No More English Than the Postal System: the Kenya Boy Scout Movement and the Transfer of Power Timothy H. Parsons

No More English than the Postal System: The Kenya Boy Scout Movement and the Transfer of Power Timothy H. Parsons

Decolonization in Kenya meant more than the transfer of political power: the end of colonial rule was part of a larger social transformation, where Africans struggled to master and adapt the political and social institutions they inherited from Britain. The attempt by the Kenya Boy Scout movement to successfully navigate the period from 1959 to 1964, when colonial officials, nationalist political leaders, and the common people alike negotiated the meaning of independence, exposes the social tensions inherent in this process. The “Africanization” of Kenyan scouting embodied larger debates—over political economy, education, race relations, and juvenile delinquency—that made this a particularly turbulent period in Kenyan history.

Some people seem to think that Scouting is something which is purely English, but there are actually far more Scouts outside the British Commonwealth than in it. It is true that Scouting was fi rst “invented” in England, but so was the postal system . . . and so were railways. Even your most violently anti-British politician still sends his letter by post, and travels by train. So do not let any silly person try to argue with you against Scouting for this reason. (Batian 1961)

In the years leading up to Kenyan independence, on 12 December 1963, government officials and private members of the European settler community sought to convince African politicians and their constituents to retain key British political and social institutions. Their goal was to preserve British infl uence. The Boy Scout movement was one of these institutions. In 1960, there were 468 registered Scout troops in Kenya, with approximately ten thousand formally enrolled members (Kenya Boy Scout Association 1960). A small percentage of these scouts were Europeans and Indians, and probably several thousand more belonged to unauthorized and unofficial African-run

. - l l l l e a y y o y ) ll s, y l h o by h us- ted lic- uce t to b e t d

p icia p line, line, l d itar h ower d aners aners l h p ff p ace, it ace, it . With k ) l en e move- f ri l mi p f rew near, icer, w icer, e eneration eneration oliticians e” ro f d imensions imensions g d d p k e potentia ff e i romoters of of romoters d h y e so soug so o

p l ers, eac ers, e A l e ma o t l kl seem a sma y l h h h d y . t to a -ru ric fi es a es h rot ean ean lf ivisions in in b ostcolonial Ken d b p atriotic ips out o ips out d arm p and self-disci and overnment ado l p d g y scouting to pro to scouting s un it ma ar “ ar is semio a was l y h ass ass eating t eating no attention to gir to attention no ly Gui h l f o an an l . Along with a series of d rate e ) ear, and the wall totters” b y et Corps,et t b rican se rican in Britain, as as Britain, in in 1908 to promote socia

d f d oug e Warren 1990:96–97 ear y

h l ll ( pp h d y moralit t e Gir a simi e y pai uence in uence able and able Ca e, scouting emp l g over c y d h p ll d d a ues, scouting h scouts were were scouts t l l , a ce because formall Baden-Powell icu d ace, t ll escents. T escents. l g ase ll t Britis ff l f b i a en-Powe o - e olicies. The Euro inten d h l l d gets rotten, or s or rotten, gets d initia p

’s Briga would survive would the transfer of ass va ass k ly es to p to es e d l ll a oo d g ). d a our p h d oug h ning moral its character ric h e census. As A h a more ca a more h e-c La t to smoot b scout movement’s martia movement’s scout g t h ert Ba en-Powe l sc s l h national anxiet national were teachin h l Scouts an Scouts l b d s. T Gui the South African launched the War, move- p y s an an scoutin an l y secret ddl y g y y ll o in t in at a o icia one one en-Powe b d f h b mi ave eacave t. Bat. d soug ff

e Bo f h h e Gir h Sir Ro tness in Britain, scouting grew into an interna- an into grew scouting Britain, in tness a Jewis h l fi h lly d

cra e origina . Ba t l e ) e t d ean teachers, missionaries, businessmen, and settlers h d d rican rican k . But i . But , we , we ed that scoutin that ed p osed a dee en-Powe aring t f u i ening mora t l l p ll l p ll d e semio f Springall and Fraser 1983:20–25; Kadish 1995:38–39 k ( itiona h ec A Genera woo f arents that the that arents t ing Britis ing d inc dd f d

p create h olitical and economic h by er Ba er nationa a

wea is movement as an organization promoting internationa promoting organization an as movement is p by h d ic d d ll h lly ig a wa a ig h e an et b f o went uncounte went o s in a wa teac i h an h d l ip among Britis k Jeal 1990:400–408; MacDonald 1993:3–4 MacDonald 1990:400–408; Jeal y ( 1957:267–268 h w es, w es, f ll movements ric Questions o Questions Create an opment” o opment” d b l h oor oor Britain y ers l en-Powe recast ins to throw undue strain on others, cracks a d d e it d g e exception o ents assured ents l ly k armon riga e eve ro-Western ro-Western i ut eventua out h aking the lead in trying to preserve By promoting the movement. social sta uture soldiers has scholarly generated considerable (Rosenthal debate 1984; i Powe tional on the success movement youth romanticized of its of celebration out Springall Warren 1987; 1971, 1986b have little relevance Ken for it b m ques- the nevertheless, service; military for sons their training than rather o tion f l b ( B methods in the cause of creatin of British youth Ba preparing them to be better wives and citizens p y h d t b troops w troops Euro with endeavor, to bolster their efforts to ensure that the Ken new by retaining, and perhaps even expanding, ability its the “moral to mold and military leaders worried that industrialization, urbanization, class an tensions, retain their informal social and economic infl economic and social informal their retain religiously inspired uniformed organizations, youth known as the Boy’s tria denounced militarism after the horrors and War ex of the First World should support the social status quo by being are “We very a “brick”: much British officialsho empire empire inone so by continuing in a role defi to have became a national herodurin afterment discovering that his manual on military scouting had a wide rea ex Africa South in t

africaTODAY 62 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 63 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS

- - l e e e y d h h h l ar h h ia, ia, i lly eir f to d

h h g rica. rica. out , t oses. oses. d f ua onia orce y l p f d ly A author e, w l t use its ur ar ic e Britis ister and y scouting l l p h bl g h e co d o ese scouts, l h h . Across t as a means es gra es scoutin ) onia . T ) l uence the on y g d to create t rica prove rica the wider Afri- ut t d for secret male f g b g patriotism; most olitical e Empire. In In h expecte p ortin 1982 the movement to movement the rica. Simi rica. tist missionaries at missionaries tist h one coone f p g d ly p unaccepta t h ’s Briga f ar A y reatene . l e movement rein e movement for lly etween Britons, Frenc Britons, etween op oung Congo oung ) ositive inflositive h l . ist groups mig h g Frenc h exclusivel enin y b l p f

g p Bo a Roman Cat y l d e in 1929, e in 1929, mora ists t ists ll l oser: oser: d to fall under militar under fall to thrived around b the world that middle-class men feared l as an international movement ht to use the movement to train to useht the movement g g y g g osed o osed ite races”ite o ere States, t h d d orities simi pp ond the controlond of the British Scout h ortations o missionaries in A in missionaries Ranger 1980 Ranger ). octor anoctor rew c y ian nationa ( sical trainin d h d interested in ex in interested d aners in Sout in aners d y

vision in Ang y k l er “w er h y aut ex consi p ri h h ian nationa f y e various riva s an e Unite l by e d at In h War

scout associations itar h l Hunt 1999; van 1995 Rompaey to promote unit to promote l h A h d Hantover 1978; MacLeo e ot ( ld t ( d In d t f h o tried to substitute scoutin icia educators sou d , and h s t g t romote scoutin romote y ff y granted only grudging sanction to Indian scout d articularl d p ic j ope e, Frenc ony ony is originais p l to allow Africans to become scouts, in the 1920s Wor h o h h ll s an g l d . A mi ). l rican servants servants rican ues. In t e y f rst troop in Brazzavi l essions essions unmove fi h e co f era an to to an s that would be be ly h ian Con onia e va g b e groun l p dominions of Canada, Australia,Zealand, New and l i g ectabilit h l g ere ere ere most o most ere h aners, an aners,

p be h h hts,” who would assist would who them inhts,” convertin the interwar era, scoutin era, interwar the t e Secon k h e pro societ arge uence in British imperial circles ensured that the move- truer to l p g g l d h l ri d e f Warren 1986a; Watt 1999 d ( . W ying on A l e emerging nationa d s, on t Martin 1995 Martin etween Britons an onia ( h ation ination t y ma l y overnin b l rica, w oun oo o g f h he was willin was he h f dl y re en Britis en h b g tions of manliness and masculinit rica as t as rica b co ians, A h f A f p Baden-Powell never intended scoutin intended never Baden-Powell European co Baden-Powell was was Baden-Powell er d er er h h t” t” k A ian ian f anization, res anization, l d g owever, were were owever, rot Christian kni so overnor of Northern Rhodesia viewed scoutin viewed Rhodesia Northern of overnor rest o The governmentThe of the Ra own informal troo Yakusu in the Bel Congo River in Brazzavi to train a moral African elite that exert would a “ tensions tensions g his primary goal for scouting was in Africa to smooth lingering over ity, and his inflity, ment remaine h wor “ Roman Catholic missionar less In ambivalent the about movement. the 1920s, Ba ing, w ing, Cana the self- the Sout conce b died durin out attaching itself to the institutions of politicallegitimacy and by promoting socia conservative of toughening the sons of European settlers had become who dangerously Althou became scouts because they wanted to wear the scout uniform and travel in Europe In or military assumed responsibility for organizing scouting in French Equato- French in scouting organizing for responsibility assumed military ria in the 1920s and established the International Scout Bureau re to initiation ceremonies, w scout leadershi were threatenedwere entry and into women’s by the women’s-rights movement suppose however, the Britishhowever, administration o Association popu can sanction t sanction

