Omhedi: Displacement and Legitimacy in Oukwanyama politics, Namibia, 1915-2010 By Napandulwe Shiweda Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Doctoral Degree in History in the Department of History, University of the Western Cape Supervisor: Professor Patricia Hayes November, 2011 i DECLARATION I declare that Omhedi: Displacement and Legitimacy in Oukwanyama Politics, Namibia, 1915-2010 is my work, that it has not been submitted for any degree or examination in any other University, and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by complete references. Full Name: Napandulwe T. Shiweda Date 18 November 2011 Signed……………………………………. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, this whole compilation of my dissertation would not have been possible without the backing of the Almighty God, so my first and foremost sincere gratitude goes to Him. He has been my guiding light, He has protected me in all my travelling and has availed me this wonderful opportunity. Secondary, I acknowledge here my greatest thanks to my sponsor, the Volkswagen Foundation in Germany for granting me the scholarship to do my Doctoral Degree under the Knowledge for Tomorrow – Cooperative Research Projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. I would also like to thank my colleagues on the Project entitled Reconciliation and Social Conflict in the Aftermath of Large-scale Violence in Southern Africa: The Cases of Angola and Namibia, for the support and helpful comments on some of the draft chapters of this thesis. I specifically thank the Project’s Country Coordinator, Prof Andre du Pisani and the colleagues in Germany, particularly, Reinhart Kossler and Heribert Weiland for their generous understanding and patience. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my supervisor, Prof. Patricia Hayes, for the endless insights and knowledge she shared with me in formulating my research questions and writing this thesis. She has been my greatest mentor with her patient, encouraging, enthusiastic, valuable and sensitive criticisms. I would not have done this without her support, suggestions and encouragement. I would like to thank the staff at the National Archives of Namibia as they have always treated me with kindness and they have always availed me access to the collections. Werner Hillebrecht particularly assisted me in many cases. Martha Nakanyala and the rest of the staff happily assisted with making copies and scans of documents, many of which I incorporated in my thesis. I thank Regula Iselin and Dag Henrichsen at the Basler Afrika Bibliographien in Basel, Switzerland for their help with the C.H.L. Hahn photo collection. Robert Hart of the McGregor Museum in Kimberley gave me access to the Duggan-Cronin Collection and helped with information about the photographer Alfred Duggan-Cronin. Antjie Otto of the National Museum of Namibia also assisted with iii valuable information on the Duggan-Cronin photographs. Staff and students of the Department of History at the University of the Western Cape offered useful guidance and suggestions at seminars on some chapters of this dissertation. I hope I have not offended the Shoovaleka family with any misinterpretations they may find in my assumptions about their father, grandfather and great grandfather. I acknowledge here my gratitude to Lydia Hamutumwa for introducing me to Foibe Shoovaleka who gave me insights into her father’s life. I would like to thank my friends and family members for providing a support system, whether emotional or monetary. I particularly have to thank my mom, Rauna Shiweda for her generosity and enthusiasm in undertaking many research trips with me in northern Namibia. I dearly thank Meameno, Beata and Aksel Nangolo, Ndahafa, Helena and my brothers Ananias and Warotwa as well as my dear aunt Peneyambeko for their unending support that they have been giving me during this entire process. Support and encouragement also came from my cherished friends, Elton Afrikaner, Martha Nakawa, Immanuel Mushaandja, Selma Nasheya, Josaphat Kashindy, Memory Biwa, Ndalyatelao Kayofa-Uusiku, and Anna Kashinyenga among others. It is thanks to Nancy Robson that I have been able to formulate and express certain ideas of this dissertation as she gave me access to her home and archives at Odibo. Her archives provided contextual information about the public floggings in the 1970s in Oukwanyama and assisted in my attempts to make sense of certain Kwanyama headmen’ lives. I thank her for taking the time to help me. I also thank Hangula Vatilifa, George Nelulu and Erasmus Stephanus for assisting me during my research trips in Oukwanyama and introducing me to prospective interviewees. Last but not least, I convey my gratitude to all my informants who made time for interviews; His Excellency, President Hifikepunye Pohamba, Ohamba Meekulu Martha Mwadinomho Kristian Nelumbu, Hinananye and Ndaiponhofi Nehova, Kaupa ka Mwatotele, Sipora Weyulu Dan, Vilho Tshilongo, Foibe Shoovaleka, Ndahafa Kakonda, Elia la Haikali, Julia Mbida, Lucas Shinedima, Lucia Kambonde ka Nangolo, Foibe Haitembu, Ndawapeka Victoria Mungonena and all those who have supplied me the necessary and required information. I would also like to warmly acknowledge my mentor iv and colleague Jeremy Silvester for his professional assistance in all stages of the development of this thesis. Lastly, I would like to thank my colleague and friend Naitsikile Iizyenda for assisting with the map. Those whose names do not appear here, I am deeply grateful for your gracious generosity. