in part 261 of this chapter, provide the basis for identifying and managing significant caves on National Forest System lands in accordance with the Act. National Forest System lands will be managed in a manner which, to the extent practical, protects and maintains significant cave resources in accordance with the policies outlined in the Forest Service Directive System and the management direction contained in the individual forest plans.

Forest Service Manuals and Handbooks

FSM 2800 Minerals and Geology Chapter 2880 Geologic Resources, Hazards and Services – Policy and direction on the management of cave and karst resources and their ecosystems. The following sections of the chapter relate to cave and karst management in the planning and design of projects.

2880.3 – Policy: 5. Manage geologic resources on NFS lands by using qualified Geologists to recognize, inventory, analyze, and interpret those resources; protect public health and the environment; and integrate that information into Forest and project planning, design, construction, maintenance, and monitoring activities, reviews of proposals, permits, approvals, concurrences, and recommendations for uses of NFS lands.

2880.5 - Definitions. Geologic Resource Activities. Activities involving the gathering, evaluating, and reporting of geologic information for the development of geologic resources (such as, ground water, aquifers, groundwater dependent ecosystems, caves, cave ecosystems, karst features, paleontology, mineral materials, and underground spaces) (sec. 2882).

2881.41 - Inventory and Analysis of Cave and Karst Resources. Forest Supervisors are responsible (sec. 2880.43) for ensuring that the location, geologic setting, resource value, and role 2

in the local ecosystem of all caves in the area of their jurisdictions are assessed and inventoried. They should also coordinate cave and karst inventory and analysis efforts with Tribes and local caving groups.

2882.5 - Cave Resources and Ecosystems

1. Activity Description. The cave resources and ecosystems activity:

a. Inventories and classifies all caves and related ecosystems.

b. Evaluates cave resources for significance.

2883.5 - Karst - Potential Collapse and Rapid Contaminant Transport

1. Activity Description. The karst hazard activity:

a. Identifies potentially hazardous karst conditions.

b. Inventories karst terrain for potential collapse features like sinkholes, disappearing streams, springs, caves, and areas vulnerable to contamination from anthropogenic or natural events.

c. Identifies resources and infrastructure at risk from collapse or contamination.

FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness and related Resource Management Chapter 2356 - Cave Management. Policy and direction relating to cave management. Pages 12- 18. This section of the manual focuses on cave management with the emphasis on recreational use of caves but also contains direction on other management activities that could alter caves. Karst is not mentioned anywhere in the direction.

2356 – Cave Management. Caves are dynamic natural systems affected by surface and subterranean environmental changes. While similar in many respects to surface resources, cave resources present some unusual management challenges because of the nonrenewable nature of cave contents and the sensitivity of cave ecosystems to man-caused changes.

2356.3 - Coordination with Other Resource Uses. Cave environments are dynamic and closely linked to surface environments and surface activities. This linkage generally occurs through the movement of air, water, plants, insects, and other animals into and out of caves. Altering these movements, or the nature of the material being moved, can cause undesirable changes in the cave environment. The importance of changes is dependent upon the nature of the cave and what cave resources are involved. Some important considerations are:

1. Vegetation manipulation in and around cave entrances and within the hydrological setting for the cave.

2. Activities, which will alter entrances or create new entrances affecting air flow, temperature, humidity, and movement of materials in and out of the cave.

3. Introduction of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and other deleterious materials either directly into the cave or indirectly through the cave's hydrological setting.

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4. Changes in water quality and quantity. Pollution of underground waters by septic systems, landfills, and leaking underground tanks can spread quickly throughout the underground watershed to pollute domestic water supplies and impact cave biota (FSM 2880).

5. Construction of surface facilities such as roads, pipelines, buildings, parking areas, and storage facilities for volatile, toxic, and other environmentally harmful materials.

6. Extraction of minerals and other materials (FSM 2800).

7. Activities affecting the food chain and critical habitat of cave life.

8. Runoff water from roads and parking areas.

9. Blocking or changing natural water percolation due to compaction, paving, or vegetative management.

10. Activities affecting the air quality of a cave.

Forest Plan Guidelines for Caves and Karst Resources

2017 Coconino Land and Resource Management Plan

Geological Features Geological features include caves, karst, cliffs and talus slopes. There are no talus slopes in the CWPP area so their management direction will not be discussed further. Cliffs developed in the Kaibab Limestone and Coconino Sandstone formations occur in the canyons of the CWPP but no timber harvest will be occurring on any cliffs or canyon slopes greater than 40%. Prescribed burning may occur in the canyon areas but burning will only occur where soils and vegetation and associated fine and coarse woody fuels have developed on the canyon slopes which does not include the near vertical cliff faces. Desired conditions FW-BioPHys-Geo-DC 6 and 7 relate to cliffs and talus slopes and do not apply to the CWPP project and so will not be discussed further. Three plan guidelines do not apply to the CWPP project. FW-Bio-Phy-Geo-G3 relates to drilling operations, FW-Bio-Phy-Geo-G4 relates to blasting or controlled-source seismic surveys requiring explosives or other disruptive techniques and FW-Bio-Phy- Geo-G5 relates to closing caves by installing wildlife and bat friendly gates. Drilling, blasting, seismic surveys, cave closure and gate installation are not activities proposed in the CWPP and therefore these guidelines do not apply.

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Table 1. 2017 Coconino Forest Plan Components for Caves and Karst

Number Description in Plan Intent of Plan Component Proposed Action Effect on Resource FW-BioPhys-Geo- Geological features are generally To maintain the natural karst ecosystem and not The cave/karst inventory identified these DC 1 undisturbed by human activities. disrupt, damage or disturb the karst/cave resources are located in places where they would The cultural, archaeological, ecosystem and resource values. be protected from disturbance or damage from geological, hydrological, logging, prescribed burning and other associated paleontological, biological, and activities. Protection buffers for each feature were aesthetic resources associated developed considering the type of feature and the with caves, karst, talus slopes, critical resource values it has. Archaeological and cliffs are maintained. survey was conducted, and protection measures identified at caves and karst features that were near water sources or springs or that were noted to have historic or prehistoric artifacts or features. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Karst landscapes and cave To maintain the natural range of functions and Protection buffers, developed as part of the karst DC 2 formations continue to develop or processes associated with karst landscapes. To inventory, around sinkkholes and caves and erode under natural conditions. ensure that the water from that flows into and out AMZs along streams entering karst swallets Water flowing into, from, or within of the subsurface karst system is not polluted (opening through which a stream disappears these systems contains naturally and has natural ranges of sediment, organics, underground) will protect the karst system from fluctuating background levels of minerals. increased sediment, organic debris and minerals water, sediment, organic matter, from logging and prescribed burning activities. and dissolved minerals; and is not See design features CW1-5. polluted. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Caves and karst provide habitat To protect the species and special habitat that Bat, wildlife or plant survey was not conducted as DC3 for species, particularly bats, that caves and karst features provide for terrestrial part of the cave/karst inventory. Bat use of caves require specialized niches for and aquatic wildlife, plants and insects. and sinkholes with openings is not well known in raising young, roosting, and this area. Also not well known are any rare, overwintering. Caves maintain endemic, listed or sensitive species that inhabit humidity, temperature, and caves and karst features. The designated disturbance levels consistent with protection buffers around caves and karst features historic conditions. Caves known will protect the species and habitat that utilize the to be important for endemic, rare, features. federally listed, Southwestern Region sensitive species, or cave- roosting bats are intact or provide habitat for these species. Disease is within natural levels. FW-BioPhys-Geo- The structure, composition, and To maintain the desired conditions of the major Protection buffers around caves and karst DC4 function of the ERUs around ERUs surrounding individual karst or cave features will predominantly maintain the current caves, sinkholes, and lava tube features and throughout the karst landscape. vegetation conditions surrounding the feature. openings protect and maintain the This will maintain the functions and processes Prescribed burning will occur within karst features subterranean microclimate and that have evolved in the karst landscape over to reduce built-up fuels to facilitate natural fire ecology that has evolved over thousands of years. processes. Prescribed fire activities are expected 5