, l l s e y ” h h h l a u p h ite f h l rst rst . ers. ers. ). ) d rican rican onia arers, arers, rou or t roug l f f g e their ristian ristian n use

reserve h enda of of enda on stu- yf roug g itiona materi- d h an e an d p g y co hfi d d h f compan ly e in Sout at scouting d d h e Wa eeme ht to emonstrating t “tra nevertheless h arge e Pat ; rica, to ensure f d g d ivi d l isregar

f erent to A to erent h aries o rimaril d d y

d e that came from p d ff e s o l Parsons 2004 by A g i ( sou is is ope h d h d deviation from the number of colonial of number rican government’s g esome recreation to h h f l g -organize g oun on t o in at t ll b anization, an anization, b resti so so d

rican majority t majority rican h A l h l b art a broader of interwar f ly p e interwar era, as Sout as era, interwar e h nown as t e e racia monogamous C iscrimination t p a status w f

h we h k h l remaine d y g ” force, which teach would that Western culture and d rowin nown as t

d e A d o e g g l tura arge g k s in Sout h l k h l l t s an resente ing t ing l e Sout l d cu ging t ging k h ly ers in t d icia d racia b t a did follow the not South African ization, ur ization, ff eir socia icia f d ri l y rea an h ff b l indifferent to the formal a b o itter

preserving w owing, an

l ramewor y o f b uentia f services an l focused their efforts uire the social ll ite o ite fl l romoters of scoutinromoters el by g by mem q o e ou h customs. T customs. p y governe g f f , made scoutin ustria d h ” d y ance t ance l ll d in Ken in e counterparts, onia e racia l a h g l have been a demeanin artments, and a h b a practice in ut w y in t in an in an p its international its commitment to universal s an f t . The . The y b f d co h pe organization, organization, pe y ricans ricans y h ousan ema e d f y ing socia ie f h ma d l a mass to missionaries and teachers found to the fi to en d e “tri g t e d y eoretica d an s were lars were Ken b pus y b ” A not run not a s wit l h

eir y ll d l oun d d orces o d t h f i f

h d t provi s. These authorities, fearin an ndin h eir communities ize f oca onia ic d es to to es b p l which declared all scouts to be brothers be to scouts all declared which l l h ect authorit for l , ic h rimaril a twent p t orm, an h p us b f d romoters of scoutin of romoters co h en-Powe p hly h e, w d Gaitskell 1984; Glaser 2000; Parsons 2004; Proctor 2000 l ( etri ers aners orities” an e, w e movement as meanse movement o s an rican territories, d d d h e uni f h Ba y e corrosive oug h n o h rican ma rican h esome in h roug , it fell, it . Most became scouts to ac f l b t e. The e. The it d ouths. Pathfi ouths. t g g hfi o e movement e movement . As a result, mission stations, schools, and social-welfare g ing “ y t was relatively unproblematic relatively t was to introduce scouting into of most y h line and res and line h l Al I W irect ru irect by p

to a separate scout-t separate a to d ’s Briga w d oo o saw t es as proper es proper as ly y rican rican d at t e Pat h l in h f isci fficials viewed the movement as a “retribalizin oung A native aut native ponsored of the most early African troops. Throughout the colonial era, the h h ocal institutions of authorit prestige of “official” scouting, still was it but appealing to African boys w institution. African bo African institution. scoutin wearing t Fourth Scout Law alism. Missions, education de semiformal “color bar,” scoutin semiformal bar,” “color laws on strict racial segregation, insisted that African boys could belong belong could boys African that insisted segregation, racial strict on laws would teachwould young African males to be sexually continent and play their ro dents and urbanized Africans, inclined most were who to challen urban t on A movement never acquire never movement t “ s and strengthen the integrity of these “tribal which threat- were societies,” ene o y d social-welfare initiative to improve the effectiveness of the British system of l scoutin societ attracte sc Africa and attracted were b African scout troo marria their respectability, resourcefulness, and sophistication African liberals and missionaries enthusiastically promoted the two move- asments means a o brotherhood an the behind well lagged initially colony the in Scouting model. segregated Bo Britain’s A

africaTODAY 64 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 65 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS

. l - - - l l a y d ) d- er or ht y in in f to oo d g y oca h h irect irect l d orma s were s were e AHS f troops troops p was an was Sc ucation troops, troops, h

secon l d in d d h e Secon d d f in Ken in s in ei Inspector Inspector h oo d E l y enoug was un f en h ) an d overnment’s ears for Alli for ears oo y bl er to advance to er orize g bo y h g ated American Sc h y g h -1930s. T -1930s. e reconstruction uyu 1910 News stems o rican support support rican uring t to endence, colonial endence, KBSA re ht to create ht a new f d h k y ( d u Sc d iance Hig p g g lican Societ Men’s isticate b ’s movement to ll A Ki primar more g h ( Director o ll d y scout troops in inter in troops scout uarters and entirel ( e mi ld ine ine e e unsanctione d l q trie h e in s e h h l ui ment initiatives. British h t ec k endent-schoolmovement, b l p is iance Hig

d ic p ro ll . l bl 636 scouts and rovers in the rican rican h ing to sponsor a troop. is It ) ld , to t f d d en-Powe rst recognized African troop. its own its unaut d Indian inde Indian at A d un g oined the armed forces, the but -esta consisted of fort of consisted f , numerous informal troo u inde e h j wou

y y ll d y 1954, 1957; A 1957; 1954, ing to support t onge t d h egin unti l d k e centra a’s top ran a’s b e ic erts therefore sou erts therefore rican Scout troops emerge y h ear later, the An the later, ear apt Ba b f motivated students ea p h oun endin y d t f e, we y s erial Head Scout . As an overseas branch of the British the of branch overseas an As . p l d A into serious serious into y , atian ecte p f not p o e l hl fl ricans sop not were ll o Ken d h B y e f g f i e ( uyu mission in 1909 b ip, w ip, a f d s o

d l k e scouts A were

h y d e w y h ves to a ies l h at A in o p t mo f ll h on k h l ’s Ki “native” troops, w l rastructure an l artners in these develo d t to found Kenya’s fi to found Kenya’s Nairobi, initiall Nairobi, f ) er er eanes School, which a curriculum followed based ra oo p d as o one J emse d h h th an d e Kenyan Boy Scout Association e co h ow man l 6 h h ere h i’s successi’s re ensate for the the for ensate e in ot oor oor are initiatives. See d AHS l b p h ean scout troo ( an scouting scouting an p lf severa p y t Scot d orities” w h f now h -we emerge k o l ing in t in ing Nairo it upon t of Baden-Powell’s Im Ken ernizing trustees h l d y k the KBSA’s official census listed 1 d th bly , a Scout Association 1934, 1936, 1939; Kiam 1939; a Scout Association 1936, 1934, e Jeanes Sc e vast majoritye vast o ers consi 6 y h e to urc h d with “tribal Kiku The custom.” e h bl t mo g ture. Severa ture. h ohn’s Church inohn’s Nairobi one o too ea f l the 1930s. The d J l roved to beroved , sponsore Forma T h g , known as the the ideals twent and took it of the movement, an circumstances. On t On circumstances. an p ). e C h p p y cu invaria h ony. T ony. rican Gui d d l onsored a Euro e “native aut e “native f out ras rs, w rs, p h orm o administrators and social welfare ex welfare social and administrators officials hoped to spur economic growth in their African territories; yet t elite institution, which drew hi co begun by enterprising African teachers, churchmen, and community lead inbut 1938 in colonial society by demonstrating their mastery of Western education an without the sanction of the KBSA. Finall impossi 1938 A troo 1938; Ken rule rule f postwar socia movement received an enormousmovement boost from the British ary schools ran the viable most African troops because these the were only wit institutions e Ken which sought to break the European on Western schooling monopoly and rejecte S scoutin troop competitions an competitions troop 1934; Girl1932, Kenya Guide Association n.d. g School High ance the authorit the the hands of European teachers, missionaries, and settlers. Initially, Kenyan scout at t Scout Association, t on the African-American industrial education of the se patrols. They progressed in rank much faster than most European scouts, scouts, European most than faster much rank in progressed They patrols. an of Britain and com durin as scout leaders War, all of World races s At St.

l d d d ” a, a or ut e p f y ese ese h on- b

h aim aim

p h l h l orers onia rican rican ot rofes- Great Great l f b u ). s ( b p f a . T y ing an ing several regime. ) l e l ustice in in ustice y j b fy -education -education u reserves. . y rican scouts scouts rican e Britis y eir attac ent uprising uprising ent progressive f l onia h h d l missions an missions e ist antico ist l t A ecome ecome robabl t uence to c l a power d fl d d roup 1988 roup b p d

d irect government h e co e vio u chiefs and other d oca e promoting impe- d in h l

h a l y prove to prove

d i d t ame h f ust four years (Kenya (Kenya years four ust stem. Forti riation land of arable s an -min f ld j h are initiatives l y p ousan bl o an s, and lf l orters of the rebellion. h lly e movement in A e movement s create oo ro h p , or l h a nationa t y h ies o into t into k . Kiku f l pp e endent schools, either to to either schools, endent pp -we y d ll l p h ree t s, whichs, mostl were onia h itions w p l u a wor ScoutAssociation enc d f s, t y g y ent sc ent overcrowded Kiku e contro . h u o ) d y squatters squatters eir wea h an t an roved a windfall for colonial Afri- e co h k erupte d h h ements o ements ort on “Education for Citizenshi p h y l

a Bo p g e supervise t y ese scouts wou scouts ese hasized broad communit e new civicae new epen d e Ki d p h h d a h ing oat e new sociae new iving con ers aners h ean settlers’ a

