Introduction: Frictive Pictures 1 Cartoon Internationale

Home , Battle of the Planets, Betty Boop, Commando Duck, Devilman, Flash animation, Grendizer

Notes

Introduction: Frictive Pictures

1. There may be even earlier social groups united by an interest in pre-cinematic visual technologies or animation-like performances such as shadow-plays. But before animation came into being as a cinematic genre between 1898 and 1906 (Crafton 1993, 6–9, 21), these groups could not be properly termed “animation fan communities,” and should be called something else, such as “zoetrope hobbyists” or “utsushi-e [Japanese magic lantern] audiences.” For that reason, I have chosen to begin with film animation in the early twentieth century, starting specifically in 1906–7 with the earliest verifiable hand-drawn animated films in the West and somewhat less-verifiable experiments in Japan. Readers interested in the international influences of earlier visual media such as painting and printmaking on animation should consult Susan J. Napier’s fascinating history of fine arts influences between Japan and Europe, From Impressionism to Anime (2007).

1 Cartoon Internationale

1. For more on the technical specs of the Matsumoto Fragment, see Frederick S. Litten’s “Japanese color animation from ca. 1907 to 1945” available at http:// litten.de/fulltext/color.pdf. 2. Since the mid-2000s, there has been a small but heartening swell of interest in recovering and preserving early anime among film conservators and distributors. Some major DVD collections of pre-1945 animation include: Japanese Anime Classic Collection. Tokyo: Digital Meme, 2009 (4 discs, English, Korean, and Chinese subtitles); The Roots of Japanese Anime Until the End of WWII [United States]: Zakka Films, 2008 (English subtitles); Ōfuji Noburō Collected Works. Tokyo: Kinokuniya, 2004; Wartime Collection. Tokyo: Kinokuniya, 2004; and various volumes of the multivolume set World Animation Film History. Tokyo: Columbia Music Entertainment/Kinokuniya: 2007. The Internet is a further source for otherwise hard-to-get films, includ- ing the 1945 film Momotarō’s Divine Ocean Warriors, which as of 2014 was available unsubtitled on YouTube. 210 NOTES

3. This pivotal event took place on September 18, 1931, when a group of Imperial Japanese Army officers conspired to place explosives on a railway track outside the Manchurian city of Mukden and then blamed the detonation on Chinese dissidents. The explosion, though a minor one, provided the excuse the Japanese army needed to occupy first Mukden, then all of Manchuria, resulting in the creation of the puppet state Manchukuo by March of 1932. Furthermore, according to Ian Gordon, “Many historians, especially those in Japan, regard the Manchurian Incident of 1931–32 as the start of what they call the Fifteen-Year War—essentially the start of World War II in Asia. Indeed, a strong case can be made that this act of aggression made further conflict inev- itable” (2003, 189). Ōfuji’s short films were likely produced before the incident itself, but were inflected by the geopolitical tensions that led up to it. 4. For more on Hays Code censorship and Betty Boop, particularly in relation to feminist concerns, see Heather Hendershot’s article “Secretary, Homemaker, and ‘White’ Woman: Industrial Censorship and Betty Boop’s Shifting Design” (1995) and Ōgi Fusami’s “An Essay on Betty Boop: The Bold Challenge of the Flapper” (2002). 5. It should be noted that sound was a bit slow to catch on in Japan, in part because of the lingering popularity of benshi narrators, so sound film in 1930 only made up 5.7 percent of the total market. As Japanese-made talkies grew in popularity following the success of Gosho Heinosuke’s Madamu to nyobo (The Neighbor’s Wife and Mine) in 1931, American shares declined. By 1934, sound film made up 40.3 percent of the market, but only 18.6 percent of those were American imports (Thompson 1985, 143). The important exception to these statistics may be in the area of animation, as I will show. 6. I have translated the company name given in this ad literally as “Paramount Cartoon Studios,” but in English, the distributor for Fleischer Studios was called “Paramount Pictures.” The studio called “Paramount Cartoon Studios” in English was not founded until 1956. 7. Tsutsui does not devote any further attention to this short or analyse the ad at all. In fact, he claims in one sentence on p. 200 that “A Language All My Own” did not play in Japan, and he does not give a Japanese title for it in his filmography. The fact that the ad refers directly to the short’s plot and images, however, confirms beyond a doubt that “Japan Visit” is the Japanese version of “A Language All My Own.” It seems that Tsutsui did not make the connection between the different Japanese and English titles, or did not recognize the image well enough to identify it, hence the omission. 8. This is the title given by the noted manga translator Matt Thorn in his YouTube post of the short. It can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=2kbhxv9ZMzQ. 9. That is not to say that no Japanese animation ever played outside of East Asia in the early twentieth century. For instance, Ōfuji’s experimental 1928 silhouette film “Kujira” (“The Whale”) was screened in the Soviet Union along with Kinugasa Teinosuke’s equally avant-garde feature Jūjiro (1928), where both garnered good reviews (Yamaguchi and Watanabe 19). But this was the NOTES 211

exception rather than the rule. Certainly, Japanese animation did not play for entertainment to popular film audiences in America at this time the way Betty Boop films were shown commercially in Japan.

2 World War Cute

1. While “minzoku” can also be translated as “ethnic,” in the sociocultural rather than biologically racial sense, Dower here makes the point that “Having drawn fine distinctions between Rasse and Volk, or jinshu and minzoku, the [World War II-era Japanese] Ministry of Health and Welfare researchers nonethe- less went on to emphasize that blood mattered. Biology was not destiny, but a common genetic heritage could contribute immensely to forging the bonds of spiritual consciousness that were so crucial to the survival of the collectiv- ity.” In this way, “blood mattered psychologically,” as did biological concepts of race, as means of both connecting “Asians” and distinguishing “Japanese” (268) within the community of the Co-Prosperity Sphere. 2. The only short that does not feature an established Disney character or any real Latin American cultural content is the second film in the feature, titled “Pedro,” about a little mail plane named Pedro making a dangerous journey through the Andes to pick up what turns out to be a single tourist’s postcard. The lack of Latin American content may stem from the fact that the story was reworked from an idea the animators had well before the tour about a plane named “Petey O’Toole” traversing the Rockies. According to character designer Joe Grant, the earlier idea “just fit” the new situation “because from the Rockies to the Andes was a short jump as far as we were concerned” (Kaufman 1997, 266). Is this exchangeability of foreign places to the North and South of the United States an index of a newly mobile internationalism, a deterritorialization, or simply a reterritorialization of the United States as geographic and ideological center of the continent?