geologic time. Conditions are to result in burn severity of low to moderate, and generally on the higher end of the will maintain the microclimate and ecology of the range given in the desired karst feature and that of the broader karst conditions for the individual ERUs. landscape. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Significant caves have excellent To protect designated or potential significant There are no significant caves that have been DC5 examples of the values for which caves according to the cave protection laws and nominated in the CWPP area, but there are they were designated, with little Forest Service regulation. known caves that are potentially significant and evidence of human activity or may be nominated in the future. The cave/karst disturbance. Visitor access and inventory concentrated on mapping surficial karst use occurs at levels that maintain features and so the extent of underground the values of the significant cave. passages is largely unknown, therefore there may be more significant caves in the area. The cave/karst inventory located these resources so that they can be protected from disturbance or damage from logging, prescribed burning and other associated activities (existing roads, temporary roads and processing sites). Protection buffers for each feature were developed considering the type of feature, size and the critical resource values it has. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Designated or nominated See DC 5 above. See DC 5 above S1 significant caves shall be managed to perpetuate those features, characteristics, values, or opportunities for which they were designated. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Projects should be designed and To plan and design projects in consideration of The cave/karst inventory was designed G1 uses should be managed to cave and karst features and landscapes so that specifically for the CWPP project because it was maintain the integrity and function the projects maintain the integrity, values and well-known that the landscape was karst. The of caves, karst, cliffs, and talus functions of karst features and the landscape. To inventory located these resources so that they can slopes. Where alteration of these develop design features protective of cave and be protected from disturbance or damage from resources cannot be avoided, they karst resources to a pre-disturbance level. logging, prescribed burning and other associated should be mitigated to mimic pre- activities. Protection buffers for each feature were disturbance conditions and developed considering the type of feature and the function. critical resource values it has. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Projects and activities should be To limit sedimentation of caves and sinkholes, Design features to protect caves and karst G2 designed to prevent siltation into prevent collapse of underground passages or features were specifically developed for the sinkholes and cave entrances, sinkholes, and prevent alteration or degradation CWPP. Protection buffers were developed collapse of cave passageways, of the physical, chemical and biological considering the type of cave or karst feature and and alteration of the chemical, conditions of the cave or karst features. the critical resource values it has. Buffer widths physical, and biological conditions around the karst features range from 300 feet to of the cave resource. A radius of 50 feet. AMZs were also designated for caves and

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300 feet should be used for sinkholes where water enters the subsurface or restrictions on activities that can emerges from the feature. Erosion control alter the cave’s resources, methods may be used on roads to prevent functions, and associated features sediment or aggregate from entering an open unless site-specific adjustments cave or swallet. See project design features CW1- are made, based on topography, 5. drainage, soil type, and the expected impact of the proposed activity. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Caves and abandoned mines that To protect bat use and habitat in caves by not Bat use of caves and sinkholes with openings is G6 are used by bats should be entering caves that are used for breeding or not well known in this area as very few surveys managed to prevent disturbance hibernation. To prevent the introduction or have been conducted. The designated protection to species and spread of disease spread of white-nose syndrome by using buffers around caves and karst features will such as white-nose syndrome management practices and procedures used in protect bat species that utilize the features. The (Pseudogymnoascus caving to prevent the spread of disease or other project does not involve any cave entry or survey destructans). pathogens. so there should be no potential for introduction or spread of white-nose syndrome from cave exploration with this project. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Caves containing endemic To protect the species and habitat of caves and Little is presently known about any rare, endemic, G7 species should be managed to karst features that are used by different types of listed or sensitive species that inhabit caves and emphasize protection of those endemic, listed, rare or sensitive species. karst features. The designated protection buffers species. around caves and karst features will protect the environment and habitat for the species that utilize the features. FW-BioPhys-Geo- Aquatic management zones or To protect the water quality and quantity of Buffer widths around the karst features range from G8 best management practices surface water that is connected to or enters or 300 feet to 50 feet. AMZs were also designated should be applied to perennial, leaves from karst openings. for caves and sinkholes where water enters the intermittent, or ephemeral subsurface or emerges from the feature. Erosion streamcourses to maintain the control methods may be used on roads to prevent chemical, physical, and biological sediment or aggregate from entering an open conditions of connected or cave or swallet. See project design features CW1- downstream caves, karst, and 5. lava tubes.

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Management Areas and Special Area Designations The CWPP project contains three management areas: C. C. Cragin Watersheds, (44,903 acres), Long Valley (18,555 acres) and East Clear Creek (973 acres). There are no specific desired conditions, standards, guidelines or management approaches within any of the management areas in the CWWP area that speak to or provide guidance for cave and karst resource management and project planning and implementation. Management direction for caves and karst resources fall under forest-wide direction. Topics and Issues Addressed in This Analysis

Purpose and Need Cave and karst resources are not directly related to the purpose and need of the CWPP. Cave and karst features are a resource that require protection following guidelines in the 2018 Forest Plan, Forest Service Manual (FSM) Direction for Geologic Resources, FSM 2880, FSM Chapter 2356 - Cave Management, Recreation, Wilderness and related Resource Management, and two federal regulations: Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988, 16 U.S.C. 4301-4309; and CFR Title 36: Parks, Forest and Public Property, Part 290 Cave Resources Management. June 17, 1994.

Proposed Action Components of the Proposed Action Alternative that are analyzed include thinning, prescribed burning, processing sites, temporary road construction and road use connected with project implementation. Cumulative effects of the project on cave and karst resources related to other ongoing or future projects is also analyzed. These activities may directly or indirectly impact cave and karst resources from heavy equipment operations over or adjacent to features, direct disturbance of the condition and integrity of cave and karst features, sedimentation into features, smoke impacts and loss of microclimate in karst features provided by vegetation from high to moderate burn severity from unplanned and planned wildfires.

Knowledge of the locations of cave and karst features and the protection buffer assigned to individual features will be used during the implementation of future projects in the project area, including the Rim Country EIS.

Issues No concerns regarding cave and karst issues were identified during public comment, but a concern about the protection of cave and karst resources during project implementation came up during the stakeholder meeting of February 11, 2016 where the draft Proposed Action was discussed. Identification of the locations of cave and karst resources was made possible due to access of Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data on the Mogollon Rim in 2014. See the methods discussion in this report for more information.

Resource Indicators and Measures 1. Identification and protection of cave and karst resources from project activities and ground disturbance.

2. Identification and protection of inflowing stream to caves and sinkholes and outflowing or resurgent streams from caves and sinkholes.

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Methodology Purpose of the survey: A karst survey was conducted in June-August of 2015 in the CWPP area and in other areas of the MRRD. The purpose of the survey was to locate and assess cave, karst and pseudokarst features in the Cragin project area, determine their importance and design site specific protection buffers or Aquatic Management Zones for the karst features.

Survey location: The survey was conducted throughout the 64,433 acre Cragin Watershed Protection Project boundary. Additional survey was completed in Clints South and Clints North task order areas to design protection buffers to be used during project implementation of the task orders. A few additional karst features were assessed outside of the Cragin project area. More than 400 karst features were identified from inspection of the LiDAR coverage in the Cragin and Clints project areas.

Survey design or strategy: LiDAR data and ArcMap were used to manually establish about 404 potential karst features in the project area with subsequent spatial analyst techniques providing details concerning area, depth, maximum depth, volume, and the contributing area of such features. In the planning stages of the Cave and Karst survey, it was thought that a geodatabase and methods existed to facilitate the rapid field inventory and assessment of karst terrain in a national forest. Carl Beyerhelm, GIS Specialist and Polly Haessig, Geologist, obtained cave/karst inventory forms from the Lincoln NF, Grand Canyon National Park and rapid assessment ideas from George Veni of the National Cave and Karst Research Institute. However, it was discovered that no pre-existing template met the unique needs of the Cave and Karst survey, thus an inventory scheme and geodatabase was designed to allow for rapid field assessment and data collection. The geodatabase was input into ArcCollector and installed on a tablet for field use. It was field tested with the geology crew and was revised as needed. Also available within ArcCollector was a LiDAR hill shade raster, providing high resolution terrain data for geologic analysis of potential karst features on site.