rom t rom em to t to em h l ll f p using t using ll em y h

e 1990; Peterson 2004; T rst time, receive most y u in i in searc l d fi uce t by b y a we ; yet by this; yet time, had become it increasingly d e ) u er t er d d te f h fi k s in unauthorized troo es in t in es u communit l compe y for the Ken s were oftens were su active e 1940s. T y ere were more t more ere were h y p um um h so, the so, ene u Lons l h g ( ro e Ki b t land in the alread the in land s worse k l

f improving improving to pro h g d d to Nairo d a d by , t ing against out t an h e Ki h ly ortunit ves wit h o ose o ose hl l 1949, t 1949, l as and their reach into rural African communities. In Ken h y l . In doin pp ig overnment took over the inde

p p g h e c

ay centra l l by own or to trans -equippe h u members of formal scout troo

e Mau Mau Emergenc regime migrate emse Protectorate 1949; Kenya Boy Scout Kenya Association Protectorate 1949; 1954 d l arms. Most s d ll y h d t p h d f uyu reserves a t i k ld an h by h er er l iku em em his official sanction for scoutin l onia n the early simmering 1950s, tensions landlessness over and social s u u lly cation in t in cation commissioners an to promote l h l K I T ing t fi l y y u e Ki e centra oug f ters; converse u u h ony anony fy h oo h l ures did include bo not h k t k ut t at cou e co h entioned theentioned Boy Scouts and Girl Guides as nongovernment-organizations i g ommunities. B overnment allies made the Euro h h h he scout authoritieshe used their increased resources to hire full-time n t n recognized troops—a number in that double would

g can scout associations. For t District Education Boards (District Commissioner Kiambu Kiambu 1952; Distrct Education Board 1952 fi that the British termed the Mau Mau Emer Britain, Colonial Office 1948; Lewis 2000 ex to subsidies on sett threat and an o In the 1953, s Al ultimatelywas it a civilmovement, war sparked by social differentiation t in fi K g i remainin the of most thousand more scouts were in troops run by the Kikuyu independent independent Kikuyu the by run troops in were Co scouts more thousand sc rial citizenshi rial t siona c i woe Africans. Colonial The Office’s re 1948 m t t sored by mission attacked schools, were and murdered by the Mau Mau By the end of the Second World War, hundredsBy War, the end of the of thousands Second World of landless Ki uni structuredloosely resistance which fought for social movement, unauthorized scout troo scout unauthorized initiatives compensate to for the reality that colonial most schools were their they but attacked the poverty, Kikuyu chiefs, businessmen, and mis- convertssion w strati

africaTODAY 66 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 67 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS

. - - - - - f y d y h t & to l to ort ast ast ine l s o g g a l E k ( most y rican rican 1958 pp oo l e new e new f f o l ers aners h h Orders Orders

itation” l h g iscip l an seven an i ecial rallecial d arrac at Britain Sc h b an govern- an overnment comin p er commu er b h d its “civics” “civics” its a l y g y f e h t came a came Empire Empire h d olitical leaders h h p ority. The scout The ority. ic j the the resentational for e sett ate e Ken more t e “re h p rican teac rican l to accept t p h d h f h d en a Mau Mau oat cu e guise o Constitution o Constitution centers to l k e Britis ism as an institution h overnment fundin y ip, w ip, l use or A h yd g . British administrators f f h ) ta t ate 1950s, rising 1950s, ate A d d er t er l counte re a ers d l onia ness to t d ore ca l oals in Africa b Africa in oals e h d l lans to hel lans to f g h u p ea f l co , an ere f . y and the institutional and bureau ) h p Lennox-Bo l i’s communiti’s eneration of African ured communal re communal ured u scouts eir use Cooper 1996 Cooper g b ( g representation to t rica.In t y h ed ex ed scout training scout ization,” un ization,”

l f u l p d ativeCounci l , scout authorities tried to build su k e tiracia y d l hel itica e emergenc criticism o a new a new Ki l l y h g d rom A ic andic economic t Housing Approve 1958; Wamumu f etention campsetention to assist in t f g po d these “defections,” the KBSA a s these held “defections,” support. Promising imperia promote to l enc ren, it ranren, it a scouting program in t d e European scout l ivin o y - an Legis an g h g y ld k h e Kenyan government an government Kenyan e

raw raw i emonstrate t emonstrate y h es. Finall es. e new mu e new . d h oc h hd out u, the KBSA substantial won h ment officers,ment and made in eastern Nairo y y e KBSA provi p its greater its “civi recognize to e Ken d f h e s at t y d h h internationa ty to t to ty h iers’ c 1953) l t , the emer rovision for a reconfi communa d f t d l y Services an s an p ld 1960; Dahl East 1955; African Land Forces Standin d l Kiku y institutiona asis o asis g oya n o d -develo l e most part,e most t b a rom t embarrassed b b y at man ers o ans to wit to ans ope i h f them time b time them e y l h b h y an u ’s African Rifl an’s Conservative government t government Conservative an’s oun h eir d ism an ism l regime. T Socia g y l a y s the decade drew to a close, Kenyan scouting deepened its ties to the l h ll f Bat

y rican so rican u ( For t A The KenyanThe scout authorities sought primarily to reclaim control of g f k ing p on t and activities its in rural communities. Scout officials established new k onia y rica Standar rica vious t p l e movement an e movement Ki f XIII 1957; Kenya ScoutXIII Association Kenya 1958 1957; isproportiona f b h nancia / thousand African boys as registered scouts (Baring City Council 1955; Scout Association Kenya 1955; Kenya Nairobi 1952; City Council Depart I terms with the African nationalists badge could best realize strate its constitution’s constitution’s ex A Mau Mau in troops can mem ma parliamentary a Europeans guaranteed still that mula in Ken in would bu an increased in role governing the eight elected Afri however, the colony; for the colonial multiracial regime’s constitutional which accorded strategy, d nit the Kin co communit ment o young migrants in the African had largely the movement locations. By 1955, recovere cratic reach of Kenyan scouting by bringing the movement much greater greater much movement the bringing by scouting ment. Ironicall Kenyan of reach cratic fi o Profoundl well-guarded Nairobi’s at Rowallan scout camp 1,500 where Kikuyu scouts t swore o nationa Youth Camp 1956). Youth made an African empire an increasing liability. Prime Minister Harold Minister Prime liability. increasing an empire African an made Macmi defuse labor unrest in Mombasa by creating troops for young dockworkers. For A fromexclusively the settler community, unaware was that Britain was ma t amon

- f l e e d y n ly ey ey e h h g or in- on ese ese on h h l ony ony d er t d er o er l h e d f d ation ence. ence. rican rican ution h d f t l s t an ut t d d overn- f Socia l i b b f g ories of forei ters an l A ip. T ip. e co ame g an an g so h numbers numbers ). d h h l wit b g bl ocuse trans g epen d f fi s e . T d olitical elite ly l ) l ve thousand a p ize it, 3,415 o 3,415 -conso er made African made y l d d y 1998 ear, an ear, rowin ly icia gy access to y b -paying jo g ter in l ff an citizens f ll l l o a l y etainees, ur roblem of the rootlessroblem Mau Mau Mau Mau we f not rea not d f . , convinced the metro- Ogot 1995 p or an or orts, reassurin s in Ken on ( oca f Horns y a d oom, oom, l l l o p i d y b d three main cate main three d minima at y imperia Aspin 1964; Chief of Staff d enc ans ans an ( f h by l a g goa l avor o a f athetic African h y p scouting as a partia a as scouting e b arge arge amega 1957; Ministryamega 1957; o p h d h o l k 2.5 percent per roup an roup in to absorb the h ormer co m -one in 1962. On 1962. in -one f f g h y y ere or in at e economies economies bases and ff l y b h stem and the y eir attention to ensuring anor a ists” t ists” y o l l h ose w

d rate o rate a ormer Mau Mau l h t f y h

rura twent t d ost-colonial Ken ost-colonial f f o d d l . p e a crime t wave te e. A postwar rst year of secondary school (Griffin 1963; tura f d d ermine Britis d l i ice 1962; T u “ u d si h l orce. Its primar could be not ff y ic militar ic f y y e scouts’ program o g u ment

remain in t in remain e ageo h s s y k civics, an l h er communiter ld l ingstrategic interests in Asia, coup o by l l to un smen, ansmen, h agricu ation growt Ki or t d d d l f d er t er icia e er d eriod, there were essentiallwere eriod, there ff d e countr h p emp o wou e sett

i experience h o d h d h b use use l iminis an econom an ast troop inc , and wanderers lacked the who means inclination or to seek h District Commissioner Ka Commissioner District t l y d ) reatene ( d e h ren un ; many boys and young regardless men, of their educational this this innd the cities of ) h onia e carrying capacity o carryinge capacity t g at awar l ld osive popu osive h h i access to strate to access h l muc t g h d ic 1962 ist aspirations d a “spivs” d h l urin s co armers an armers ( y the early 1960s, the colonial regime faced a serious prob- “youth ritain’s ritain’s ture or pai or ture h citizensw ing. T ing. f l ortunes in t cations, rejecte cations, l B D A B h f fi orities an i ion c ion ority rule in virtually Kenya inevitable. l an exp an ected to fi ense and bloodshed of the Mau Mau Emer oo h j ll d p p eir h a ritis ents, ents, ower. The Ken The ower. reservin uents rograms t oung males between the approximate ages of ten and twenty: full-time stu ate 1950s, Nairo onger em,” w em,” younger generation of Africans could who support not themselves through agricu Committee 1961; ForeignCommittee O 1961; politan British government that fruitless was it to try to restrain African nationa transfer of power to a friendly African-led Kenyan government, they no therefore annualtheir cut and the aid KBSA’s to the movement, subsidy droppedment from ten thousand to four thousand pounds between 1957 an enrolled students reached the fi Stabler 1969 would inheritwould thereigns of power in Kenya ex l p of young hoped people who to survive the agricultural outside In sector. the l h schools could accommodate only one-quarter about of the roughly four mi qua q th p oathtakers, and the increasing commercialization of agriculture, severely restricte Services 1962). Alarmed by this loss of official support, the scout leader- scout the support, official of loss this by Alarmed 1962). Services ship scrambled to adapt to the shifting political terrain. their muted They imperia to commitment y d l B therefore was It vital to ensure that a s p aut to the failure of the colonial school s ma demise of multiracialism as a viable constitutional strate constitutional viable a as multiracialism of demise ex sc investors, and protecting the wealth and safety of the forty-fi

africaTODAY 68 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 69 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS

, - - - e g e e y h h er h h h g u to f lly ing ing b asic asic d t l rom rom t t one outh f cost cost oun b d

e gov y ld h ai 1963, ld y h overn e f y o h y o 1957b g , h ic h e h t trans . Former Rhodes, Rhodes, h l ut to e promise h y al al amborees, amborees, y ly b j . Althou h p u e cit eventua eir promise y at wit b t ess t ess to er h h eve l ld

h d d l d e movements’ e movements’ to t t

e 1961. B 1961. h h l t d l rootless rootless oice ges, w et acquireet ly d ents expecte ents s to y y h d ly ai ing to up to ing on t d b f a l d oca u obs for only 7 per b orn l ing an ing l j e

ai l l ). f d c interacted with their their with interacted stu e

bb not no c ee, muc ee, y d h oo h o visite erousl f d d e goo by h g h was on the Brit- was wane, a a , an armers wou armers k g h f h f out sc

ricultural, labor, and ominous y l l at t e w rarel g

d l l ousan endence. Nairobi The Stock d y ing stu l h p Colonial Office 1957a Office Colonial oung peop t ositions of authorit ; etween 1960 anetween 1960 nd paying t, scar y d orma scription scription p b l f

b scouts scouts e to c re y d these dan uvenile delinquents, dockworkers, dockworkers, delinquents, uvenile b d j g d 1962 dy e point in accepting t accepting in point e adier General Sir Geoffre on l ucationa roblem. A roblem. ize . In 1957 alone, the munici. In 1957 l to inde g Services 1963; Rennison 1960; Yout ies warne l un d g p l oung peop segregate p rican scouts d itt h y f l orts,

e matters worse linin ly roblem. The movement remained movement The roblem. almost f e co -cent su -cent h d p p coe y h access to t outh d d s o f rican commercia at A Socia y obs to keep greater numbers of young people t t

f saw saw d e one e one j fi f d h Kenya BoyKenya Scout Association Kiambu 1955a;

y ( irt, s irt, h e l strict e l outh ers continue ers h rica Digest rica to use scouting to assist in an or an in assist to scouting use to d eriod recall that the that recall eriod ers maers s. Some nees. Some s t h y f ” to hold senior ” to hold d d er marginaer p d y d ve thousandve vagrants” “child to the neighboring y or t A , t h ’s f o . Denie ea ( ousan

and disci a s y ) l ea y b our an f h l g k ope

it b ot l l . h ) ear in the runu the in ear i in d Development of Youth Clubs 1957 Clubs of Youth Development e t ( y b oo ll h py h e groun orities were in no position to ma to position in no were orities t or La state-sponsore prosperous A h f d companies companies h f mo d ing wor l y h the movement’s officialh the movement’s standin t d g f e KBSA’s annuae KBSA’s occu

code of conduct. of code h n fi y nonsc g fi ass o f es an es t

l f d d ip on t oritiessti an an e socia h h solve the colon solve African reserves each evenin u District. Government stu h or line and “efficienc and line gangs an European scout European scout Scout aut Althou p y b bl Association 1955 Association an scouting remaine scouting an ff l p y h orm, consisting o Gui ers y ower b f l an migrants, an migrants, an aut d p ance o ance b irit of the Fourth Bri Scout Law. via h f out h rnment time to deal with the p ea the Chief Scout Commissioner, defended Kenyan scouting’s all-European more than thirty shillings shillings thirty than more disci interest o interest the KBSA carefully held orchestrated “interracial” rallies and nearb demandin s to hel fellow European scouts, a quick beyond handshake on a parade ground. Man African scouts from this entirely school-based, as the troops for for troops the as school-based, entirely hundred thousand Mau Mau detainees scheduled for release in and 1960 l Loca o food with they the money had raised for scout activities. Poor boys could not a uni Exchange dropped rapidly with the release of Mau Mau detainees, and more t is experts hoped in that the land-consolidation colony intended to schemes create a c agricultural enough produce e Organization 1960a Organization cent of thepopulation 1960; Minister approximately 150,000 in men Nairobi already unemployed, there little was c y ment forcibly returned fi Kiam ur of males. Boy The Scouts still had a place in a strategy that sought to use the Gir in the countryside leave schooleach leave labor experts calculated that they could fi Ken

l l . s e d h i- ) a. a. l h y ew ew ff im- ned f t s or ing, ing, l ism, ism, out

g d tura b l rican rican elec- icia l bl y d f e scout scout g

f ff a l d f District District nancia ( at it was an fi ossible to ossible d h p e tiracia . e movement e movement l h agricu eman holdin l h ed the notice oun d orts o arts of Ken of arts t y an u p t Kenya A Kenya p l o ff f d . Scout o lb e name o mu h d oyment e h f s was trous was ess squatters an squatters ess l h e b) k b government o oo k e e ilant as dl d u h use ervise rural African wit g l ac h in’s p in’s to ensure consistent d l ac p d an in 2000; 1958, Kenya d emp b t ff l c e scouts to get jo f - ff d ic in t h b an to create rura create to an h rams that seemed better better rams seemed that o l endence b emise o at Ngei, w in other other in g bl l d p h h p to su Gri out to e ro ( t y y orities

d h p stipen d u scouting meant t ing Gri d h Pau t ll e l at stresse y associate d h e Britis rejecte h h a. the He was founder and direc- itious p y u d ore convince h y b f aime k it cienc t l erai l s, whichs, often esca i d d or t a Scout Association 1957; Kiambua Scout Association 1957; worrie p f ere b rofi ath to inde a sma em paiem y Organization 1960 Organization ). h ony inony searc p p d ly h inga an inga l h d este t ar ’s efforts to be as vi f b ism, an ism, l and favored an autonomous nonali and an favored autonomous at scouting was too sc p l ) or an am y e co s pai h o f h b t lf uistic uistic ecting” Kiecting” etention. Wit etention. u f d ert a g respecta l d support support a on the p d h l y e success in s in a program t tiracia outt ro l l l KANU a 1959; Ken a 1959; b p ( imitations t imitations rom anrom unsuspecting pu rom rom e Oginga O g icia ers, ers, l f f itt support support k

l ff b e European scout aut gir l i

y in an informal scout troo scout informal an in l mu d h eges an d were particu g f l a s. Some c s. Some rom “rein to reach sufficient numbers of rural children. Griffin’s d er cases, impostersc atta f icia is o is h p e recognize ll y h i Union h ff h s an mem l ower, and linower, ost–Mau Mau travel restrictions that difficult made it for k ut y d t p p to be b o ut e privi h t s y b b f h

ing, an ing, hout centralhout and western Ken ect mone ect Protectorate 1959; Yout 1959; Protectorate d ermore, t g d ll octrine o e d oug ing, ing, h d ousan eas icra d ricans to move a move to ricans h d un e movement’s e movement’s

f y h t Jomo Ken d f u l l urt d un Al Th F an f raising; in ot in raising; in KANU—men KANU—men in s to co h

ony anony d h itica d l ease rican Nationa d l eir l it f even t even ut inc oung A l ppropriate t ppropriate coutmaster, coutmaster, h e un tions for a transitional African-led government. Kenya In Kenyatta’s 1963, A Securityforeign policy. officers certain were that Odinga received communist clubs followed a scout-type followed clubs curriculum, with uniforms simple and badges, Co prevent Mauprevent Mau to circumvent tor of the Mau Mau rehabilitation youth and camp an Wamumu at active of the KBSA. scout leadershi The Kenyan scouting faced greatest its challenge the when government in 1961, reallocation of land and w and land of reallocation r the Colonial Office set Ken equipped to address Geoffrey the problem. youth Griffin, Youth the Colony Organiser, o won s in membershi ited b y KakameCommissioner f resources,man a troo unauthorized form to continued po scoutmasters the Fourth to apply Scout Law to individual troops (District Commissioner Kakamega Megson 1955; 1956; 1998; Nyaga Nyagah 1998 relativel Sometimes con used men illegally acquired uniforms and membership car Democratic Union (KADU). Local British officials accepted the reality of the situation to insulate and worked Kenyatta from left-leaning politicians Local Association 1958; Rhodes 1955 attendance—which, enabled Griffin the by end of 1958, to draw than more e clubs throuclubs an scouting. As a result, African teachers and community leaders seekingto recognized certainly that most would for the clubs youth money into cut t cials to shift their social-welfare resources to

africaTODAY 70 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 71 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS . - - e e e e e e y ) at ly ar ar ed ed h h h h h h re- ge, b h g d rom t outh pp f f . T