4 Channel Surfers: Cowboy Bebop’s Postnational Fans

1. It should be noted that the preponderance of women in my Japanese-language survey results may be accounted for by the fact that Japanese women generally were much more likely to speak to me, as a female researcher, than Japanese men, who were often reserved in my presence. This was a serious factor in recruiting respondents because my Japanese results came almost entirely from in-person contacts made at conventions such as Comic Market rather than online contacts made through “cold emails.” For this reason, the number of Japanese-speaking respondents to my survey was also markedly lower than English-speakers. These results confirm ethnographer Ian Condry’s recent assertion that participant-observation fieldwork, especially in the anime industry, “can be a somewhat haphazard, unpredictable process,” and “As result, it is often difficult to achieve a perfectly balanced mix of examples and 212 NOTES

insights” (2013, 5). It also suggests some of the remaining tensions and imbal- ances of access that remain in our transcultural world, contrary to the dreams of borderless global culture promoted by postnationalist discourse. 2. Woolery’s list of children’s animated TV programs in America between 1947–81 turns up 11 shows from Japan, 10 of which were released between 1963–7 (1983, 326). After that, no anime were released by major networks until Battle of the Planets in 1978. It should be noted, however, that Asian, Latin American, and European nations saw different releases throughout the decades. See Helen McCarthy, “The Development of the Japanese Animation Audience in the United Kingdom and France” (73–84) and John Lent, “Anime and Manga in Parts of Asia and Latin America,” (85–7) both in Lent’s 2001 book Animation in Asia and the Pacific. 3. The archived columns may be found at http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/ edit-list/ starting September 25, 2011.

5 “Love at First Site”

1. See for instance Lisa Nakamura’s “ ‘Where do you want to go today?’ Cybernetic Tourism, the Internet, and Transnationality” (2002). 2. At least, this is the explanation given most often by IT specialists and tech bloggers online. See for instance the post made by Korean-based Google employee Chang Won Kim at Web 2.0 Asia on August 1, 2007 at: http://www. web20asia.com/333. 3. Japanese Online Idioms. November 23, 2004–August 30, 2010. http://4-ch.net/ nihongo/kareha.pl/1101446156. 4. Post-war bans on Japanese cultural products were common in formerly colo- nized nations. For a comparison of South Korea’s ban with similar policies in the Philippines and Taiwan, see Nissim Kadosh Otmazgin’s article “Contesting soft power: Japanese popular culture in East and Southeast Asia” (2007). 5. Amalloc’s account of how he came to make There She Is!! is given briefly on his Newgrounds page at: http://www.newgrounds.com/portal/view/474311. 6. A list of festivals where the shorts played is provided on the SamBakZa web- site’s profile page at: http://www.sambakza.net/profile/profile.html. 7. This thread has since been removed from the main site’s bulletin board by Amalloc. For some time it could still be found by entering the exact phase quoted above into a search engine, but unfortunately a large number of comments to the board were permanently lost in a site upgrade in May 2010, and as a result the remark no longer appears either on Google searches or on public archiving sites such as the Wayback Machine. It has, however, been archived by Heidelberg University as part of my earlier work on this site with Heidelberg’s “Asia and Europe in a Global Context” research cluster. Records are available upon request. 8. The GDCA’s content production objectives may be viewed at: http://www. gdca.or.kr/eng/biz/02.asp. NOTES 213

6 World Conflict/World Conference: Axis Powers Hetalia

1. I say “relatively,” because there are vast differences in the scale of distribution for various anime films. The Hetalia movie (full title: Silver-screen Hetalia— Axis Powers Paint It, White!) grossed US$269,110 on ten screens in its opening weekend, placing it fifteenth in the overall Japanese box office ranking. Studio Ghibli’s 2010 summer release, The Borrower Arrietty, grossed US$10,223,318 on 447 screens to open at number one. In terms of nation-wide audience shares, Arrietty was clearly the summer’s most popular anime film. Hetalia, however, grossed more per screen in its opening weekend, earning US$26,911/ screen versus US$22,871 for Arrietty. This suggests that it was successful in attracting its specialized target audience during its limited promotional run. Hetalia can be seen as a success not of mass culture (taishū bunka), but of the culture of “divided masses” or “micromasses” (bunshū bunka; Kashimura 2007, 6). (Sales figures from boxofficemojo.com). 2. According to the “Comic Market 78 after report,” around 17,000 people attended the event on Friday, August 13th, 19,000 on the 14th, and 20,000 on the 15th. Hetalia is singled out in the report as among the most popular works of the event. See http://www.comiket.co.jp/info-a/C78/C78AfterReport.html (Japanese). 3. For more on women’s readings of homoerotic elements in Sōseki and other classic Japanese literary texts, see page 31 of Terazawa Kaoru’s article “Moé- Born fantasy: The story of Fujoshi” (2004). 4. For more on straight and gay male yaoi fandom in the United States, see Alan Williams, “Raping Apollo: Sexual difference and the Yaoi phenomenon” (2010). On Japanese male fans of BL, called fukei (rotten big brother) or fudan- shi (rotten men), see Yoshimoto Taimatsu, “The single-man Otaku and boy’s love: Together with Yaoi-chan” (2007). I include this footnote not to reincor- porate men into my own theoretical structure, as Azuma does with women, but rather to point out that there are other approaches to yaoi fandom beyond such basic definitions as Miura’s, for those who wish to seek them out. 5. “Slash fandom” is a Western (largely North American and European, but increasingly global) genre of fan writing which, like fujoshi works, centers mainly on depictions of male homoerotic relationships. Slash fans today may draw on media texts that overtly represent gay characters, such as Ang Lee’s 2005 film Brokeback Mountain, but historically they have been known for reading homoerotic subtext into straight male relationships, such as that between Kirk and Spock in Star Trek (1966), the foundational text of American slash fandom. Fan-created pairings are indicated by a forward slash between the relevant male characters’ names (e.g., Kirk/Spock), hence the term “slash.” Lesbian pairings are also sometimes included under the label “femslash.” For an interesting comparison of Western slash with Japanese yaoi fandom, see Mark John Isola’s article “Yaoi and slash fiction: Women writing, reading and getting off?” in Levi et al. (2010). 214 NOTES

6. See METI’s English site at: http://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2011/1202_01. html. 7. “Kun” is a title for young men. In this semi-autobiographical strip, Himaruya uses his America and Japan characters to illustrate his conversations with friends in New York about their perceptions of “common features of Japanese people.” The “comic diaries” are not available in the official translated print volumes, but see http://aph.starry-sky.com/amenihon.html for an English fan translation. 8. A video of this news segment is available at http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=KGzT1eUoC6Y. 9. The petition may be viewed at http://agora.media.daum.net/petition/ view?id=65659. 10. The male addressee in the video is identified in MBC’s screen-text as 2nd Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade Min Dong-Seok. But upon con- sulting MOFAT’s Korean and English websites and comparing the officials’ photos to the video, I found that Jeong is definitely speaking to the Minister for Trade himself. I was not able to find Jeong Mi-Kyeong on the MOFAT site, and am using the identification cautiously given the error on Kim’s name. Works Cited