Inventory and assessment: Inventory and assessment was completed through the visual analysis of each potential feature in the field and recording of data through both field notes and the geodatabase within ArcCollector. Field notes consisted of a brief sketch of the location, including cross sections and dimensions. A geologic analysis of the feature was also completed, taking into consideration fluvial activity, rock type, and surrounding geomorphology. Attributes entered into the geodatabase included Karst type, feature type, surface and subsurface geologic data, airflow presence, and more. From this data, features were ranked from minor to major importance, to aid in the establishment of protection measures. ArcCollector also allowed for the attachment of several photos to the attribute data of each location. Wirelessly syncing the geodatabase and photographs to ArcGIS OnLine provided a secure on-line service from which GIS data could be downloaded and manipulated in ArcMap in the office. The ease of use and feasibility of the rapid-assessment system ensured the project was completed on-time and with high accuracy.

Findings and Results: Results show a variety of karst types existing within the project area including solution, pseudo, and tectonic karst. Associated features are sinkholes, extensive cave systems, emerging and sinking streams, and possible collapsed lava tubes. At least three previously unknown caves were discovered and are currently pending exploration and mapping by the forest’s partners, the Arizona Cave Survey. It was discovered that the majority of karst features, predominantly bedrock collapse sinkholes, exist within the Miocene basalt flows of the region, a rock type not typically associated with karst due to relatively resilient chemical and physical properties. Such a conclusion offers motivation for further research.

Office Data Review and Determination of Protection Buffers: Developing resource protection buffers for the karst features was achieved through the downloading of data from ArcGIS Online and editing 9

through ArcMap. An accurate footprint for each feature was manually digitized from a LiDAR raster and assigned a level of importance: no, minor, intermediate, and major. Feature footprints were buffered to 0, 50, 100 and 300 feet, respectively. Fluvial systems leading into features were considered of major importance and were buffered to a width of 100 feet, for a distance of 1,000 feet upstream and will be managed as Aquatic Management Zones. The karst feature buffers serve as a zone of exclusion from forest thinning logging equipment, thereby protecting the microclimate and ecology that has developed over time and minimizing sedimentation into the karst features. The equipment exclusion buffers also minimize the risk of equipment collapse into the cave passages. Fuels reduction using low intensity prescribed burning may occur in the karst terrain while meeting resource objectives developed for the karst features. Hand thinning as part of timber stand improvement or pre-commercial thinning projects may also occur while retaining a 50 foot not treatment buffer form the cave or sinkhole feature footprint. The methodology and results from the Cave and Karst survey, working under the CWPP, will provide a template for future surveys on additional National Forest lands and allow for further research regarding the Karst terrain on the Mogollon Rim.

Per cent coverage of the project area: All of the potential karst features identified on LiDAR were surveyed so the coverage was 100%. Roughly about 25% of the potential karst features were found to actually lack cave and karst features on field inspections. However, these were still reported as non-karst features for completeness. Known caves that do not show up on LiDAR were also surveyed and assessed. Springs in the project area, which are karst features, were also surveyed in two areas, Houston Draw and Miller Canyon to see if the springs are associated with caves.

Incomplete and Unavailable Information Caves or sinkholes identified during project implementation that were missed by the survey will be provided equipment exclusion or no treatment buffers. The sale administrator or harvest inspector will implement protection measures during project implementation.

Spatial and Temporal Context for Effects Analysis The boundary for the analysis of direct, indirect and cumulative effects is the CWPP project area of 64,433 acres. The time frame for the analysis of effects is throughout the project duration which could be up to 20 years to complete thinning and prescribed burning activities. During project implementation if conditions of the environment or implementation change, the MRRD will conduct a NEPA environmental resource review to determine if new information or changes in environmental conditions are consistent with the project decisions and mitigation measures or if a supplemental analysis is needed. Because the cave and karst survey was so complete for the project it is not anticipated that more analysis will be needed for this resource. Affected Environment and Existing Conditions

Terminology Cave and karst terminology is described below.

Cave Ecosystem: All ground-water recharge and discharge areas connected to a cave, both discrete and diffuse, and the intermediary aquifers or flow paths; air flow into and out of the cave; vegetation, fauna, and aquatic communities in or linked to the cave; and all other cave resources. Cave ecosystems can be sensitive to changes in the temperature or chemical composition of the water or air. Some examples of the types of cave ecosystems include: karst, pseudokarst, lava tubes, ice caves, river undercuts, and erosional features.

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Cave Resource. Any material or substance occurring in caves, including but not limited to, those which are biotic, cultural, mineralogic, paleontologic, geologic, and hydrologic in nature or character.

Cliff: a very steep vertical or overhanging face of rock.

Karst. Terrain created by the chemical solution of the bedrock, including carbonate rocks, gypsum, salt and to a minor extent on other rocks, and characterized by disrupted surface drainage, abundant enclosed depressions, and a well-developed system of underground drainage systems, which may include caves. The term “pseudokarst” is sometimes used to distinguish karst terrain formed on non-carbonate bedrock, such as sandstone or volcanic rock such as lava flows.

The term "karst" describes the whole landscape, not a single sinkhole or spring. A karst landscape most commonly develops on limestone, but can develop on several other types of rocks, such as dolostone (magnesium carbonate or the mineral dolomite), gypsum, and salt. Precipitation infiltrates into the soil and flows into the subsurface from higher elevations and generally toward a stream at a lower elevation. Weak acids found naturally in rain and soil water slowly dissolve the tiny fractures in the soluble bedrock, enlarging the joints and bedding planes. Below is a schematic diagram of karst terrain (Figure 1).

Karst Resources. The elements of a karst landscape, commonly characterized by losing streams, sinkholes, collapse features, caves, or springs. These may not only be physical features, but may also relate to karst ground-water systems, system(s) function, and biological significance to the vegetative, wildlife, and aquatic communities. A losing stream or reach of a stream is one where water flows from the stream bed into the ground. In karst terranes, losing streams may slowly sink into fractures or completely disappear down a stream sink.

Figure 1. Generalized block diagram showing typical karst landscape in Kentucky and also found on the Coconino National Forest. Other types of karst features occur that are not illustrated. Pseudokarst. Landform terrain and features analogous to karst but formed from processes that are not from solution of bedrock. Lava flows may feature a variety of pseudokarst features including open lava tubes, hollow tumuli (oval to domed hillocks in pahoehoe lava), hollow flow lobes and tongues of lava, open vertical volcanic conduits, tree and animal mold caves, hollow hornitos (steep sided hollow eruptive volcanic vents) and hollow volcanic dikes. Other types of pseudokarst that could occur on the forest include badland and piping pseudokarst, crevice and talus pseudokarst (Halliday, 2007). 11

In the CWPP project area, pseudokarst features are defined where sinkholes have developed in basalt bedrock overlying carbonate bedrock of the Kaibab Formation. Further subsurface investigation and cave exploration is needed on most of these features to determine if the feature is a lava tube or if the feature intersects underground passages in limestone. For most of the CWPP project area, the pseudokarst features at the surface are thought to be a reflection of the subsurface collapse of a sinkhole developed in carbonate rock.

Significant Cave. A cave located on NFS lands that meets the criteria in Title 36, Code of Federal Regulations, sections 290(c) or 290(d) (36 CFR 290 (c) or (d)), and has been designated in accordance with section 290.3(e).