. T e Bo y ) or y ing ing d h l scouts k it lace the lace s o d t value in dro l Wing in Colonial f p y ( i y y ressure as ac h spent t a b overnment p e co b d d e o ). g udges while roppe oys join t h a ia ave credence j ractical. In a e k l orme d b g h p f t h e pro-Western, levels. African f a uyu 1963 b t p ues open now g

l institution t k eir h ers ers ime, and Britain’s uni y ures are avail not ld h d er saw an saw er g d g scouting’s intimate intimate scouting’s g

e istinct istinct ea d e Ki at to ma e KBSA l k d itar e waning et t l h ority. By KANU 1963, ority. h h l is Queen’s Scoutis Ba Queen’s h District Commissioner District anization to re to anization h im wit im e KANU Yout KANU e ements o ements ( h l g one W. L. Mwavua had to W. one h h , no lon to t e or eet, an eet, f y d aut ensive and im and ensive in t in f atta and address the ip in t d f Western va y p y f y over w h ten attac ecame a an scout scout an y f an state wou use o 1963 erial institution. Man eir b y f y y d p ers o h orit earning act on membershi f d b h p t provi oliticians like Odin im er t er h p y d ean schools that tried to remain se aut . a section o recise enrollment fi to preserve e l rica uncertain. now were then Ken then p ) f f p d ose. Ken ose. positions o g un l ism now d d or service, or a mi a or service, or l h A e mig e verge o e new Kene new eir master l l b g itica te h h h a ers o l f groups, an groups, rican mem rican l i l f d s an were therefore were under considerable , because his famil onia h b g l g onia at t po A ea l f l l versive Activityversive Among t h etween 1959 an etween 1959 ing t riva b considered it too ex too it considered co b h u at appeare d arents believed that the scouts were a a were scouts the that believed arents rew to a c y to form militar a new

h y h is p g ers jo d d a growing uncertaint u e was on t e was rican parents re now oitative b oung peop es. Althou es. orma their alliance with the colonial re colonial the with alliance their ; Su d bl a l f k f h y ines o ines g g b aine y

l terrain s l

d d at ing in co in ing uce en en Britis d l e is h ousan e Ki d esta h h y and Guidin and lannin d h h g o p itica l by l thenin urre

eir mem g at t y h bl e in Ken ing to ensure t h l ree t t k at many A e po e t h era pro d h h l h hese new realitieshese new had a direct im d hest rank in scoutin ru g wingers wingers unemp t T T See h y d h societ e it so appeae it -era institutions t institutions -era l overnment stoo ice 1963a, 1963 l d onia e, it appearse, it t g l ff epartment, an exp an epartment, uestioned the value of such an overtl out ated. Scoutin bl oun Area Commissioner Scout 1962; Association Kenya 1962; Mwavua 1962 Kiambu were were Kiambu needed to displace Kenyatta (Colonial Office 1963a; Director of Internal of Director 1963a; Office (Colonial Kenyatta displace to needed Security 1962; Foreign Office 1962 the movement. Some Some the movement. out or transferredout their loyalty to the wings youth of political parties that promise as Britis co 1950s stren ten to t ( d trained future soldiers. Leftist KANU to these suspicions by openly criticizing as imperialistic the movement quit scoutingquit w f more even authorities scout the troubled that case Scout movement in manyScout movement local African communities. Rural scoutmasters a y youth wingersyouth began acting as self-appointed policemen and collecting intelligence for their money ominously, More “services.” officers reporte boys who had formerly embraced the movement to demand full access to to access full demand to movement the embraced formerly had who boys civi q prise. T g British colo- officials of stren to worked suspicious profoundly were however, KANU politicians, problem. nia angr and threatened to nationalize Euro sur by them caught Africa from withdraw to decision sudden seemingly O movement’s ties to political legitimacy and social respectability that had had that respectability social and legitimacy political to ties movement’s ma Kakamega 1960; Scout Association Kenya 1960; Rhodes 1961b becausemovement the hi the connection wit connection Kenyan Army under the leadership of former Mau Mau generals

- - - - - t g g e a y l is is h lf g h lly h on , in t u d y d ing to llf scout ecause ecause o were o were l lied for for lied f Scouts Scouts iticians ase ow se b ositions ositions h l l ondence ondence e KBSA’s e KBSA’s b p h pp p wi h collectin . d roots. T roots. ean scouts, t ar Part ar e w romise that y l l l d p p raising: “It is is raising: “It e communit all d h g ou see e counterweig ,” it was “neces- was it ,” un y peop y f bl continued to com to continued KANU po KANU y ips. Typica e Scout, a onger appea e as scouts, an e g l g l ua h d i l as a corres a as by orit g eir campaigns orms to campaignorms to ra h with the the with h race scouting f ars h p interpretations o interpretations l b one particu one scouts seeme scouts , man w l o l y d d h turns” in t in turns” aut rom imperia its d f d s in t

osters for ille for osters l onia sc a troo d p eir uni l ecte artment and bombarded Scout scoutin d e g to em h p ll y ou receive. So d h Kenya Scout AssociationKenya 1964a; co scoutmasters ignore ( y f to masquera ’s leaders in’s their official d imperia entia co d s an y d y eir “goo b etac e bly h d h ent o ent t e constitute d tions of the movement. Some believed Some tions of the movement. t Kakame d support to an to support e movement as a va e movement b e more e more at scoutingat no was or jo

p y espite treatment its th y f h . wearing t h lly h d countr ld s continue ] 58 y by epen

o ega d overnment de y l demonstrate had that its lost the movement e institution the b g [ y latform. KBSA The tried to extricate scoutin eir scout cre bl e mone o saw t p nature Leo Peter of the Omurun movement; h rican scouts an scouts rican uthia Manene, another avera h h . usiness.” Even registere Even usiness.” f y scouts an scouts ) p to “ b t ring in,t respect, d l f f b rican rican a arita activit f up t l y h d not mean not t o at were in ou e at con men continue men con at A l d h y i orme y y haz M h s, scouting cou f a d p ositive misconce ositive itica l d l p ers. In some localities, the movement became embroiled in esperate requests requests esperate e “Scout e “Scout

g uish between between uish d ort term, A h y

uni g h eep o most h ans: rather, the rather, ans: ents ents k e more e more y by ates p d

e s

er wor er in t in service t h d act, man h d han Tomasi Muliro asked to stud to asked Muliro Tomasi han i h ld f y d rural communities, which had even seen never Euro arge measure o p l d hese charlatanshese successful were because scoutin y an on po on an s wit n l Ken or t b In t In T I a outh win f g a Police arrested scores of uniformed im

e scouts were d cou to distin y y l can d y i y l ese inci ese icia e KBSA’s originse KBSA’s unquestiona were e movement as a c e movement e an ine, an ine, norant of the voluntar h ere KADUere w supporters h pposition to another, whether it happens to be in power or not” (Kenya Boy olitics, as ambitious politicians tried to trade respectability. on its Less rad ff oun ar h h h ng. In ot ng. g exibility the Scouts help would survive in the postcolonial era ca Manene 1959; Muliro 1961; Omurunga 1963–1964; Rhodes 1955). course, while Eli t impresse supporting can you be in Given these this misconceptions, movement.” it surprisingis not t i monopoly on political legitimacy political on monopoly like Ste like and in their capacity as leaders of political parties. In this latter capacity[,] cannot,. we . as Scouts, give. an o Scout Association 1963a strict w radical more KANU’s to s pl i fl a vacanc m and p i man in people did see not scouting as an explicitly British institution. Although t T y unrealisticall o that the KBSA indeed was a from these potentially damaging political entanglements by declaring that w equated with local the movement conceptions of respectability, self-disci- lies. details The is likely it but of these that many incidents are sketchy, Ken frommoney unsuspecting members continued of the who public, to view t recruited members new his for goo

africaTODAY 72 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 73 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS , - - - a e g e y ) h es y h h es, es, ing ing d ges, t d l o a we out d d o awa BSA y h y a ( Scout Scout h k

Chief, es, t wron athetic evise a l b ange’ is h p d g e Ken ed refer- ed p d h owe o h rea eir troops ,” R m h pp ll b h d C y f istic istic . The British. The rom R R ) Britis l and anthem. in f l o (

at a g scout associa- scout d d bl l h of s over t a g an scout associa- scout an rica” to a nationa e BSA’s trave e BSA’s ea k ments, concluded f ressure, forced the y l h h Britain’s intention p onization. In 1961, onization. In 1961, p our eir own l g onia l t l h ines t ines eir d e ‘Win l Scouting in Ken Ken h h e to register t eco f l olitical leaders to retain d d ier Genera d e co p

Scouting” d osed the shift to African f h f olitical Scout Association Association Scout ing t ricans too ricans gui p pp Thurman 1960 f h f k ( ears o ears eir own nationa scout standards; insisted he orming t ulations, which dro es o es o y to the KBSA’s version of mul of version KBSA’s the to f l A g h g reatene y g f olitan British scout leaders were ities o . Ta h l ) p eech, declarineech, and somehow we must make must and we sure somehow ” i ] enl ace scouting wit p , a set o d l [ p ht calibre, there is somethin d ence. Briga ter 50 ricanize” t g f e s f d e rea ean scouters warned that these senti g princip roa itanBritis h a p a “Committee on A on “Committee a l d or a new nationaor a new b f f Committee,” consistin d an scouting “co was g aware of these develo y es’ protestations, an protestations, es’ epen is own warning: own is “T ricans into into ricans g : “I d f an an d h led with KANU KANU with led l d o

ront t ront ower. Metroower. p urman 1960 urman eneration of African h f h ohn Thurman, Gilwell Cam the BSA’s orme atta to rep p g h in J f e A y are le of the ri d 1962, issue 1962, k l at Ken p , cou ly er scoutmasters t scoutmasters er h ec e metropo Groups A Groups ore l g eo f ressive Euroressive d h h