Akatsuka, Neal K. 2010. Uttering the absurd, revaluing the abject: Femininity and the disavowal of homosexuality in transnational boys’ love manga. In Levi et al., 159–76. Alecci, Scilla. 2009. “Hetalia Axis Powers” and the limits of parody. Global Voices. February 17. http://globalvoicesonline.org/2009/02/17/japan-hetalia- axis-powers-and-the-limits-of-parody. (Accessed March 7, 2011.) Allison, Anne. 2004. Cuteness as Japan’s millennial product. In Tobin, 34–49. Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso. Anderson, Joseph L. and Donald Richie. 1982. The Japanese film: Art and industry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Aoyama, Tomoko. 2009. Eureka discovers culture girls, fujoshi, and BL: Essay review of three issues of the Japanese literary magazine, Yuriika (Eureka). Intersections: Gender and sexuality in Asia and the Pacific 20: 19 paras. Appadurai, Arjun. 1996. Modernity at large. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Artz, Lee. 2003. Globalization, media hegemony, and social class. In The globalization of corporate media hegemony, ed. Lee Artz and Yahya R. Kamalipour, 3–31. New York: State University of New York Press. ———. 2005. Monarchs, monsters, and multiculturalism: Disney’s menu for global hierarchy. In Rethinking Disney: Private control, public dimensions, ed. Mike Budd and Max H. Kirsch, 75–98. Middletown, CN: Wesleyan University Press. Azuma Hiroki, ed. 2007. The ideology of contents: Manga, anime, light novels. [Kontentsu no shisō—manga, anime, raito noberu]. Tokyo: Seidosha. ———. 2009. Otaku: Japan’s database animals. Trans. Jonathan E. Abel and Shion Kono. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (Orig. pub. 2001.) Baigent, Robert. 2004. Review of “Cowboy Bebop.” Graduate Journal of Asia- Pacific Studies 2.1: 92–4. Baldwin, Dan L., John B. Ludwick, and Michael S. Daubs. 2006. Flashimation: The context and culture of web animation. In SIGGRAPH 2006 art gallery: Intersections, 143–6. http://www.siggraph.org/artdesign/gallery/S06/paper1. pdf. Barrier, Michael. 1999. Hollywood cartoons. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 216 WORKS CITED

Baskett, Michael. 2008. The attractive empire: Transnational film culture in imperial Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Bauman, Zygmunt. 2000. Liquid modernity. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Bendazzi, Giannalberto. 1994. Cartoons: One hundred years of cinema animation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ———. 1996. Quirino Cristiani, the untold story of Argentina’s pioneer anima- tor. Animation World 1, 4: n.p. http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/ bendazzi1.4.html. Bennett, Chad. 2010. Flaming the fans: Shame and the aesthetics of queer fandom in Todd Haynes’s Velvet Goldmine. Cinema Journal 49.2: 17–39. Bhabha, Homi. 1999. The location of culture. London: Routledge. Bolton, Christopher, Istvan Csicsery-Ronay Jr., and Takayuki Tatsumi, eds. 2007. Robot ghosts and wired dreams: Japanese science fiction from origins to anime. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Bouldin, Joanna. 2001. The body, animation and the real: Race, reality and the rotoscope in Betty Boop. In Affective encounters: Rethinking embodi- ment in feminist media studies conference proceedings, ed. A. Koivunen and S. Paasonen, 48–54. University of Turku, School of Art, Literature and Music, Media Studies. Briggs, Laura, Gladys McCormick, and J. T. Way. 2008. Transnationalism: A category of analysis. American Quarterly 60.3: 625–48. Brydon, Diana. 2004. Cross-talk, postcolonial pedagogy, and transnational literacy. Situation Analysis 4: 70–87. Brydon, Diana and William D. Coleman. 2009. Globalization, autonomy, and community. In Renegotiating community: Interdisciplinary perspectives, global contexts, ed. Diana Brydon and William D. Coleman. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Buckingham, David and Julian Sefton-Green. 2004. Structure, agency, and pedagogy in children’s media culture. In Tobin, 12–33. Burton, Julianne. 1992. Don (Juanito) Duck and the imperial-patriarchal uncon- scious: Disney Studios, the Good Neighbor Policy, and the packaging of Latin America. In Nationalisms and sexualities, ed. Andrew Parker, Mary Russo, Doris Sommer, and Patricia Yaeger, 21–41. London: Routledge. Carey, Peter. 2005. Wrong about Japan: A father’s journey with his son. New York: Random House Canada. Carlton, Donna. 2002. Looking for Little Egypt. Bloomington: IDD Books. Carter, Sean and Derek P. McCormack. 2006. Film, geopolitics and the affective logics of intervention. Political Geography 25.2: 228–45. Castells, Manuel. 2010. The rise of the network society. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell. Chua, Beng Huat. 2006. East Asian pop culture: Consumer communities and politics of the national. In Cultural space and public sphere in Asia conference proceedings. Seoul, March 17–18, 27–43. Chun, Jayson Makoto. 2007. “A nation of a hundred million idiots”?: A social history of Japanese television, 1953–1973. New York: Routledge. WORKS CITED 217