A significant cave on National Forest System lands shall possess one or more of the following features, characteristics, or values. (1) Biota. The cave provides seasonal or yearlong habitat for organisms or animals, or contains species or subspecies of flora or fauna native to caves, or are sensitive to disturbance, or are found on State or Federal sensitive, threatened, or endangered species lists. (2) Cultural. The cave contains historic properties or archeological resources (as defined in Parts 800.2 and 296.3 of this chapter respectively, or in 16 U.S.C. 470, et seq. ), or other features included in or eligible for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places because of their research importance for history or prehistory, historical associations, or other historical or traditional significance. (3) Geologic/Mineralogic/Paleontologic. The cave possesses one or more of the following features: (i) Geologic or mineralogic features that are fragile and represent formation processes that are of scientific interest, or that are otherwise useful for study. (ii) Deposits of sediments or features useful for evaluating past events. (iii) Paleontologic resources with potential to contribute useful educational or scientific information. (4) Hydrologic. The cave is a part of a hydrologic system or contains water which is important to humans, biota, or development of cave resources. (5) Recreational. The cave provides or could provide recreational opportunities or scenic values. (6) Educational or scientific. The cave offers opportunities for educational or scientific use; or, the cave is virtually in a pristine state, lacking evidence of contemporary human disturbance; or the length, volume, total depth, pit depth, height, or similar measurements are notable. There are no designated significant caves in the CWPP area. However, there are several potentially significant caves under exploration in the area that will be nominated in the future.

Caves and Karst Terrain of the CWPP Area

Geology and Physical Expression All of the CWPP is in karst terrain. The CWPP project area contains carbonate karst associated with the Kaibab Formation limestone, evaporate karst associated with the Moenkopi Sandstone formation and evaporate rocks at depth including Kaibab Limestone underlying basalt bedrock (Figure 2). The extent of the basalt flows in the CWPP area is shown on Figure 2 in the light tan color. The bedrock unit shown in the bright pink color consists of Tertiary age sedimentary rocks. The source of the data on Figure 2 is from the U.S. Geological Survey digital map compilation and database of karst in the United States in

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2014 (Weary & and Doctor, 2014). Karst areas from the map were clipped to the CWPP project boundary.

Figure 2. Karst and potential karst areas in the CWPP area consisting of carbonate karst and evaporate karst at or near the surface and at depth in the subsurface.

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LiDAR is the tool that was used to identify possible karst features that were later inventoried in the field. Figure 3 shows an example of how karst features show up on LiDAR imagery.

Karst Types In the CWPP area, 293 features were surveyed and inventoried (Table 1). Features that upon field assessment turned out to be “not karst” are in the following categories: erosional features and headcuts, steam channel incisions, shallow depressions in basalt bedrock; tree stump holes; and historic manganese mine trenches and pits.

Features that are classified as “other karst” include shallow depressions and sinkholes in alluvial deposits and soils overlying bedrock.

Features classified as “pseudokarst” are various descriptions of depressions and sinkholes in basalt overlying soluble limestone bedrock, filled in sinkholes in basalt bedrock with or without openings and air flow and possible collapsed lava tube openings and entrances.

Solution karst features include: fissures in limestone or alluvium overlying limestone; sinkholes and drains in alluvium and limestone; and caves with horizontal or vertical openings in limestone bedro

Sinkholes

Figure 3. LiDAR imagery showing several examples of large sinkholes in karst terrain.

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Table 2. Karst Type and Feature Type, CWPP Number Karst type Feature type of Sites Not karst Not a karst feature 95 Not karst Total 95 Pseudokarst Cave 1 Pit/Sinkhole only 64 Pit/Sinkhole with cave 10 Pit/Sinkhole with opening 35 Sinking stream 2 Talus void 1 Pseudokarst Total 113 Solution karst Cave 3 Emerging stream 10 Other 1 Pit/Sinkhole only 37 Pit/Sinkhole with cave 6 Pit/Sinkhole with opening 22 Rock alcove 2 Sinking stream 3 Spring 3 Solution karst Total 85 Grand Total 293

Resource Protection Buffers Resource protection buffers were developed by the geology crew together with the project geologist based on karst feature observations during the survey. The protection buffers were designed individually for each cave and karst feature based on the field inventory and assessment data. The criteria for the buffers included the feature type and whether the karst feature or cave was open, had an opening or blowing air, had an opening that water drained into or was a karst feature associated with a sinking or emerging stream. Sinkholes or pits that were filled in with sediment or did not have identifiable openings were buffered but the buffer radius was less than 300 feet. All buffers extend from the edge of the karst feature. Each karst feature was digitized on the LiDAR image to provide a better representation of the karst feature. This resulted in a “Feature Footprint” layer for the project.

For the CWPP, 179 features were assigned protection buffers. The buffers total 822 acres. Table 3. Karst Protection Buffers Number of Buffer Width Features No buffer 114 50 feet 56 100 feet 35 300 feet 88 Total 293

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Figure 4. Two examples of karst features and their buffers.

In the picture on the left, a karst sinkhole with an opening has a 300 foot buffer shown with the buffer radius drawn from the edge of the feature footprint colored in red. In the picture on the right six karst features were assessed in the field and two of the features were sinkholes with openings or sinking streams. The two features were each buffered 300 feet from their feature footprint and the buffers overlap and include the other karst features. Polygons colored in gray are cutting units; polygons colored white are areas excluded from thinning for other reasons (slope, rocky benches, etc.).

Figure 5. This is a graphical representation of karst protection buffers around a sinkhole. Around the sinkhole is a 50 foot buffer (red solid line) from the edge of the karst footprint where no trees can be removed so that the desired conditions of the karst feature can be maintained. From the edge of the karst footprint out to the red dashed line is a variable buffer width (50, 100 or 300 foot) where logging equipment and skidding is excluded. Outside of the 50 foot buffer, hand thinning of trees may occur under a timber stand improvement or similar type of prescription.

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Figure 6. The picture above is an example of a large sinkhole with a cave and another small sinkhole and associated protection buffers and AMZs.

The protection buffers are equipment exclusion zones as well as no timber harvest areas. This is to protect the cave and karst features from impacts such as erosion and sedimentation, and will maintain the current vegetation and ecology of the sinkhole, cave or other karst feature. The large buffer widths for caves and sinkhole/pits with openings are to protect the underground passages from collapse from heavy equipment operating over them. The buffer width is meant to be conservative because little underground survey or mapping has been done on the caves and karst features with openings, so we don’t really know how extensive in area the underground passages are. However, most of the caves, fissures, lava tubes and pit/sinkholes with caves in the project area known (from underground survey) are anticipated to extend more than 300 beyond the feature footprint.

The no treatment buffer width does not apply for prescribed burning activities. Prescribed burning can have positive benefits of reducing ground and ladder fuels and raising crown base heights of live trees in karst terrain. As long as the burning is of low-to-moderate burn intensity so that the soil is not damaged, and the overall burn severity is low-to-moderate so that the trees and brush within the karst feature are not killed then the prescribed burning will have no impacts on the karst feature and the cave microclimate, karst ecology hydrology, and entrance vegetation should be maintained. Management ignitions and fire control lines should not occur within karst features, the feature footprint or near cave openings. The preferred best management practice is to have fire creep up to the feature and back down into it thereby reducing the dead and down fuels and litter within the karst feature.

The buffer width for hand thinning activities such as implementing a timber stand improvement prescription will consist of a 50 foot no thinning buffer width from the edge of the karst feature footprint. Thinning and piling of slash can occur outside of the 300 foot protection zone. No slash should be put into the cave or sinkhole feature. Directional felling should be used to fell trees away from the karst feature.

Sites with Stream Buffers Twelve (12) infeeder and emerging stream channels were identified in the surveys. Some of the stream channel buffers are entirely within the no ground disturbance buffer and so will have enhanced protection. Stream channel buffers that extend outside of the feature buffer will be managed as Aquatic Management Zones so though logging may occur it will be managed carefully applying appropriate BMPs so that management related sediment and debris mobilization is minimized and that the overall water quality is protected. 17

Environmental Consequences

Alternative 1 – No Action

Under this alternative there will be no activities that will affect known cave and karst features or inflowing or outflowing streams associated with caves and karst features. There will be no thinning, burning, road use connected with logging and burning activities and no use of proposed processing sites.