p asic aims an asic g rica wit rica b t ere f . ossible. ossible. f ester 1961; Kenya Boy Lemon Scout Kenya Associationester 1961; 1961; ro etic to R to etic the new kly h a new set a new of rules and re p ers to con p h h g er provo er e “ p c d roddin es 1961a; T 1961a; es l h h p d as as ran aiming t aiming ea t f l ers o ers o y l ueen and tested fl scouts on the nation’s new e movement was to “A was e movement Co roduced rom A d h h mpat ( eit f q h p ean scouters continued to clin islative Council members, Nairobi aldermen, church leaders, ent “Britisent y R rst in met Ju ea ricanization an ricanization ld ( p t g fi d orities t l f

drew u drew f ale force in Africa as a whole h uickl g y h

raw raw e ere” ere” q g rican scout associations create to t uns h ic he BSA’s he BSA’s ere?” C h f epen hd h h T T European scout leaders in initially Kenya direc resisted the BSA’s Euro

an scout scout an an Chief Scout Commissioner, o d lly y created a “Forward Plannin ering wit y y k ority rule in “Democracy Kenya: only in works England. How could it scout commissioners, to p some extremist sett some y ued that Africanization meant lowerin j k aracter” aracter” d d g lanconvincin for h as in as tionsas A new man haven’t still commissioner commissioner ar an the 1962; Ramsay 1960) ences to the Ken somew equa ments wou ments movement or convince Ken movement when he came to tiracialism. They turned Africans away from troops at European schools, schools, European at troops from away Africans turned They tiracialism. an that Europeans dominated the KBSA simply because of their “education and “education their of because simply KBSA the dominated Europeans that c More association. tives on A p scouting as an institution without modifying core its values. commit- The tee, w invoked Macmillan’s winds-of-chan Macmillan’s invoked to wit which oversaw theKBSA, bein thatthe to deal best way with these political tensions and local miscon- o ceptions reachin ma wor that Scouting is blown not off the continent” scout aut tion. The Ken African Le African regulations, and symbols of political sharply but legitimacy, prohibited any tin 1962). Association

. l l - g g d ” ) . ld d y in in lly e in arp arp not tin ll h h was etter men p e an ld pp KSA y b g ( d District District contro orma e scouts a s ( l f endence. endence. or h f d e nationa p now oun ecessors

our-part h e most new new e most d l y d d eans to run to eans k ers cou ers eir pri ace p i f d ive the move- ive h l e sinister anti- g h it is tem h it , pre e movement as e movement roblem of occu- of roblem t l ea h g h h p l d . a “co

) and the electoral ore l d , f arap Moi Moi arap a’s a’s l ricans now now ricans onia y owe acquire rea engt l f ing to give t ere l opment, it was sti was it opment, i troop, an d Kenya Scout Associa-Kenya ll l ( i h ll im as t as im b d h e increase in t art of the formal tra eve nationa ositions in the movement. ans entertaine ans ip recast t eir co bl p Scout Association mi at d d p y h h h ations campaign to convince relied on Euro with him to Nairo l y g ent, Danie ent, ers ricans ricans e KSA t ecte th d f l was d 6 h tangi Kenya Scout Association Kenya g e l rom t ic re d ea f e was unwie was ’s ers even swa

l l bl e Britis h lly emonizing d d leadin h d oung Ken p oo economic economic ea t y pu ism, A ism, d h l . f ort-based neomercantile econom l d iate an iate p erite ortant senior o d rom rom Sc h an Asian Scout escorte p h e movement at arm’s at e movement f e nationa h d is vice presi vice is onia h owever, owever, h l anges cosmetic. were A h in ing an ing h endence exacerbated Ken uides to receive their national new and scout d h a’s ex a’s overnment. The ranc p rican scout ld at most a y cant contribution to solving problem the youth g G f b ept t ept h h gone gone are resources. T ui k d b lf irl irl ese c a neoco nized that scoutin orn as t f was a national was institution that trained state; h h G eans still ran the association. Althou time scouters time g l or an imme b g as a a as iance Hig f p -we atta et Ken e post to over the im ll opes t stem. Democratica l lf ll egan a concerte y y g h re u y h e new A e new b f . European scout ; d KANU KANU t s h A g e l orm o nation- d f d b) f t f itse h egree, t Ken h d oo d h takin h is socia is y ve couts and ers o ium, a European an European a ium, l ecome ecome atta to serve as their ceremonial Chief Scout after inde oug h er scouters scouters er S b e KBSA d oug l emerge

b y atta an h e sc y passe f h d h t y h l t ll isso enya became an independent nation on 11 December 1963. The The 1963. December 11 on nation independent an became enya to ositions in the new in new the ositions d n the short term, inde e t I Al K ar expectations expectations ar h p l d t t, an are o l h h uru Sta h ort term as a at Ken g a sovereignnationa h o position to make a signifi een mem opu f ying the tens of thousands of children and adolescents, still who remained ears, sett ears, utsi n instrument o sked Ken h h n 1963, t n 1963, ags.scouts The presented a play demonstrating the meaning of the Scout ed the KSA, Euro but decline in government funding and remained a largely schoolbound move- A ment. of the KSA b Christian leader of the Mau Mau to hi daily operationsthe KSA’s because they did have the not timeor personal wea entirely unequipped to provide the revenues needed to make good on theseexpectations. T fl some To Law. promises of social betterment that Kenyatta and his allies had made raised p standard of livin a n t p o movement and residence on controls colonial-era retain African rulers he reco he rulers African b a s l European continued the view to administration scouting in Kenyan the of s a ironyThe of this request Kenyatta. on lost not In was the span of a few y I scoutin that Africans a measurement of national legitimacy. rebuffed He politely the scouts, and eventua Commissioner 1963; Boy Scout Kenya Association 1963b to “be useful citizens in of the the future” Kenya At a rallyAt presided by Kenyatta over and the DukeEdinburgh of Nairobi’s at U KBSA KBSA tion 1963a, 1963 o nig of African These were men likeThese men were Jeremiah and Nyaga Musa Amalemba, had once who

africaTODAY 74 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 75 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS

, - - - - - f e g e d y d l ’s l l le l re ter ll y an an to e it f p atta itt at it d d an d outh ems, ems, l y l a e -st h y l a mem y orme bl o y l f t y d it le trans

d o er socialer l l p nationa i g ld at ma , Ken pro d b icia en-Powe p h h ust as easi as ust e movement e movement ff ia d j

l h 70 percent 70 o arger strugg arger l e recruits into had inherited d

ld out crisis pose crisis e scouts to run y its colonial Ba y h bl ers struggers f h h y ld t a’s a’s h e recognize art of a lar y -respect t in 2000; Scout Kenya h times, t times, p suita l ime. the At local level, lf angerous angerous ff ues promote a muc e yout d eir e l g f d wit h e at a scout was at h e NYS a uni was f d se Gathu 1967; Kenya Scout Kenya Gathu 1967; t h h movement, cou Gri ( ence, it couence, it d t onia ( d e genius o y l t overnment. KANU’s KANU’s overnment. d d it h ent Kenent g e KSA receive d rop o ecause ecause ). d ese va ese d h b h , an kd t are d to his re s an ecame a epen l d untar e 1964). ac y l b d h s, an anization that used militar h d epen b ec a Scout Association’s o a Scout Association’s g y h-water mark set b h-water ll d d y alt e as i e g is t was out s, an eared becom was that the movement y h d h in contracte in k or h enterprise enterprise Coe 1973 Coe the senior scout leadershi y y ut now t ( e scouting, t ter in y ff e support support g atta’snew o ll pp f lo istication, an istication, l b k b y b g astic vo astic h e Ken l h ving in ving o or regime. In co l ut a icia . Li to y h ) assin rican rican b d ff ities. T f , sop l et t et ika Standar og e overa yp y opment s opment o y l y ip, ip, l f h assed the hi the assed A regime, ht have a oun h l NYS p orces. Gri aramilitar h eo ( g rea b f ace against t p l d l

olitical and social institutions the institutions social and olitical acto sc eve ic f i d p d p l reinvented itself as a force for national and economic h e movement. He e movement. onia e- y evant, evant, k ans, decolonization meant more than the sim the than more meant decolonization ans, l ution to so l h d ese were poor poor were ese er er Tangan courses for NYS section commanders, scoutinbut ute to t ute y . Scouting survivedseveral for reasons. Kenyatta even- b h g ) ; h b e integrit roblem. B roblem. socia itica citizens h l p t the d e co ower. The end of colonial The ower. rule was l or t irre Service f p ot e KADU opposition, t ing were h p Ken s. T l h t t d h ly an arme an g b an h y olitical threat to Ken l oo er t er ar po ar p l h d cu power too power trainin a useful role in teachin oun f d p y Yout y sc l itica taug e to contri vision vision imperia ating t irect contri irect l numbers soon sur soon numbers l olitical l la o d ture an ture couting, as a a as couting, d ll d d l p p p gave it a measure it gave o ormation, in w er o er ng. Thus in mi it 1964, T S ar un ar

f f i l itt ll l n

lly s an i d e new Kene new b a h ostere leadershi schoolboys returned because adapted to the movement it successfully to new po its fundingits from sources public and donations movement, but it was a was it but movement, discipline to give three thousand young and paid men training women in agricu from Britain. to navigate attempt Kenyan The Boy the Scout movement’s trans Association 1964a could could trans master and ada fer of but it has it but successfull by offeringdevelopment programs good and hygiene, in vocational literacy, tra ing sti popu rather than imperial, Kenyan loyalties. The Scout Association made only a sma obedient intentionally to those he but in authority, linking avoided scouting to a particu f t Association 1966a decessor in the 1950s. In Kenyan 1966, Scouting counted registered 13,365 anscouts ing increasing ing bershi h to alleviate this independence by demanding jobs and privileges as compensation for their service in the anticolonial struggle jo intimi wingers a particular were Although problem. they hadproved useful in origina tua immediate immediate promote loyaltypromote to the nationalist Kenyan Kenyan state. new The scout tapped Geoffrey Griffin, Organiser, Youth the ex-Colony to lead the Kenya Nationa