Clements, Jonathan. 2013. Anime: A History. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Clements, Jonathan and Helen McCarthy. 2006. The anime encyclopedia: A guide to Japanese animation since 1917. Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press. Cohen, Karl F. 2004. Forbidden animation: Censored cartoons and blacklisted animators in America. London: McFarland. Comic Market 78 Catalog. [Komikku māketto 78 katarogu.] 2010. Tokyo: Comic Market Preparatory Committee. Condry, Ian. 2013. The soul of anime: Collaborative creativity and Japan’s media success story. Durham: Duke University Press. Crafton, Donald. 1993. Before Mickey: The animated film 1898–1928. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cubbison, Laurie. 2005. Anime fans, DVDs, and the authentic text. The Velvet Light Trap 56: 45–57. Curran, James and David Morley, eds. 2006. Media and cultural theory. London: Routledge. Danet, Brenda and Susan C. Herring, eds. 2007. The multilingual Internet. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Deibert, Ronald J. 1997. Parchment, printing, and hypermedia: Communication in world order transformation. New York: Columbia University Press. Deleuze, Gilles. 1986. Cinema 1: The movement-image. Trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. 1987. A thousand plateaus. Trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Denison, Rayna. 2010. Transcultural creativity in anime: Hybrid identities in the production, distribution, texts and fandom of Japanese anime. Creative Industries Journal 3.3: 221–35. Deuze, Mark. 2006. Ethnic media, community media and participatory culture. Journalism 7: 262–80. Dobbs, Mike. 2006. Myron Waldman 1908–2006. Cartoon Brew, February 5. http://www.cartoonbrew.com/?s=Betty+Boop+%22Language+All+My+Own %22. (Accessed March 7, 2011.) Donald, Stephanie Hemelryk. 2005. Little friends: Children’s film and media culture in China. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Donovan, Hope. 2010. Gift versus capitalist economies: Exchanging anime and manga in the U.S. In Levi et al., 11–22. Dorfman, Ariel and Armand Mattelart. 1991. How to read Donald Duck: Imperialist ideology in the Disney comic. Trans. David Kunzel. International General, New York. (Orig. pub. 1971.) Dower, John W. 1986. War without mercy: Race and power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon Books. Drazen, Patrick. 2003. Anime explosion! The what? Why? & Wow! of Japanese animation. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. Ducke, Isa. 2003. Activism and the Internet: Japan’s 2001 history-textbook affair. In Japanese cybercultures, ed. Nanette Gottlieb and Mark McLelland, 205–21. London: Routledge. 218 WORKS CITED

Everard, Jerry. 2000. Virtual states: The Internet and the boundaries of the nation state. London: Routledge. Farley, Rebecca. 2003. From Fred and Wilma to Ren and Stimpy: What makes a cartoon “prime time?” In Stabile and Harrison, 147–64. Fernback, Jan. 1999. There is a there there: Notes toward a definition of cyber- community. In Doing Internet research: Critical issues and methods for exam- ining the Net, ed. Steve Jones, 203–20. London: Sage. ———. 2007. Beyond the diluted community concept: A symbolic interactionist perspective on online social relations. New Media Society 9: 49–69. Franco, Jean. 2002. The decline and fall of the lettered city: Latin America in the Cold War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Furniss, Maureen. 1999. Art in motion: Animation aesthetics. London: Libbey. Gajjala, Radhika. 2004. Cyber selves: Feminist ethnographies of South Asian Women. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira. Galbraith, Patrick. 2009. Moe: Exploring virtual potential in post-millennial Japan. electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies, article 5: np. http:// www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/2009/Galbraith.html. Galbraith, Patrick and Thomas Lamarre. 2010. Otakuology: A dialogue. Mechademia 5: 360–74. Genosko, Gary. 2005. Natures and cultures of cuteness. Invisible Culture: An Electronic Journal for Visual Culture 9: 1–19. http://www.rochester.edu/in_ visible_culture/Issue_9/genosko.html. Georgiou, Myria. 2006. Diasporic communities online: A bottom-up experience of transnationalism. In Katharine Sarikakis and Daya K. Thussu, 131–46. Gerow, Aaron. 2008. “Momotarō’s sea eagles” film comments. The roots of Japanese anime until the end of WWII. [United States]: Zakka films, 2008. [DVD insert] ———. 2010. Visions of Japanese modernity: Articulations of cinema, nation, and spectatorship, 1895–1925. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Giammarco, Thomas. 2005. A brief history of Korean animation part I: The early years. Koreanfilm.org. October 30. http://koreanfilm.org/ani-history.html. (Accessed March 7, 2011.) Goggin, Gerard and Mark McLelland, eds. 2009. Internationalizing Internet studies: Beyond Anglophone paradigms. New York: Routledge. Goldie, Terry. 1993. Fear and temptation: The image of the indigene in Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand literatures. Montréal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Gordon, Andrew. 2003. A modern history of Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gorton, Kristyn. 2007. Theorizing emotion and affect: Feminist engagements. Feminist Theory 8.3: 333–48. Gottlieb, Nanette. 2009. Language on the Internet in Japan. In Goggin and McLelland, 65–78. Gray, Jonathan Alan, Cornel Sandvoss, and C. Lee Harrington, eds. 2007. Fandom: Identities and communities in a mediated world. New York: New York University Press. WORKS CITED 219

Grossberg, Lawrence. 1992. Is there a fan in the house? The affective sensibility of fandom. In Lewis, 50–68. ———. 1995. Cultural studies vs. political economy: Is anybody else bored with this debate? Critical Studies in Media Communication 12.1: 72–81. Hendershot, Heather. 1995. Secretary, homemaker, and “white” woman: Industrial censorship and Betty Boop’s shifting design. The Journal of Design History 8.2: 117–30. ———. 1998. Saturday morning censors: Television regulation before the V-Chip. Durham: Duke University Press. Hills, Matt. 2002. Fan cultures. London: Routledge. Hjorth, Larissa. 2009. Gifts of presence: A case study of a South Korean virtual community, Cyworld’s mini hompy. In Goggin and McLelland, 237–51. Holberg, Amelia S. 1999. Betty Boop: Yiddish film star. American Jewish History 87: 291–312. Horkheimer, Max and Theodor W. Adorno. 2002. The culture industry: Enlightenment as mass deception. In Dialectic of enlightenment: Philosophical fragments, ed. Gunzelin Schmid Noerr, trans. Edmund Jephcott. Frankfurt: S. Fischer Verlag. (Orig. pub. 1947.) Hu, Kelly. 2005. Techno-Orientalization: The Asian VCD experience. In Asian media studies, ed. John Nguyet Erni and Siew Keng Chua. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Hubka, David. 2002. Globalization of cultural production: The transformation of children’s animated television, 1980 to 1995. In Global culture: Media, arts, policy, and globalization, ed. Diana Crane, Nobuo Kawashima, and Ken’ichi Kawasaki, 233–55. London: Routledge. Imamura Taihei. 2010. A theory of the animated sound film. Trans. Michael Baskett. Review of Japanese culture and society 22: 44–51. (Orig. pub. 1936.) Isola, Mark John. 2010. Yaoi and slash fiction: Women writing, reading, and getting off? In Levi et al., 84–98. Ito, Mizuko. 2010. Hanging out, messing around, and geeking out: Kids living and learning with new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Ito Mizuko, Daisuke Okabe, and Izumi Tsuji. 2012. Fandom unbound: Otaku culture in a connected world. New Haven: Yale University Press. Iwabuchi, Koichi. 2002a. From Western gaze to global gaze: Japanese cultural presence in Asia. In Global culture: Media, arts, policy and globalization, ed. Diana Crane, Nobuko Kawashima, and Ken’ichi Kawasaki, 256–74. New York: Routledge. ———. 20 02b. Recentering globalization: Popular culture and Japanese transnationalism. Durham: Duke University Press. ———. 2004. How “Japanese” is Pokemon? In Tobin, 53–79. ———. 2010. De-Westernization and the governance of global cultural connectivity: A dialogic approach to East Asian media cultures. Postcolonial Studies 13.4: 403–19. Jankowski, Nicholas W. 2002. Creating community with media: History, theories and scientific investigations. In Handbook of new media: Social shaping 220 WORKS CITED