The only other disturbances to cave and karst resource in the project area will be by recreation activities and from wildfire. The primary recreation activities that are known include cave entry and exploration by local caving groups. They are known to the district geologist and practice ethical and responsible cave exploration techniques. The fire intensity and severity predicted by the No Action alternative will have the potential to increase sedimentation, debris and ash delivery into karst features, cave entrances and infeeder drainages. The vegetation, shading and microclimate around cave entrances and openings could be altered and changed which will affect cave habitat and climate. These effects could result in changes to the wildlife living in caves and growth of cave formations. Trees that are burnt and killed in or surrounding karst formations could fall into sinkholes and the needles and debris form the dead trees could enter the opening and cave entrances.

Karst springs, infeeder drainages or resurgent streams could be impaired by high sediment loads, ash and debris from areas burned at moderate to high severity. Ash and nutrients released from the burned soil could enter the karst groundwater system and could degrade the groundwater quality over natural levels. Sediment, ash and debris could plug up cave entrances or swallets (opening through which a stream disappears underground in a karst system) and completely change sinkhole or cave system and habitat. Fire reduces soil CO2 concentration by killing vegetation and soil dwelling microbial communities that contribute to soil respiration. While reductions in microbial respiration are short-lived, root respiration from trees takes longer to recover and could take 5-10 years to return to pre-fire levels. The depression in soil respiration and long term reduction in soil CO2 caused by wildfire in karst environments is likely to cause decreased rates of cave formation growth (Coleborn, et al., 2014).

Alternative 2 – Proposed Action Activities that will affect cave and karst resources will be discussed for effects. These activities are:, mechanical and hand thinning treatments, prescribed understory burning, slash treatment, temporary road construction and processing sites.

• Prescribed understory burns are proposed on approximately 63,656 acres over 20 years to reduce fuel loadings, raise crown base heights, encourage new under story growth, and reintroduce fire into the landscape.

• Mechanized and hand thinning will occur on approximately 37,732 acres. There are multiple thinning prescriptions. The general preferred method for tree removal will be for whole tree yarding and removal of all biomass from site. The secondary preferred method will be some type of piling either by machine or hand to create slash piles in the thinning unit or at the landing that will be burned at a later time.

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• Slash treatments and disposal methods proposed include whole tree yarding to landings, whole tree yarding and creation of de-limber piles in the thinning units followed by pile burning; hand piling and burning; chipping small diameter trees and scattering chips on the forest floor; and lopping and scattering of all or most of the slash. Whole tree yarding to landings could include piling all of the slash at the landings or chipping some part the slash and removing it from the site.

• Processing sites are locations in or very close to the project area where minimal processing of woody biomass and timber could occur. Tasks carried out at processing sites includes drying, debarking, chipping stems and bark, cutting logs, manufacturing and sorting logs to size, producing wood cants1, scaling and weighing logs and creating poles from suitable sized logs. Eight processing sites are proposed totaling 79 acres.

• An estimated 45 miles of temporary roads are required in Alternative 2. Of these miles, about 23 miles are new temporary roads, 7 miles of which have been identified on LiDAR and so were used at one time as a road.

Project Design Features and Mitigation Measures The following resource protection measures have been specifically developed for the CWPP.

Table 4. Design features to protect cave and karst features.

CAVE AND KARST FEATURES CK1 Design site-specific no mechanical treatment (logging) protection buffers around cave entrances and karst sinkhole feature footprints, based on the characteristics and importance of the cave or karst features. Generally a 300 foot buffer will be used for all significant caves or potentially significant caves and for karst/pseudokarst sinkholes that contain openings, sinking or emerging streams. 100 and 50 foot buffers are applied on small sinkhole features with small openings or karst features that have no openings and are less susceptible to erosion or sedimentation. Protection buffers should be designed or reviewed by a geologist familiar with karst systems. CK2 Existing roads may be used for mechanical harvest and hauling within buffers but no skid trails use should occur within buffers. Utilize erosion control measures (straw wattles, silt fences, etc.) to minimize road-related sedimentation into caves or sinkholes. CK3 Aquatic Management Zone buffer strips will be used to minimize erosion and sedimentation within stream courses that lead into or emerge from caves, sinkholes and karst springs. The AMZ buffer should extend 1000 feet upstream or downstream of the karst feature or to where the channel ends if less than 1000 feet. The buffer should be 100 foot wide or 50 feet from the center of the channel. CK4 Prescribed fire can occur within cave or karst feature buffers while meeting desired objectives for vegetation, soils, snags, down logs, etc. Management ignitions and fire control lines should not occur within karst features, the feature footprint or near cave openings. CK5 Hand thinning to facilitate timber stand improvement prescriptions can occur 50 feet from cave openings or the edge of the sinkhole (karst feature footprint) and outside of any stream buffer associated with a karst feature. Thinning slash must be piled 50 feet or more from cave openings or the edge of the sinkhole/pit (karst feature footprint). Directional felling should be used to fell trees away from the karst feature. See also the design features for soil and watershed protection in Appendix B of the EA. The protection measures for AMZs during logging operations and prescribed burning will be protective of the karst areas

1 A cant is a piece of wood usually over 2" thick and sawn flat on one to three sides. Most pallet shops want cants to re-saw into pallet parts because they have more options on what sizes they can cut from them. 19

and features of the CWPP. See protection measures SW3, SW4, SW5 for prescribed burning and AMZs; SW8, SW9, SW10, SW14, SW15 for logging practices and AMZs.

Direct and Indirect Effects - Alternative 2

Resource Indicator 1: Identification and protection of cave and karst resources from project activities and ground disturbance. General effects from logging practices are described here. Cutting trees, skid trails, mechanized equipment harvesting, piling and burning etc. at or near cave entrances or in or near sinkholes with openings can change the microclimate, water flow, air flow, air temperature, relative humidity and level of shading. Disruption of these conditions can alter air and water exchange, subsurface habitats (e.g. bats, invertebrates) and cave formation processes beyond the range of natural variability. Cave entrances and sinkholes provide habitat conditions for flora inhabiting the cave entrance and /or cave dwelling organisms (e.g. spiders, crickets, salamanders) that forage in the cave entrance or rely on organic matter falling into the cave or opening as a food source. Logging, skidding, mechanized harvesting and temporary road construction can mobilize sediment, expose bare soil and discharge logging debris into cave entrances and openings in sinkholes. The weight and vibration from logging equipment and haul trucks in the cutting unit and on skid trails and temporary roads, can damage cave formations underground and could cause ground collapse into the cave or underground passages. Prescribed burning can have damaging effects to cave and karst resources if the burn intensity and severity is high where trees and understory vegetation are scorched and killed and the duff layer above the soil is totally consumed damaging the soil. The effects from this can damage the microclimate around caves and openings and can increase sedimentation and debris mobilization into caves and sinkholes (Karst Management Handbook for British Columbia, 2003).

By conducting extensive survey and inventory of cave and karst resources in the project area, the location of these features is accurately known in the project area and appropriate protection buffers have been delineated. By implementation of the 50, 100 or 300 foot no mechanized thinning buffers around karst feature footprints and applying the project design features there will be no direct impacts to these features from logging, skidding, mechanized harvesting and temporary road construction. They will be protected from physical damage and the important microclimate, water flow, air flow, air temperature, relative humidity and level of shading will be maintained at the current condition. Hand thinning may be conducted to implement timber stand improvement but a 50 foot no treatment or slash piling buffer away from the cave entrance or karst feature foot print will be protective and minimize impacts to the feature. Implementation of the buffers will also minimize indirect effects of sedimentation and erosion into cave entrances or other karst features.

During implementation of prescribed burning, broadcast and maintenance burning, the locations of karst features will be identified as part of the burn plan and there will be no direct ignition near cave entrances or within sinkholes. The desired management objectives for vegetation, soils, snags, down logs, etc. will be met in the areas of karst features (CK4). Management ignitions and fire control lines will not occur within karst features, the feature footprint or near cave openings (CK4). Allowing prescribed fire to creep up to the karst feature and back down into it will minimize effects of the burning and thereby reduce the dead and down fuels and litter. Positive benefits will be to reduce fuels near karst features and to stimulate growth of understory vegetation.