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration i Acknowledgements ii Table of Contents v List of Illustrations viii Abstract x Chapter 1: Introduction 1 State of the Debate: Ovambo and African history 5 Concepts of place 10 Methodology and notes on sources 12 Thesis structure 17 Chapter 2: Personages of Omhedi Introduction 24 Headmen and their Interactions: historical overview 25 Important figures at Omhedi: a biographical approach (from 1915 to the present) 30 Colonial figures: the Native Commissioners of Ovamboland 35 Omhedi, gender and history 38 Chapter 3: Photographic Construction of Omhedi Introduction 39 On Visual evidence and Colonialism 40 Photographer’s narratives 45 Duggan-Cronin’s photographs 47 ‘Cocky’ Hahn’s photographs 56 Nehemia’s homestead and the homogenisation of the Ovambo 62 Photographs in the present 66 Conclusion 68 Chapter 4: The Economics of Women and Cattle at Omhedi Introduction 70 Polygyny: A brief Outline of issues 72 ‘Cocky’ Hahn on Polygamy 77 Nehemia’s polygynous ‘kraal’ 81 Class analysis and the acquisition of cattle 89 The significance of cattle 94 Eengobe tadidana Cattle dance 99 Conclusion 103 Chapter 5: The Contract Migrant Labour System and Political Uprising in Ovambo from 1950s – 1970s. Introduction 105 vi Historical context: origins of the contract migrant labour system 107 The Labour question in the ‘Police Zone’ 111 Drought and Depression of 1930 114 Conditions under the Contract labour system 117 Biomedicine and the relevance of migrant labourer’s body 121 Influx control and the introduction of pass laws 123 The role of chiefs and councils of headmen in labour migration 128 Migrant worker’s political consciousness 132 Conclusion 134 Chapter 6: ‘The Love To Be Modern’? Dreams and Desires of Workers Introduction 136 Rising importance of waged Labour 137 Modernity and Colonialism 143 The sense of shift: disillusionment with Ovambo traditional leaders 146 Modernity and Control over mobility 149 Gender dimensions and Political consciousness from the 1960s 151 A short history of nursing in Ovamboland 153 Conclusion 155 Chapter 7: The General Contract Workers’ Strike 1971-72 and the role of the Kwanyama ‘Traditional Authorities’ in public floggings Introduction 158 General Contract Worker’s Strike 1971-72 159 The Ovamboland Unrest 164 Ovambo Elections and Protests in 1973 170 Public floggings in Ovamboland 171 Flogging as an established ‘tribal’ custom 175 Making sense of the public floggings – the idea of ‘spectacle’? 183 From prison to re-enactment of polygyny at Omhedi 188 Voicing and Silences 192 Conclusion 195 Chapter 8: The Ovambo Legislative Council Introduction 197 The creation of Homelands in Namibia 198 Composition of Ovamboland Legislative Council and allocation of duties 200 Ovambo Legislative Council and handing over of symbols of sovereignty 203 The Ovambo legislative Council’s Proceedings and the role of Council Members 208 Resistance against ‘Tribal’ authorities and reprisals 213 Sandbags and headmen’s homestead 217 The demise of Ovambo Legislative Council 221 vii Conclusion 222 Chapter 9: The Restored Oukwanyama Kingship Introduction 224 Revival of traditional authorities in independent Namibia 227 Traditional authorities under colonial rule 228 Traditional authorities in the postcolonial era 231 Why go back to ‘Tradition’? 236 Omhedi and the restoration of Oukwanyama kingship 238 A gender perspective: Matriliny in Oukwanyama 245 Narrating Omhedi as a place 250 Conclusion 254 Conclusion 256 Bibliography 262 Appendices 273 viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 1: Map of Ovamboland, 1915, showing Neutral Zone between South West Africa and Angola, sketched during early South African occupation. Source: National Archives of Namibia, A450, C.H.L. Hahn Collection. P 3 Fig. 2: Two Kwanyama women of different ages, married and unmarried based on their headdresses and the way they are dressed. Source: McGregor Museum. Photographer: A.M. Duggan-Cronin. Original caption: Left: Kwanyama woman with omhatela head dress; right: girl with elende head dress, worn just before the onset of the efundula initiation ceremony. P 48 Fig. 3: Front and back view of two women carrying baskets on their heads. Source: McGregor Museum. Photographer: A.M. Duggan-Cronin. Original caption: Kwanyama with long skirts, a broad belt (epaya), made of elephant hide, and ivory buttons (omakipa eendjaba), which are decorated with burnt-in incisions. P 49 Fig. 4: Side view of a woman with shells on her necklace hanging down her back and broad belt .Source: McGregor Museum. Photographer: A.M. Duggan-Cronin. Original caption: Kwanyama; the ivory buttons (omakipa eendjaba) and shells (eemba) can be seen. P 50 Fig.