and consequences of ICTs, ed. L. A. Lievrouw and S. M. Livingstone, 34–49. London: Sage. “Japan’s Oldest? Meiji-era anime film discovered in Kyoto.” [Nippon Saiko? Meiji jidai no anime firumu, Kyoto de hakken.] 2005. People’s Daily Online. http://j.people.com.cn/2005/08/01/jp20050801_52250.html. (Orig. pub. Asahi Shinbun, July 31, 2005.) (Accessed August 13, 2013.) Jenkins, Henry. 1992. Textual poachers: Television fans and participatory culture. New York: Routledge. ———. 2006. Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York: New York University Press. Jensen, Joli. 1992. Fandom as pathology: The consequences of characterization. In Lewis, 9–29. Kanfer, Stefan. 1997. Serious business: The art and commerce of animation in America from Betty Boop to Toy Story. New York: Scribner. Kashimura Aiko. 2007. Why has otaku culture come to be popular in the world? [Nihon no “otaku bunka” wa naze sekaiteki na mono to natta no ka; Kashimura’s trans.] Literary Symposium 136: 356–336 (sic). Kaufman, J. B. 1997. Norm Ferguson and the Latin American films of Walt Disney. In A reader in animation studies, ed. Jayne Pilling, 261–8. Sydney: John Libbey. Kelts, Roland. 2006. Japanamerica: How Japanese pop culture has invaded the U.S. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Khiabany, Gholam. 2005. Faultlines in the agendas of global media debates. Global Media and Communication 1.2: 203–11. Kim, Joon-Yang. 2006. Critique of the new historical landscape of South Korean animation. Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal 1.1: 61–81. Kinsella, Sharon. 1998. Japanese subculture in the 1990s: Otaku and the amateur manga movement. Journal of Japanese Studies 24.2: 289–316. Kittler, Friedrich. 1999. Gramophone, film, typewriter. Trans. and intro. Geoffrey Winthrop-Young and Michael Wutz. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. (Orig. pub. 1989.) Klein, Norman M. 1993. 7 minutes. London: Verso. Ko, Yu-Fen. 2003. Consuming differences: “Hello Kitty” and the identity crisis in Taiwan. Postcolonial Studies 6.2: 175–89. Kusanagi, Satoshi. 2003. How did Japanese anime come to be watched in America? Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten. Lamarre, Thomas. 2006. Otaku movement. In Japan after Japan: Social and cultural life from the recessionary 1990s to the present, ed. Harry D. Harootunian and Tomiko Yoda, 358–94. Durham: Duke University Press. ———. 2008. Speciesism, part I: Translating races into animals in wartime animation. Mechademia 3: 75–96. ———. 2009. The anime machine: A media theory of animation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ———. 2010. Speciesism, part II: Tezuka Osamu and the multispecies ideal. Mechademia 5: 51–86. WORKS CITED 221

———. 2011. Speciesism, part III: Neoteny and the politics of life. Mechademia 6: 110–36. Lee, William. 2000. From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-chan: Family anime, social change, and nostalgia in Japan. In Japan pop! Inside the world of Japanese popular culture, ed. Timothy J. Craig, 186–203. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Lent, John A. 2001. Animation in Asia and the Pacific. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Lent, John A. and Kie-Un Yu. 2001. Korean animation: A short but robust life. In Lent, 89–100. Leonard, Sean. 2005. Progress against the law: Anime and fandom, with the key to the globalization of culture. International Journal of Cultural Studies 8: 281–305. Levi, Antonia. 1996. Samurai from outer space: Understanding Japanese animation. Chicago: Open Court. ———. 2006. The Americanization of anime and manga: Negotiating popular culture. In Cinema anime, ed. Steven T. Brown, 43–64. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Levi, Antonia, Mark McHarry, and Dru Pagliassotti. 2010. Boys’ love manga: Essays on the sexual ambiguity and cross-cultural fandom of the genre. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Lewis, Lisa A., ed. 1992. The adoring audience. London: Routledge. Leyda, Jay, trans. and ed. 1986. Eisenstein on Disney. Calcutta: Seagull books. Lisosky, Joanne M. 2001. For all kids’ sakes: Comparing children’s television policy-making in Australia, Canada, and the United States. Media, Culture & Society 23: 821–42. Maltin, Leonard. 1980. Of mice and magic: A history of American animated cartoons. New York: New American Library. ———. 2004. Introduction. In Walt Disney on the front lines—The war years. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment DVD. Manovich, Lev. 2001. The language of new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Massumi, Brian. 1987. Notes on the translation and acknowledgments. In Deleuze and Guattari, xvi–xix. ———. 2002. Parables for the virtual: Movement, affect, sensation. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Matsumoto Natsuki. 2011. “Domestic imaging appliances during the advent of film: Magic lanterns, animation and toy films.” [“Eiga Torai Zengo no Katei-yō Eizō Kiki: Gentō, Animation, Gangu Eiga.”] In The birth of Japanese film [Nippon Eiga no Tanjō], ed. Iwamoto Kenji, 95–128. Tokyo: Shinwasha. Mattelart, Armand. 2003. The information society: An introduction. London: Sage. McCarthy, Helen. 2001. The development of the Japanese animation audience in the United Kingdom and France. In Lent, 73–84. McGray, Douglas. 2002. Japan’s gross national cool. Foreign Policy 130: 44–54. ———. 2005. Otaku unmasked: The life, death and rebirth of Japan’s pop culture. Interview with Satō Dai and Azuma Hiroki. Japan Society. November 30. www.japansociety.org/otaku_unmasked. (Accessed March 7, 2011.) 222 WORKS CITED