Existing roads may be used for mechanical harvest and hauling within buffers in preference to building new roads as long as the road is stable and is not currently impacting karst features. Erosion control measures (straw wattles, silt fences, etc.) will be used to minimize road-related sedimentation into nearby caves or sinkholes (CK3). 20

No skid trail use will occur within buffers. New temporary roads and landings will be constructed outside cave or karst feature buffers. Because cave and karst resources have been identified on the ground and protection buffers have been delineated, new temporary roads and landings can be routed outside of the cave and karst buffer zones so as to not impact the features (CK1, CK2).

Processing site locations are all outside of any cave or sinkhole buffer zone so there will be no effects to cave or karst features from use of these sites.

Resource Indicator 2: Identification and protection of inflowing streams to caves and sinkholes and outflowing or resurgent streams from caves and sinkholes. Karst springs and streams that emerge from karst formations (resurgences) are important for the maintenance of water quality and water quantity within the range of natural variability and provide wildlife and aquatic habitat. Similarly, maintenance of water quality and quantity for sinking streams that enter sinkholes and cave openings is important for the health of the underground system because eventually this water will emerge as a spring or a stream.

The desired condition is to maintain water quality and quantity and to limit the introduction of sediment, fine organic material, ash and woody debris into subsurface environments within the range of natural conditions. In addition, the desired conditions are to limit degradation of the channel banks, loss of riparian and understory vegetation and maintain the stability and root support function of the trees.

By conducting extensive survey and inventory of cave and karst resources and springs in the project area, the location of 12 infeeder and emerging streams have been identified and stream channel buffers have been applied. Where the streams occur within the overall karst or cave protection buffer they will be fully protected from logging disturbance. Where the infeeder or emerging stream is located outside of the protection buffer, the stream will be managed as an Aquatic Management Zone (AMZ) where logging activities and skid trail crossings will be carefully managed so as not to impact the streamside zone or water quality.

AMZ buffer strips associated with karst features will be used to minimize erosion and sedimentation within stream courses that lead into or emerge from caves, sinkholes and karst springs. The AMZ buffer should extend 1,000 feet upstream or downstream of the karst feature or to where the channel ends if less than 1,000 feet. The buffer should be 100 foot wide or 50 feet from the center of the channel. The AMZ buffer for karst infeeder or emerging drainages is similar to the standard stream course buffer of 25 feet from the stream bank edge (see SW4 in Appendix B of the EA). On hillslopes >35%, the stream course buffer is 50 feet from the stream bank edge (SW4).

Of the 12 identified karst infeeder stream AMZs, four are not within thinning treatment units. The other eight are all or partly within thinning units and the AMZ extends beyond the karst feature buffer. These karst infeed stream AMZs will be displayed on the sale area map for the project along with all of the other AMZs.

The soil and watershed protection design features for the project during prescribed burning activities restrict the location of equipment staging and fueling areas outside of AMZ and ignition of fuels will not be initiated in AMZs (SW5). Similar to the karst design feature CK4, prescribed fire can occur within AMZs while meeting desired objectives for vegetation, soils, snags, down logs etc. Hand piling and burning of slash will be avoided n AMZs to the extent possible.

None of the 12 infeeder stream channel buffers are near or cross proposed new temporary roads. An existing closed road, the 612C crosses an infeeder channel in a proposed thinning treatment unit. Of the 12 infeeder stream channel buffers five have existing system roads within the karst feature buffer and two 21

roads cross the AMZ. All of the karst stream channel buffers as well as the karst feature buffers will be identified on maps during project layout. The logging units will be designed to avoid impacts to the karst features and infeeder streams.

Processing site locations are all outside of karst infeeder stream buffers.

Cumulative Effects The boundary for the analysis of cumulative effects is the CWPP project area. The time frame for the analysis of effects is throughout the project duration which could be up to 20 years to complete thinning and prescribed burning activities. The ongoing and foreseeable activities and projects considered for cumulative effects include planned timber sales, prescribed burning, and restoration actions proposed by the Rim County EIS, the Long Valley Meadow Restoration Project, the Long Valley Work Station Meadow Restoration Project and Changes to Motor Vehicle Designations NEPA analysis on the Mogollon Rim District. Please see the Cumulative Activities Considered section of the EA in Chapter 3 for details on past, ongoing and future projects.

No Action Alternative 1 Past thinning and timber harvest in the CWPP is minor in extent, totaling about 1,565 acres from the East Clear Creek Watershed Health Vegetation Treatments decision (2009) and Tornado sale (2014) and 15 acres of thinning in meadows as part of the Long Valley Meadow Restoration Project (2017). A future small timber sale will be the LEARN Mixed Conifer study which has Block #1 in the CWPP area totaling 56 acres. None of the past thinning, timber harvest, wildfires or prescribed burns in the project area protected karst and cave features because their locations were unknown until the survey occurred.

Restoration actions proposed by the Rim County EIS, the Long Valley Meadow and Work Center Restoration Project and Changes to Motor Vehicle Designations NEPA analysis on the Mogollon Rim District are all considering impacts to cave and karst resources in the CWPP area using the results of the karst inventory.

The no action alternative would include no thinning, prescribed burning and fuel reduction activities, and will not result in a reduction in the risk of crown fire across the project area. Combined with the expected increase in area and intensity of high-intensity crown wildfire in the project area as a result of climate change, there is be a greater risk to karst and cave features integrity and groundwater quantity from uncharacteristic wildfire. Despite managed fires reducing fuel loads in locations throughout the project area over the past few years, existing fuel loads and stand conditions (high density of trees and low crown base heights) will still potentially lead to uncharacteristic fire and risk of active crown fire. This combined with the increasing risk of high-intensity wildfire as a result of climate change will lead to a cumulative increased risk of an uncharacteristic wildfire in the project area that could lead to increased sedimentation into sinkholes and caves, changes to hydrologic conditions, shading and infeeder stream water quality affecting karst and cave features and the subsurface groundwater system.

Proposed Action Alternative 2 All of the past thinning and prescribed burning projects did not have previous cave and karst inventory or LiDAR imagery so protection of these features has not occurred during past project implementation. However the current condition of these features is remarkably good and few impacts for forest management or recreational use were identified during recent surveys.

The inventory and karst database that was developed in 2015 specifically for the CWPP project has identified 179 features for protection and 12 stream courses for AMZs and protection from the thinning,

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prescribed burning, temporary road construction and road use actions proposed under the Proposed Action Alternative 2. Processing sites will not affect any karst features as they were identified early and prospective areas that were considered avoided these sensitive karst terrain. When new temporary roads are laid out as part of implementation in CWPP, they will avoid karst feature buffers and avoid AMZs where possible.

The inventory and karst database that was developed in 2015, and LiDAR imagery for MRRD is used for informing other projects that are ongoing or in the planning stages in the project area. Karst features and protection buffers have been identified for the East Clear Creek Task Order timber sale, prescribed burning as part of the East Clear Creek Watershed Health project and maintenance burning as part of the Blue Ridge Urban Interface Project. Karst feature buffers are identified in planning and layout of timber sale projects. Karst feature locations are made available to the fire crews implementing burns so they can be informed of sinkholes for safety reasons and so that no fire ignitions occur within karst features. As part of environmental review for the Rim County EIS, the Long Valley Work Center Restoration Project, the LEARN Mixed Conifer study, and Changes to Motor Vehicle Designations NEPA analysis on the Mogollon Rim District, sensitive karst features and cave locations have been identified for protection in the planning for these projects as part of the IDT environmental review process. Thus there is no expecte cumulative impact to caves and karst features from the future implementation of current or reasonably foreseeable projects.

The karst inventory database, protection buffers and design features in this EA for the CWPP project will mitigate any of the project’s adverse effects to cave and karst resources, resulting in no detrimental cumulative effects. CWPP in combination with other ongoing and future foreseeable projects will be protective of cave and karst resources by using the existing inventory and available imagery, conducting any new surveys as needed, and implementing protection buffers.