. / e g y . ce ce h ce. ce. ent ent ives. ives. ffi t l h e, to f l u . Public y b Arc y y tur l an scoutin an Societ y ar y l ence. 6 Januar 6 ence. f a Scout Association. K y a National Archives. OPE or International Studies International or De f f common peop common y ce. 822/1804/1. ce. ffi d Missionar o y h . Ken ce. 822/2851. ce. urc y is a particu h h ce. 822/1804/3. ce. ers, aners, e t d rica. 6 November. Public Records O : The Labor Question in French and British d competing conceptions o f y ea d a. 20 Ma 20 a. l y

. Report. C l l Scout Association Annual Meeting. 20 Ma Association Meeting. Scout 20 Annual an y at ma y East, A h ff Press itica y a Bo . Ohio University: Center Annua l y l oo ce, to F. J. Burlace, Ministr Burlace, J. F. to ce, h ffi endence. Central to these the debates was Council Ken y p Sc ist po ist ricans in Kenya. September. 18 h l prosperit f l . 1 ge Universit ge / d inquency—t ri l b 134 onia y. e / l of inde ives. 17/BSA/8/13. ives. iance Hig iance d g ll h e l , s, nationa Decolonization and African Societ African and Decolonization . Arc l l rica by Dahl. Tour British Scout Association. Tours. TC/11 ge: Cam n. 1955. Speech to Ken to Speech 1955. n. f d y 98 / . ri . 1932. A . 1932. l 1 icia b an histor an ce. DO 213 DO ce. / or postco 26. 28. ffi a. 1955. Report of Cit Report of 1955. a. y f / / juveni ff . y oo . 1933 70 59. he Kenya National Service Youth d h / / 1 T o 25 / II Cam /O / l . / an nation. Questions to “Africanize” of how Ken Sc ives. I/12/EE5/15. ives. 3059 3059 . 1962. 9 April. 1962. 86 Committee. Joint Planning 1961. Sta / / y awi Nationa h ca h t ff 168 / l Council War Minutes.ce. 1957a. February. Public Record O WB CN ffi ri 5 O 3 A5 rc f S es 22 22 g Ma D 8 B 8 1/ Records O G A A/ A onia Sta l f . 1954. How Scouting. 1954. Came to A er, Frederick. 1996. 1996. Frederick. er, o otiate the meanin f R.L. 1973. p Council Ken , ations, an co g y iance Hig iance l eriod in Ken EFERENCES youth problem,” which exposed problem,” youth the inherent tensionsarising from high spin, N. 1964. Commonwealth Relations O rea (Scout) Commissioner Nyanza 1962. Province to Rhodes, 9 April. Kenya Scout Association. oe frica Di frica atian e ne Coo new Kennew Kenya . 1963b. Intelligence Committee Monthly Appreciation, 9 August. Public Records Offi EastDahl, A F.H.J. 1955. Colchester, T. C. 1961. Colchester to Schweingruber, 20 November. Ken November. 20 Schweingruber, to Colchester C. 1961. T. Colchester, Colonial O Council War Minutes. . 1957b. 7 June. Public Record Offi Unemployment . 1960. in Kenya. October. Public Record Offi Kenya . 1963a. Intelligence Committee Monthly Appreciation, 5 July. Public Records Offi Chie Committee . 1962. on Africa, Meeting Notes, July–October. TC/194. Cit C Baring, Governor Evel Governor Baring, B A Short History . 1957. of Scouting in Kenya. 6 June. . 1960. 6 November. . 1961. Alliance . 1934. High School Annual Report.A St.Andrews Presbyterian Church of East Africa A R A All “ expectations r p by thus embodied broader debates—over political economy, education, race race education, economy, political debates—over broader embodied thus

africaTODAY 76 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 77 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS . . - a a e, e, . y y d . . Ken y nn a National s’ Brigas’ a l y 88:52–65. m Social Issues in the Congo f . w e y Gir w d in . Johannesburg:. o e y rr H a National Archives. o s’ ans’ y of Durham, Malcolm Malcolm Durham, of d y Journal o Journal . . m M outh: La arers’ Association in the the Associationarers’ in a f h m ts r Willi . London: Her Majesty’s Statio o : . Peter Kallawa P y rk . e Jewis a National Archives. DC KBU DC 1/43 Archives. National a a National Archives. DEF/13/470 6 o h y rica y 7 f Youth Clubs. Youth 8 June. Ken Masculinity 9 f f 1 w Y – e International Labour Review Labour International a Scouters Council, 25 November. Ken November. 25 Council, Scouters a N y edited b edited . man’: T l , are. Ken are. h f . is l Ken f . ensive in Kenya, 28 November. Rhodes House ff Eng Scout Association Annual Meeting. Ma 20 y d a NationalArchives: Districta Comissioner Kakamega a. No. 49, 22 March. Universit March. 22 49, No. a. Soweto, 1935 Soweto, a Association o . f y or Citizenship in A in Citizenship or y y f Birth Ritual, Medicalization, and Mobilit f a Bo y Meeting o Meeting A Goo y d . . y ducation ducation E artheid and Education . Jew an Jew Ap d In In 5. a Scout Association. K/BSWB Association. Scout a Colonial Lexicon: O Lexicon: Colonial dential Circular, Ken dential Circular, y ce. 1948. ce. ‘A Goo A ffi ers. 43/2/93a. ers. or Training Correspondence Training or f –197 p ives. 1/1/85 5 h o-Tsotsi: The Gangs Youth o . Ken 1953. 7 June. 1953. Pa . . B y . London: Vallentine Mitchell London:. Vallentine . 7 ld 8 l 192 ess. Arc he Boy-Man: The Life of Lord Baden-Powel Lord of Life The Boy-Man: he Youth Clubs. 1957. July. Kenya National Clubs. Youth Archives. 1957. VT 1/1/21 l r 20 W. 1958. Interim 1958. Report W. to Ken f ce. T 57. . MSS Afr. s.. MSS Afr. 2159/Manb / P aa y . / ose. 1999. ose. y 5 1995 4–1 v rey. 1978. The Boys 1978. rey. Scouts and the Validation o / Colonial O n R – Offi , s ff

8 89 85. 85 re a y 5 / y ff / / n 1 Internal Security. Communist 1962. O : v ce. 1962. Confi 1962. ce. arman. 1995. arman. f Scout Association. Census. 1954. Ken 9 K 2 acDona 1 1 a urham: Duke University Press ationa ational Archives. 3/3/29/60. Archives. ational er 4 8 Februar ibrar 89 h ive. 2000. 2000. ive. y l Archives. Provincial Comissioner, Nyanza Province 4/5/12/46 1 7/ Commissioner 1/ 3 D 2 n M Ra N 1/ M L N Tr rica Land Forces Standing Orders Wel I/XIII. 1957. , S rica Standard rica f f h a Bo Tim. 1990. , is y n, Geo n, ffi d aser, C evelopment o evelopment irector o istrict Commissioner. 1963. Extraordinar 1963. istrict Commissioner. istrict Commissioner Kiambu. Kiambu 1952. Annual Report. Ken l antover, Je antover, unt, Nanc unt, a ast A oreign Offioreign eal Gri Gaitskell, Deborah. 1984. Upward All and Play the Game: The Girl Way Circular, . 1963a. Scouting and Politics. Kenya National Archives. CB 4/33/8. Letter . 1963b. to Prime Minister Jomo Kenyatta, November. Kenya 12 Girl Guides Association: Scout Shop . 1955a. Price List. Kenya National Archives. JW 4/2. Census. . 1960. Kenya National Archives: District Comissioner Kakamega 1/1/100/25. Commissioners . 1961. Conference Minutes, September. 2–3 Kenya National Archives. GH Ken J K H . 2000. Interview with author. Nairobi. June. H The . 1963 Development of Centres Youth in Kenya. G Britain Great Gathu, G. K. 1967. GathuGathu, Acting G. K. HQ Commissioner 1967. to Executive Commissioner, World Scout Bureau. F D E East A Executive . 1959. Committee Minutes, 25 March. Kenya National Archives. 1/1/100/2. Kenya . 1960. Boy Scout Association Census. Kenya National Archives. 1/1/100/25. District Commissioner Kakamega. Ken 1955. Kenya Boy Scout Association . 1957. Annual Meeting. 25 April. Kenya National Archive. D D Director of Education. 1938. Letter to Inspector of Schools Kiambu. 15 June.D Ken

. . l f . y K . y 8 of l , 10 , 10 a y rn ives. M h Jou a Nationa y a. a. y a Scout Asso- Scout a Arc l y . Ken Scout Movement, Movement, Scout y . y the Boy Scouts o f a Scout Association y er. Ken er. . Oxford: James Curre b a Nationa 2 y . Ken ly a National Archives. MK 3/9/77 Archives. MK National a y are Organizationare f Cambridge: Cambridge Universit Cambridge: Cambridge . Association to CC, 3 Ma 3 CC, to Association l . the Wel the f ing Commissioner, 8 Octo u Loca l b 6. – Guiding in Kenya. Kenya Girl Guide Archives Archives f 6:3 1 Toronto Press Toronto . f in Colonial Brazzaville Colonial in yy y o y a Scout Council Minutes. March. 26 Ken s. y r the Mind: Making Mau Mau and Remaking Ken Remaking and Mau Mind: Mau Making the Rev. A. Rev. St. J. Lemon, Area (Scout) Commissioner Nairobi Cit f . f te 1 2 , 1934–1939. –4 k Prin t Sons of the Empire: The Frontier Movement and the Bo n 2 . 393 e 3 . . / 1: ia. 1959. Maneneia. to Trave 1959. 1 3