McLelland, Mark. 2008. “Race” on the Japanese Internet: Discussing Korea and Koreans on “2-channeru.” New Media Society 10: 811–29. McVeigh, Brian J. 2000. How Hello Kitty commodifies the cute, cool, and camp. Journal of Material Culture 5.2: 225–45. Meyer, Uli. 2010. Hidden in straight sight: Trans*gressing gender and sexuality via BL. In Levi et al., 232–56. Mihara, Ryotarō. 2009. Haruhi in USA: A case study of a Japanese anime in the United States. Master’s Thesis, Cornell University. Min, Eungjun. 2003. Political and sociocultural implications of Hollywood hegemony in the Korean film industry: Resistance, assimilation, and articulation. In Artz and Kamalipour, 245–61. Mittell, Jason. 2003. The great Saturday morning exile: Scheduling cartoons on television’s periphery in the 1960s. In Stabile and Harrison, 33–54. Miura Shion, Kinda Kiyoko, Saitō Mitsu, and Yamamoto Fumiko. 2007. Regarding the world of BL in 2007. And then, who are “fujoshi”? [2007 no BL kai o megutte. Soshite “ fujoshi” to wa dare ka.] Eureka 39.16: 9–25. Miyao, Daisuke. 2002. Before anime: Animation and the pure film movement in pre-war Japan. Japan Forum 14.2: 191–209. ———. 2007. Thieves of Baghdad: Transnational networks of cinema and anime in the 1920s. Mechademia 2: 83–103. Miyazaki Hayao. 2009. Starting point 1979~1996. Trans. Beth Cary and Frederik L. Schodt. San Francisco: VIZ Media. Mōri Yoshitaka. 2009. The international division of labor and globalization in the anime industry: With a focus on Japan and China. [Anime saigyō ni miru kokusai bungyō to gurōbarizēshon—Nihon to chūgoku o chūshin ni.] Family Media Research 6: 69–91. The Motion Picture Production Code of 1930 (Hays Code). 1930. ArtsReformation. com. April 12, 2006. http://www.artsreformation.com/a001/hays-code.html. (Accessed March 7, 2011.) Mullen, Megan. 2004. The Simpsons and Hanna-Barbera’s animation legacy. In Leaving Springfield: The Simpsons and the possibilities of oppositional culture, ed. John Alberti, 63–84. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Munster, Anna. 2003. Compression and the intensification of visual information in Flash aesthetics. Paper presented the 5th International Digital Arts and Culture Conference. School of Applied Communication, RMIT, Melbourne, Australia. May 19–23. http://hypertext.rmit.edu.au/dac/blog_archive/000255. html. (Accessed March 7, 2011.) Nagaike, Kazumi. 2009. Elegant Caucasians, amorous Arabs, and invisible Others: Signs and images of foreigners in Japanese BL manga. Intersections: Gender and sexuality in Asia and the Pacific 20: 29 paras. Nakamura, Lisa. 2002. “Where do you want to go today?” Cybernetic tourism, the Internet, and transnationality. In The visual culture reader, ed. Nicholas Mirzoeff, 255–63. London: Routledge. Napier, Susan J. 2005. Anime from Akira to Howl’s Moving Castle: Experiencing contemporary Japanese animation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Rev. ed. of WORKS CITED 223

Anime from Akira to Princess Mononoke: Experiencing contemporary Japanese animation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. ———. 2007. From Impressionism to anime: Japan as fantasy and fan cult in the mind of the West. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Newitz, Annalee. 1994. Anime otaku: Japanese animation fans outside Japan. Bad Subjects 13: 13–20. Ngai, Sianne. 2005. Ugly feelings. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Noda, Nathaniel T. 2010. Copyrights retold: How interpretive rights foster creativity and justify fan-based activities. Seton Hall Journal of Sports and Entertainment Law 20.1: 131–63. Ōgi Fusami. 2001. Gender insubordination in Japanese comics (manga) for girls. In Illustrating Asia, ed. John Lent, 171–86. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. ———. 2002. An essay on Betty Boop: The bold challenge of the flapper. [Betty Boop shiron: Flapper no kakan na chōsen.] Bulletin of the International Cultural Research Institute of Chikushi Jogakuen College 13: 69–86. Oguro Yūichirō. 2000. Bebop’s addition: Interview with director Watanabe Shinichirō. [Bibappu no tashizan Watanabe Shinichirō intabyū.] Bijutsu Techō 51: 64–7. Ōhashi Masao. 2010. Meiji 30s commercial animation production: The state of the commercial animation industry in Kansai. [Meiji san-jū nendai no CM animeshon seisaku—CM animeshon ni miru kansai animeshon sangyō.] In Archaeology of TV commercial [Terebi komāsharu no kōkogaku—author’s trans.], ed. Ōhashi Masao and Nanba Gōji, 79–105. Tokyo: Sekaishi shosha. Ohmae, Kenichi. 1995. The end of the nation state. New York: Free Press. Ōfuji Noburō. 1956. Thirty years of silhouette animation film. [Kage-e eiga san jū nen.] Geijutsu Shinchō 7.7: 232–5. Osada Susumu and Suzuki Ayano. 2009. Mapping otaku culture in the capital: A comparative study of Akihabara and Ikebukuro. [Toshi ni okeru otaku bunka no ichizuke—Akihabara to ikebukuro o butai to suru hikaku kenkyū.] The Hiyoshi Review of Social Sciences 20: 43–72. Otmazgin, Nissim Kadosh. 2007. Contesting soft power: Japanese popular culture in East and Southeast Asia. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific Advance Access: 1–29. Ōtsuka Eiji and Ōsawa Nobuaki. 2005. Why is “Japanimation” failing? [“Japanimēshon” wa naze yabureru ka.] Kadokawa Shoten. Patten Fred. 2004. Watching anime, reading manga: 25 years of essays and reviews. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. Peary, Danny and Gerald Peary. 1980. The American animated cartoon: A critical anthology. New York: Dutton. Polan, Dana. 1974. Brecht and the politics of self-reflexive cinema. Jump Cut 1: n.p. http://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/onlinessays/JC17folder/BrechtPolan. html. Poster, Mark. 1997. Cyberdemocracy: Internet and the public sphere. In Internet culture. ed. David Porter, 201–18. New York: Routledge. 224 WORKS CITED