The proposed action is also expected to reduce the risk of high-intensity crown fire throughout the project area. This will function to counteract the increasing risk of high-intensity wildfire as a result of climate change, thus reducing the potential effect to cave and karst features within the project area over the next two decades.

Summary of Effects Table 5. Comparison of Alternatives for Cave and Karst Resources

Environmental Indicator or No Action Alternative 1 Proposed Action Alternative 2 Unit of Measure Identification The potential for high severity fire occurrence From extensive survey and inventory of cave and protection increases with time. The fire intensity and and karst resources in the project area, the of cave and severity predicted by the No Action location of these features is accurately known karst resources alternative will have the potential to increase and appropriate protection buffers have been from project sedimentation, debris and ash delivery into delineated. By implementation of variable no activities and karst features, cave entrances and infeeder mechanized thinning buffers around karst ground drainages. The vegetation, shading and feature footprints and applying project design disturbance. microclimate around cave entrances and features there will be no direct impacts to openings could be altered and changed these features from logging, skidding, which will affect cave habitat and climate. mechanized harvesting and temporary road These effects could result in changes to the construction. Karst features and underground wildlife living in caves and growth of cave formations and passaged will be protected formations. Trees that are burnt and killed in from physical damage and the important or surrounding karst formations could fall into microclimate, water flow, air flow, air sinkholes and the needles and debris form temperature, relative humidity and level of

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the dead trees could enter the openings and shading will be maintained at the current cave entrances. condition. Design features for prescribed burning will minimize effects to cave and karst resources. During prescribed burning there will be no direct ignition in karst features or near cave entrances and desired management objectives for vegetation, soils, snags, down logs etc. will be met. Identification Karst springs, infeeder drainages or By conducting extensive survey and inventory and protection resurgent streams could be impaired by high of cave and karst resources and springs in of inflowing sediment loads, ash and debris from areas the project area, the location of infeeder and streams to burned at moderate to high severity. Ash and emerging streams have been identified and caves and nutrients released from the burned soil could stream channel buffers have been applied. sinkholes and enter the karst groundwater system and could Where the streams occur within the overall outflowing or degrade the groundwater quality over natural karst or cave protection buffer they will be resurgent levels. Sediment, ash and debris could plug fully protected from logging disturbance. streams from up cave entrances or swallets (opening Where the infeeder or emerging stream is caves and through which a stream disappears located outside of the protection buffer, the sinkholes. underground in a karst system) and stream will be managed as an Aquatic completely change sinkhole or cave system Management Zone (AMZ) where logging and habitat. Long term (5-10 year) reduction activities and skid trail crossings will be in soil CO2 caused by wildfire in karst carefully managed so as not to impact the environments is likely to cause a decreased streamside zone or water quality. Design rate of cave formation growth (Coleborn, et features for AMZs will minimize effects to al., 2014). cave and karst resources from prescribed burning. Prescribed fire can occur within karst AMZs as long as there is no direct ignition in AMZs and desired objectives for vegetation, soils, snags, down logs etc. will be met.

Compliance with LRMP and Other Relevant Laws, Regulations, Policies and Plans

Table 6. How CWPP complies with laws, regulations, policy and the Forest Plan.

Law, Regulation, Forest Service How CWPP Complies with Direction Policy and LRMP Direction Federal Cave Resources Protection Act There are no significant caves in the project area. However, there are of 1988, 16 U.S.C. 4301-4309. known caves and karst features that are potentially significant but have not yet been nominated or sufficiently explored and mapped to nominate. The design features for caves and karst features for the project protect all karst features from disturbance with a protection buffer. CFR Title 36: Parks, Forest and Public Since there are no significant caves in the project area the regulations Property, Part 290 Cave Resources do not apply. However, the design features for caves and karst are Management. June 17, 1994. adequate to protect potentially significant caves from disturbance. FSM 2800 Minerals and Geology 2880.3 – Policy: 5. Manage geologic A project geologist and a crew of qualified Geo-Corps interns planned resources on NFS lands by using and implemented the karst survey for the CWPP and developed qualified Geologists to recognize, protection buffers to protect cave and karst resource from ground inventory, analyze, and interpret those disturbance and water or air quality impacts. resources; protect public health and the environment; and integrate that information into Forest and project

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Law, Regulation, Forest Service How CWPP Complies with Direction Policy and LRMP Direction planning, design, construction, maintenance, and monitoring activities, reviews of proposals, permits, approvals, concurrences, and recommendations for uses of NFS lands. 2880.5 - Definitions. Geologic Resource Geologists conducted an extensive cave and karst feature field Activities. Activities involving the inventory for the CWPP and a GIS database was developed that can gathering, evaluating, and reporting of be used in project implementation. geologic information for the development of geologic resources (such as, ground water, aquifers, groundwater dependent ecosystems, caves, cave ecosystems, karst features, paleontology, mineral materials, and underground spaces) (sec. 2882). 2881.41 - Inventory and Analysis of A project geologist and two Geo-Corps geology interns conducted a Cave and Karst Resources. Forest cave and karst inventory in the project area and assessed the Supervisors are responsible (sec. resource features of each karst feature identified. Several field days 2880.43) for ensuring that the location, were conducted with members of the Arizona Cave Survey and geologic setting, resource value, and Northern Arizona Grotto. Information about the cave and karst role in the local ecosystem of all caves resources of the CWPP area was communicated to the Yavapai- in the area of their jurisdictions are Apache and Hope tribes by the project archaeologist during tribal assessed and inventoried. They should consultation. also coordinate cave and karst inventory and analysis efforts with Tribes and local caving groups. 2882.5 - Cave Resources and A project geologist and two Geo-Corps geology interns conducted a Ecosystems cave and karst inventory in the project area and assessed the 1. Activity Description. The cave resource features of each karst feature identified. A GIS database was resources and ecosystems activity: developed that can be used in project implementation. Data from the a. Inventories and classifies all caves surveys can be used to nominate significant caves. and related ecosystems. b. Evaluates cave resources for significance. 2883.5 - Karst - Potential Collapse and Potentially hazardous karst conditions such as active sinkhole Rapid Contaminant Transport subsidence and open sinkholes was identified as part of the cave and 1. Activity Description. The karst karst survey. Sinkholes, disappearing streams, springs, caves, and hazard activity: areas vulnerable to contamination from anthropogenic or natural a. Identifies potentially hazardous karst events were identified and protection buffers were designated to conditions. prevent collapse, water pollution or sedimentation into subsurface cave passages and surface sinkholes. b. Inventories karst terrain for potential collapse features like sinkholes, disappearing streams, springs, caves, and areas vulnerable to contamination from anthropogenic or natural events. c. Identifies resources and infrastructure See above. at risk from collapse or contamination. FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness and related Resource Management 2356 – Cave Management. Caves are A project geologist and a crew of qualified Geo-Corps interns planned dynamic natural systems affected by and implemented the karst survey for the CWPP and developed surface and subterranean protection buffers to protect cave and karst resource from ground environmental changes. While similar in disturbance and water or air quality impacts. many respects to surface resources, cave resources present some unusual