/ h . rnm mpire State-Building: War and Welfare in Kenya, 1925–5 Leisure and Societ and Leisure yy E e v Toronto: Universit . MER. o / Journal of Social History a Scout Association. K/U/II/132. Association. Scout a 8

y 1 G ee. : Inspector. Report 1938. on Rironi Scout 1 Ju Troop. 9 i r l . Annual Report of the Department ofCommunity Development and Rehabilitation 195 az Mput az 1934–1939 1934–1939 ica. Association. Treasurer Kiam 1955. , , l h –1 r ives. Minute Boo ob 21 bo . 1910. 18 April 18 . 1910. Robert 1993. H. oo e llis. 1995. , h / ip ir h y l 5 m ess. a pril. Kenya Scout Association. Nairobi Local Association. m rchives. MK 2 rchives. MK rc r / 890 iation. A ion. 2 1 c P Ja African History A A t Kenya Scout Association, Boy Scouts World Bureau. A ber. Ken ber. Book Book. A Book N u Sc u Loca Joanna.2000. , b b a Scout Association. Ken 1934. s i y ikuyu News ikuyu Manene, E Manene, Martin, Ph Megson, Megson L. 1956. to Rhodes, F. 25 February. Kenya Scout Association. Jubilee Century MacDonald MacLeod, David. Act Age: 1982. Your Boyhood, Adolescence, and the Rise o Kiam Kiambu . 1958. Local Association Report. 2 October. Kenya National Archives. VT 1/1. K Lemon, A. Rev. St. Report J. 1962. o . 1966a. Kenya Scout Association Annual Report. Kenya Scout Association. . 1966b. Response to Questionnaire on World Scouting Conducted by Lazlo Nagy, August. Kiam Central . 1962. Province Report, April. A/CR/35. Chief . 1963a. Scout’s Rally Souvenir Program. KenyaScout Association. Association. FP/77. Scout Kenya October. 24 Committee Minutes, Forward Planning 1963b. . Novem- 22 Association, Scout Boy Uganda Commissioner. Organizing to Colchester 1964a. . . 1964b. Minutes of Scouters’ Council, Nairobi Local Association, Kenya 6 May. Scout Associa- Kenya Scout Council . 1939. Minutes. 9 January. Kenya Scout Association Archives. Minute Organizing . 1952. Commissioner’s Report. October. KBSA/C/39. Nairobi Local Association . 1957. Minutes. August. 13 Nairobi Local Association Minute Kenya . 1958. Boy Scout Association Social Development Report. S/FSS/11. Area . 1960. Secretary Rift Valley Local Association. 28 September. A/RV/105. Kenya Girl Guide Association. N.d. Historyo Ken Kenya Scout . 1936. Council Minutes.January. 20 Kenya Scout Association Archives. Minute . 1959. Kenya Colony and Protectorate. Annual 1949. Report o . Lonsdale, John. Mau 1990. Maus o Kiambu Distrct Education Board December. Minutes. 12 Ken 1952. Lew

africaTODAY 78 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM africaTODAY 79 TIMOTHY H. PARSONS

, : f - n an an . y do y a Girl n y o a Scout . Athens y L . r. s. 2159/ f omparative omparative C . y. n . Ken Imagination in in Imagination h f so rica. rica. r f a National Archive. a s’ Brigades’ ea y y a Scout Association. a Scout Association. Association. Scout a al Theme, 1924–1938. Theme, al y r P y y . Ken or Labour and Social Ser Social and Labour or thu y f . Oxford: James Curre the Bo f Ar ya o Scouts and the Imperatives o y C.

y : 28 April. . Middletown, Conn.: Wesle , . n a 58. y do Nairobi: Heinemann Kenya. Nairobi: Heinemann cer. 5 Jul 5 cer. . –1 ffi n u Association. 19 Marc 19 Association. o 25 l 1 L ly. 6: ast: A Histor Politics in Ken . f 1 Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, Kenya, in Independence and Decolonization y. ed. , 22 December. Ken y

ce. 18 July 18 ce. y i. Ju i. ffi an Mau Ma Mau b i f Scout Movement in British Colonial Africa 30th at 4–942 y 3 B s. . : Baden-Powell’s Bo . 9 y ulti-Part : y 1 East Africa Standard 2 nn M 0 63 a or. Nairo or. 1 – Scouting in Mumias Division. Mumias Scouting in Ken h or Bo or f Principal Finance O m f Sure and Stead w y e anza Province Loca anza Province in aut :605 y . 1998. e h y y. 42 N H Social Services and Housing. Annual 1958. Report. Ken l : f y h Scouting Scouting ruar b . a National CAB Archives. (63) 147. WC CM 1/13/ Scouts, Class and Militarism in Relation to British Movements, Youth out y y 352. Press. m y 210 , Centra 1– / ts Bethwell A. Ogot R. and W. Ochieng. London: James Curre 152. The Character Factor y . / r y reative Writing: Translation, Bookkeeping, and the Work o o N conomic and Social Origins o en. 1957. en. 1957. C Race, Resistance, and the Bo E 9:35 TTA ducation Since Uhuru: The Schools of Ken P d Brian Fraser. 1983. . /C / 7 E a d 1964. 1 Fe s . y . 1955. Letter. 1955. to the editor. ress. International Review of Social History English Historical Review ir d . 1984. y

, P l

a . . 1998. Interview wit 33.

e. ar y io Universit io edited b edited ff / . 2004. ert Ba . h r 13. , re ae d y h / II 2 New York: Pantheon Books. b 930 . . h / / 170 y. n A / n O., an 11 utu –1 / han Tomasi. 1961. Muliro to Editorhan Tomasi. 1961. Ro h 93 Council Department o ca F / io: O p d y Social Services. Minute 1962. b KAK NN e ri 9 anb a Stan , Mic f h niversit / / or Labour and Social Services. Memorandum 1963. by Minister l Derek. 2004. 2004. Derek. h k , Jo , f i a Collins A 1940–93 Association. A Association. U M 1908 t 7/ Colonial Ken Studies in Society and History A Association. Af Empire O A vices, 23 October. Ken Guide Association XH 3 XH o ll , Jeremia , C. Secretar 1960. Ernest. 1969. Ernest. y y , h , Lor y h ll aga, Kiraithe. 1998. Interview with author. Nairobi. Jul aga uliro, Ste uliro, inister inistr wavua, W. L. 1962. Troop Leader Murray High School to Colchester. 14 October. Kenya Scout Kenya October. 14 Colchester. to School High Murray Leader Troop 1962. L. W. wavua, airobi Cit airobi amsa hodes, Sir Geoff osent ennison, M. Governor Rennison 1960. P. to Colonial O owe eterson hroup, David 1988. W. hroup, David and W., Charles Hornsb ubversive Activity Among the Kikuyu. Rhodes May. 31 House 1963. Library. MSS A Springall, John O. 1971. The Bo T T S Tangan Stabler Baden-Powell . 1987. and the Scout Movement before Citizen 1920: Springa Training or Soldiers of Comments Witchell’s on . 1961a. G. F. Report, 5 October. Kenya National Archives. GH R Report by Rhodes, . 1961b. Kenya 3 May. National Archives. GH 7/9/47. R R R Ro a on Northern Imperial: Making Rhodesia Variations 1980. Terence. Ranger, P Proctor, Tammy. 2000. “A Separate Path”: Scouting and Guiding in Interwar South A Parsons, Timoth P Omurunga, Peter Future Leo. o 1963–1964. Ny Ny In 1956–63. Years, Decisive The 1995. A. Bethwell Ogot, N M M M M

- T g akin ester: h M erial Ideal. Ideal. erial p Scout Movement Movement Scout y rica Tour. Boyrica Scout Tour. f . J. A. Mangan. Manc A. Mangan. J. by 41–44

d , South A f 22: ite a i d s e , A ism l South eria p 398. Im 76– h 3 the Catholic Youth Organizations Belgianthe in Catholic the Youth f 1: 0 Britis 1 . , edited by John MacKenzie. Manchester: Manchester Manchester Manchester: MacKenzie. John by edited , d ww ia, 1908–1921. ia, d ire: Baden-Powell, Scouts and Guides, and an Im Antonio Novoa, Marc Depaepe, and Erwin Johanningmeie. p y . isation an l the Em the John Thurman, Gilwell Camp Chie Camp Gilwell Thurman, John The Colonial Experience in Education, Paedagogica Historica, Supple Historica, Paedagogica Education, in Experience Colonial The f f edited b edited 265 Tours 265 / ities: Socia ities: l Consternation in In l English Historical Review . . Press. y HP Menta onia l 211. 920 l / 88. CS , Lies. The 1995. Development o

/ –1 y t: 33 Co eria mperialism and Popular Culture . 1999. The. 1999. Promise of ‘Character’ and the Spectre of Sedition: The Bo / I n d p y 1 118 ssociation. TC ongo, 1908–1960. In 1908–1960. ongo, / m 2 Manchester University Press. Manchester In In 1900 I C 1, vol. Series, mentary Ge 1/ A an Universit amumu Approved School Camp. Annual & Youth 1956. Report. Kenya National Archives. AB outh Organization. 1960a. Youth Organization Report. Progress ES Organization. Youth outh National PC Archives. Kenya 1960a. an Rompae an Y . 1960b. Organization Youth Progress Report. January. Kenya National Archives. VT 1/1. Warren, Allen. 1986a. Citizens o Citizens Allen. 1986a. Warren, Sir . 1986b. Robert Baden-Powell, the Scout Movement and Citizen Training in Great Britain, “Mothers . 1990. for the Empire”?: The Girl Guides Association In in Britain,1909–1939. v W Thurman, John. Diary 1960. o Watt, Care

africaTODAY 80 NO MORE ENGLISH THAN THE POSTAL SYSTEM