Reeves, Nicholas. 2003. The power of film propaganda: Myth or reality? London: Continuum. Richie, Donald. 2005. A hundred years of Japanese film. Tokyo: Kodansha International. Roffat, Sébastien. 2005. Animation and propaganda: Animated cartoons during the Second World War. [Animation et propagande: les dessins animés pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.] Paris: L’Harmattan. Ruh, Brian. 2009. Early Japanese animation in the United States: Changing Tetsuwan Atomu to Astro Boy. In The Japanification of children’s popular culture from Godzilla to Miyazaki, ed. Mark I. West, 209–26. Russ, Joanna. 1985. Pornography by women, for women, with love. In Magic mom- mas, trembling sisters, puritans and perverts: Feminist essays. Trumansberg, NY: Crossing. Saitō Tamaki. 2007. Otaku sexuality. Trans. Christopher Bolton. In Bolton et al., 222–49. ———. 2009. “Otaku and Hikikomori (Special Edition on Friendless Children)” [Otaku to Hikikomori. (Tokushū tomodachi ga dekinai ko).] Jidō Shinri 63.16: 108–13. Sakurai Takamasa. 2009. Anime culture diplomacy. [Anime bunka gaikō.] Tokyo: Chikuma Shinsho. Sarikakis, Katharine and Daya K. Thussu. 2006. The Internet and its ideologies. In Ideologies of the Internet, ed. Katharine Sarikakis and Daya K. Thussu, 317–26. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Sassen, Saskia. 2006. Territory, authority, rights: From medieval to global assem- blages. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Schodt, Frederik L. 1983. Manga! Manga! The world of Japanese comics. Tokyo: Kodansha. ———. 2007. The Astro Boy essays: Osamu Tezuka, Mighty Atom, manga/anime revolution. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. Sconce, Jeffrey. 2007. A vacancy at the Paris Hilton. In Jonathan Gray, Cornel Sandvoss, and C. Lee Harrington, 451–72. Shale, Richard. 1982. Donald Duck joins up: The Walt Disney studio during World War II. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press. Shirohata, Bob, Hiramitsu Takuya, Kannan Masaaki, and Matsuda Keiichi. 2010. Staff interview. “Silver-Screen Hetalia: Axis Powers Paint It, White” film program. [Ginmaku Hetaria Paint it, White (Shiroku nure!).] Tokyo: Gentosha Comics. Shull, Michael S. and David E. Wilt. 2004. Doing their bit: Wartime American animated short films, 1939–1945. London: McFarland. Smoodin, Eric Loren. 1993. Animating culture: Hollywood cartoons from the sound era. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Sobchak, Vivian. 2009. Animation and automation, or, the incredible effortful- ness of being. Screen 50.4: 375–91. Stabile, Carol A. and Mark Harrison. 2003. Prime time animation: Television and animation in American Culture. London: Routledge. WORKS CITED 225

Stam, Robert. 1992. Reflexivity in film and literature: From Don Quixote to Jean- Luc Godard. New York: Columbia University Press. Standish, Isolde. 2006. A new history of Japanese cinema: A century of narrative film. New York: Continuum. Steinberg, Marc. 2012. Anime’s media mix: Franchising toys and characters in Japan. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Stockman, Tina. 1994. Discrediting the past, rubbishing the future—a critical comparison of The Flintstones and The Jetsons. Learning, Media and Technology 20.1: 27–38. Sullivan, Jennifer. 1997. In his way, John K. will challenge the world. Interview with John Kricfalusi. Wired. October 10. http://www.wired.com/culture/ lifestyle/news/1997/10/7566. Tagawa Takahiro. 2009. Direction of otaku study. [Otaku bunseki no hōkōsei; Tagawa’s trans.] Journal of Nagoya Bunri University 9: 73–80. Terazawa Kaoru. 2004. Moé-born fantasy: The story of fujoshi. [“Moe” kara haji- maru fantashii—fujoshi katari.] Jidou Bungei 56.2: 28–31. Thompson, Kristina. 1985. Exporting entertainment: America in the world film market 1907–1934. London: BFI. Tobin, Joseph Jay, ed. 2004. Pikachu’s global adventure: The rise and fall of Pokémon. Durham: Duke University Press. Tomlinson, John. 1999. Globalization and culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt. 2005. Friction: An ethnography of global connection. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Tsugata, Nobuyuki. 2003. Research on the achievements of Japan’s first three animators. Asian Cinema 14.1: 13–27. Tsutsui Yasutaka. 1992. The legend of Betty Boop: The actress as symbol, the symbol as actress. [Beti Būpu den joyū to shite no shōchō shōchō to shite no joyū.] Tokyo: Chuokoran. Tulloch, John. 2000. Watching television audiences: Cultural theories and methods. London: Arnold. Ueda Kagura. 2008. Fujoshi’s love transcends national borders from Japan!! “Boy’s Love” is budding in the world. [Fujoshi no ai wa kokkyō o koete nihon hatsu!! “Bōizu rabu” ni sekai ga moeteiru.] Fujin Kōron 93.16: 158–61. Ueno Toshiya. The other and the machine. 1993. In The Japan/America film wars: WWII propaganda and its cultural contexts, ed. Abé Mark Norns and Fukushima Yukio, 71–94. Tokyo: Harwood. Van Buren, Cassandra. 2006. Critical analysis of racist post-9/11 web animations. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 50.3: 537–54. Virilio, Paul. 1989. War and cinema: The logistics of perception. Trans. Patrick Camiller. London: Verso. Walz, Eugene. 1998. Cartoon Charlie: The life and art of animation pioneer Charles Thorson. Winnipeg: Great Plains Publications. Warner, Michael. 2002. Publics and counterpublics. New York: Zone Books. Wells, Paul. 1998. Understanding animation. London: Routledge. 226 WORKS CITED

———. 2002. Animation and America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ———. 2003. Smarter than the average art form: Animation in the television era. In Stabile and Harrison, 15–32. White, Mimi. 2003. Flows and other close encounters with television. In Planet TV: A global television reader, ed. Lisa Parks and Shanti Kumar, 94–110. New York: New York University Press. Williams, Alan. 2010. Raping Apollo: Sexual difference and the Yaoi phenomenon. In Levi et al., 221–31. Williams, Raymond. 1974. Television: Technology and cultural form. London: Fontana. Willson, Michele. 2010. Technology, networks and communities. Information, Communication and Society 13.5: 747–64. Wood, Andrea. 2006. “Straight” women, queer texts: Boy-love manga and the rise of a global counterpublic. Women’s Studies Quarterly 34.1/2: 394–414. Woolery, George W. 1983. Children’s television, The first thirty-five years, 1946– 1981: Part 1: Animated cartoon series. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. Wu Song, Felicia. 2009. Virtual communities: Bowling alone, online together. New York: Lang. Yamada Akira. 2009. The theory and practice of pop culture diplomacy: Otaku as diplomats. [Poppu karuchā gaikō no jissen to riron—Otaku gaikōkan to yoba- rete.] Gaiko Forum 6: 66–71. Yamaguchi Katsunori and Watanabe Yasushi. 1997. History of Japanese film animation. [Nihon animēshon eigashi.] Osaka: Yūbunsha. (Orig. pub. 1977.) Yanagihara, Wendy. 2007. Tokyo encounter. Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet Publications. Yasuno Takashi. 2002. Collection of Betty Boop made in Japan. [Nihonsei Beti Būpu zukan; Yasuno’s trans.] Tokyo: Kōgei Publishing. Yomota Inuhiko. 2006. “Cute” studies. [“Kawaii” ron.] Tokyo: Chikuma Shinsho. Yoo Seunghyun. 2009. Internet, Internet culture, and Internet communities of Korea: Overview and research directions. In Goggin and McLelland, 217–36. Yoon Ja-Young. 2011. Is homegrown Cyworld giving in to Facebook? The Korea Times October 7. http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2011/10/123_ 96267.html. (Accessed August 30, 2013.) Yoshimoto Taimatsu. 2007. The single-man otaku and boy’s love: Together with Yaoi-chan. [Otaku mootoko to bōizu rabu: 801chan to issho ni.] Eureka 39.16: 136–41. Yu, Kie Un. 1999. Global division of cultural labor and Korean animation industry. In Themes and issues in Asian cartooning: Cute, cheap, mad and sexy, ed. John Lent, 37–60. Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press. Ziemer, Gregor. 1941. Education for death. TIME. November 3. http://www.time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772777,00.html. (Accessed March 7, 2011.) Index