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Law, Regulation, Forest Service How CWPP Complies with Direction Policy and LRMP Direction management challenges because of the nonrenewable nature of cave contents and the sensitivity of cave ecosystems to man-caused changes. 2356.3 - Coordination with Other 1. The protection buffers for the caves and karst features are a no Resource Uses. mechanical equipment thinning buffer. The vegetation surrounding the Some important considerations are: cave entrance will not be altered within 50 feet or more of the cave 1. Vegetation manipulation in and entrance or sinkhole feature. (CK1, CK5) 2.The protection buffers and around cave entrances and within the AMZs will limit activities around a karst feature so that there will be no hydrological setting for the cave. cave collapse, and minimal changes to air flow, temperature, humidity and sedimentation into or out from a cave.(CK1, CK3). 3. The 2. Activities, which will alter entrances protection buffers will protect cave and karst features from pollution or create new entrances affecting air from petroleum products used in logging (CK1, CK2, CK3). 4. flow, temperature, humidity, and Pollution effects from septic systems is not relevant to the CWPP movement of materials in and out of the project. 5. Existing roads will avoid karst protection buffers where cave. practical and no new temporary roads will be constructed within a 3. Introduction of pesticides, herbicides, karst buffer. Erosion control measures will be implemented to fertilizers, and other deleterious minimize road-related sedimentation into caves or sinkholes (CK2). materials either directly into the cave or No processing sites are located within a cave or karst protection indirectly through the cave's buffer. 6. No locatable minerals or mineral materials sites are located hydrological setting. in the project area. 7. The protection buffers surrounding cave and 4. Changes in water quality and karst features should be adequate to protect terrestrial and aquatic quantity. Pollution of underground wildlife that utilize caves and karst features. (CK1, CK3). Prescribed waters by septic systems, landfills, and fire can occur within buffers as long as the effects meet desired leaking underground tanks can spread objectives for vegetation, soils, snags, down logs etc. (CK4). 8. quickly throughout the underground Erosion control measures will be implemented to minimize road- watershed to pollute domestic water related sedimentation into caves or sinkholes (CK2).9. See #1 above. supplies and impact cave biota (FSM 10. The cave entrance or underground openings will not be altered by 2880). project activities. Smoke impacts from prescribed burning will occur 5. Construction of surface facilities but since the burning will be low to moderate severity, the smoke such as roads, pipelines, buildings, impacts will be short term over several days and will mimic wildfires parking areas, and storage facilities for within the natural range of variability and where fire is the primary volatile, toxic, and other environmentally natural disturbance. harmful materials. 6. Extraction of minerals and other materials (FSM 2800). 7. Activities affecting the food chain and critical habitat of cave life. 8. Runoff water from roads and parking areas. 9. Blocking or changing natural water percolation due to compaction, paving, or vegetative management. 10. Activities affecting the air quality of a cave.

Number in Law, Regulation, Forest Service How CWPP Complies with Direction Plan Policy and LRMP Direction 2017 Coconino Land and Resource Management Plan as Amended (see also Table 1 for Desired Conditions). FW-BioPhys- Designated or nominated significant There are no significant caves that have been Geo-S1 caves shall be managed to perpetuate nominated in the CWPP area, but there are several those features, characteristics, values, known caves that are potentially significant and will be or opportunities for which they were nominated in the future. The cave/karst inventory designated. concentrated on mapping surficial karst features and so the extent of underground passages is largely

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unknown, therefore there may be potentially many more significant caves in the area. The cave/karst inventory located these resources so that they can be protected from disturbance or damage from logging, prescribed burning and other associated activities (existing roads, temporary roads and processing sites). Protection buffers for each feature were developed considering the type of feature, size and the critical resource values it has. FW-BioPhys- Projects should be designed and uses A project geologist and a crew of qualified Geo-Corps Geo-G1 should be managed to maintain the interns planned and implemented the karst survey for integrity and function of caves, karst, the CWPP and developed protection buffers to protect cliffs, and talus slopes. Where alteration cave and karst resources from ground disturbance and of these resources cannot be avoided, water or air quality impacts. A GIS database was they should be mitigated to mimic pre- developed that can be used in project implementation. disturbance conditions and function. Design features were developed to protect caves and karst features (CK1-5) See also Geo-G2 below. FW-BioPhys- Projects and activities should be The protection buffers for the caves and karst features Geo-G2 designed to prevent siltation into are a no mechanical equipment thinning buffer. The sinkholes and cave entrances, collapse vegetation surrounding the cave entrance will not be of cave passageways, and alteration of altered within 50 feet or more of the cave entrance or the chemical, physical, and biological sinkhole feature. (CK1, CK5). Many of the protection conditions of the cave resource. A buffers are 100, 150 or 300 feet in width depending on radius of 300 feet should be used for the size of the karst feature and whether it is open to restrictions on activities that can alter the subsurface (Table 3).The protection buffers and the cave’s resources, functions, and AMZs will limit activities around a karst feature so that associated features unless site-specific there will be no cave collapse, and minimal changes to adjustments are made, based on air flow, temperature, humidity and sedimentation into topography, drainage, soil type, and the or out from a cave (CK1, CK3). The protection buffers expected impact of the proposed will protect cave and karst features from pollution from activity. petroleum products used in logging (CK1, CK2, and CK3). Potentially hazardous karst conditions such as active sinkhole subsidence and open sinkholes was identified as part of the cave and karst survey. Sinkholes, disappearing streams, springs, caves, and areas vulnerable to contamination from anthropogenic or natural events were identified and protection buffers were designated to prevent collapse, water pollution or sedimentation into subsurface cave passages. Erosion control measures will be implemented to minimize road-related sedimentation into caves or sinkholes (CK2).9. The cave entrance or underground openings will not be altered by project activities. Smoke impacts from prescribed burning will occur but since the burning will be low to moderate severity, the smoke impacts will be short term over several days and will mimic wildfires within the natural range of variability and where fire is the primary natural disturbance. FW-BioPhys- Caves and abandoned mines that are Bat use of caves and sinkholes with openings is not Geo-G6 used by bats should be managed to well known in this area as very few surveys have been prevent disturbance to species and conducted. The designated protection buffers around spread of disease such as white-nose caves and karst features will protect bat species that syndrome (Pseudogymnoascus utilize the features. The project does not involve any destructans). cave entry or survey so there should be no potential for introduction or spread of white-nose syndrome from cave exploration with this project. FW-BioPhys- Caves containing endemic species Little is presently known about any rare, endemic, Geo-G7 should be managed to emphasize listed or sensitive species that inhabit caves and karst protection of those species. features. The designated protection buffers around caves and karst features will protect the environment 27

and habitat for the species that utilize the features (CK1-5). FW-BioPhys- Aquatic management zones or best Buffer widths around the karst features range from 300 Geo-G8 management practices should be feet to 50 feet. AMZs were also designated for caves applied to perennial, intermittent, or and sinkholes where water enters the subsurface or ephemeral streamcourses to maintain emerges from the feature. Erosion control methods the chemical, physical, and biological may be used on roads to prevent sediment or conditions of connected or downstream aggregate from entering an open cave or swallet. See caves, karst, and lava tubes. project design features CW1-5.

References British Columbia Ministry of Forests. (2003). Karst Management Handbook for British Columbia. Retrieved from http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/fordev/karst/karstbmp.pdf Central Arizona Grotto of the Natinal Speleological Society. (2015). Recommendations for Cave and Karst Management, Coconino National Forest. (R. Keeler, Ed.) Retrieved from http://centralarizonagrotto- cavemanagement.webstarts.com/uploads/COCONINO_NF_Cave___Karst_Management__Guide _-_9-1-2015.pdf Coleborn, K., Spate, A., Tozer, M., Treble, P. C., Andersen, M. S., Fairchild, I., . . . Meehan, S. (2014). Effects of fire on soil CO2 - Implications for karst processes. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting Abstract #PP31B-1121, 1. Weary, D. J., & and Doctor, D. H. (2014). Karst in the United States: A digital map compilation and database. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/ofr20141156.

Education and Professional Experience Polly Hasessig has a Bachelor’s of Arts degree in Anthropology from Occidental College, in Los Angeles, CA and have studied undergraduate level geology at Occidental College and Washington State University, in Pullman, WA for a combined total of more than 4 years. I have a Master of Science degree in geology from Oregon State University (1988). My professional experience totals 29 years, including more than 17 years working as a geologist for the Forest Service (Olympic, Gifford Pinchot, Siuslaw and Klamath National Forests) and the Army Corps of Engineers, and more than 12 years working as a NEPA Specialist/Partnership Coordinator and Geologist on the Coconino National Forest. My geologic area of expertise is in landslide mapping and hazard assessment, watershed analysis and restoration, abandoned mine reclamation and minerals administration. I am a registered Geologist in Oregon (#G1170) and California (#6565), and a registered Engineering Geologist in California (# 2313). I have been a contributing author on several unpublished internal Forest Service studies, and have been a senior or contributing author on some short scientific publications relating to geology and forest management and mine reclamation.

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