Action for Children’s Television linked with imagination, media, (ACT), 88–90 and community, 115 ideological compatibility with linking texts, diverse viewers, corporations, 89 social/geopolitical contexts, 110 pressure on FCC to defend children movement between prepersonal from advertising, 78, 89 potential, subjective emotion, success in reducing commercials in and social action, 113 children’s television, 89 multicultural dimension of, 111 Adorno, Theodor, 4 of nostalgia, 130 The Adventures of Prince Achmed in organization of social life, 111 (1926), 32 personal dimension of emotion in, advertising 112 on early Japanese television, 86, 87 in play, 112 narrowcasting in, 84 as prepersonal potential, 111 nationalistic, 83 relatin to geopolitical logics of “sugar commercials” in, 88 intervention, 112 targeted by Action for Children’s work of imagination operating Television, 88, 89 through, 115 targeting children, 84 affective engagement, 110 affect Akatsuka, Neal, 179 allowing for formation of the Alecci, Silla, 190 community of sentiment, 116 Allison, Anne, 148 constructing ways specific Amalloc, 138, 148, 149, 151, 152, 157 differences come to matter, 111 Anderson, Benedict, 7, 8, 36, 41, 49, cosmopolitan, 107, 115, 120, 121, 86, 115 125 Andreyev, Leonid, 26, 39, 135 defining, 111, 113 Anima Mundi Web film festivel denotes movement between (Brazil), 151 emotion and action, 110 animation emotion and, 113 cel-style, 11 fixing quality of experience and, circulation of as stratified field of 111 relations, 5 generating nostalgic structures of connections across cultural/ national belonging, 115 national/ethnic/gendered global consumerism and, 130 differences, 3 learned, 116 culturally colonizing effects of, 147 228 INDEX animation—Continued “Duck Amuck” (1953), 30 debt to “Incoherent” art movement The Flintstones (1960–1966), 87, 90 in France, 30 homogenization of, 101 defining, 10–13 incorrectly held up as prime described in terms of movement, example of animated 10–13 globalization, 32 digital, 12, 13 Japanese reception of, 41 early international manifestations, The Jetsons (1962/1985), 20, 78, 28 90–8 educational, 44, 47 tendency to deodorize historical effect of technology on, 80, 81 aspects of discrimination in, 102 first/second/third wave of fan animation, globalization of, 101 scholars in, 16 desire for direct connection across influence of sovereign state model cultural and geographical on, 7 borders, 135 inspiration for fans to seek cross- influence of Disney on, 3 cultural connections, 110 media’s oppressive potential in, 4 internationally mobile medium, in pre-World War II era, 25–48 200 seen as post-World War II interrelationships/ phenomenon, 2, 3 interdependencies between animation, Japanese. See also anime; structure and agency in, 84 television animation interweaving threads of anime as cultural property of, 83 cooperation, contention, chiyogami films, 145 identification in production, commercials and, 86, 87 distribution, and consumption of culturally odorless, 98–106, 120, animation, 137 202 libratory potential of, 48 early televised, 86, 87 limitations and capabilities in, 11 education/training films, 52 making global, 101 influence of Disney on, 3 media technologies of, 9, 10 Matsumoto Fragment and, 28, 29, 30 as medium with social impact, 48 media mix in, 87 multiplane camera in, 11 merchandising profits from, 47 as part of system of “national Norakuro series, 145 cinemas,” 7 Otherness pattern in, 55 participation in shaping social postwar censorship of, 85–6 realities, 47 prewar craft system, 46 postwar industrialization of, 145 pre-war distribution, 46–7 in postwar Japan, 85, 87 Pure Film Movement in, 35, 36 reflexivity and, 27–31 racial typology in, 55 slash system, 11 Sazae-san (1969-present), 87 stand, 11, 12 sense of exceptionalism in, 55 web, 9 showing cinema as part of ordinary animation, American. See also life, 33 television animation; Walt World War II film imperialism Disney Studios and, 50 INDEX 229 animation, Korean, 143–9 narrowcasting and, 85, 87 developed as result of international nationalism and, 83 division of labor, 146, 147 political economy approach to, 81, faltering domestic market for, 146 82, 88, 112 Hong Gil Dong (1967), 145 postmodern parody in, 92 influence of Fleischer brothers and primed for making propaganda Disney on, 144 films by experience with “Korean Alphabet” (1967), 146 education/training films, 52 “Korean Wave,” 144, 148 reflexivity of, 30–1, 82–3 need to negotiate positive/negative as subversive space, 80–4 Japanese influences in, 145 success with sound animation, 47 publicity for, 143, 144 use of live-action children in, 88, 89 reception of, 147, 151 viewer identification and, 82 resemblance to Japanese animation, violent, 114 148, 154 World War II film imperialism role of cuteness in, 148–60 and, 50 subcontracting for overseas films animation, web and television, 146 availability for amateurs/ animation, postnational professionals alike, 142 fan affects linked to, 110 based on imaginative labors of fans flows and frictions in, 20 and amateurs, 147 animation, television file sizes in, 141, 142 “Americanization” of, 100, 101 Flash, 13, 138, 141–3, 150 complicity in postnational free downloads, 160, 161 capitalism, 83, 84 gift economy on, 161 connections between private monetization of, 162 industry and public demands in, non-corporate nature of, 142 88–90 potential to provide alternative contesting, 88–90 system of cultural/economic cross-border issues, 85, 86 exchange, 138 cultural resistance and, 83 sense of motion in, 142 as devalued genre, 80 vector mapping in, 141 distribution and, 84–7 vulnerability to consumerism, economic determination and, 83 160–3 effect of postwar occupation on The Animatrix (2003), 181 Japanese, 85, 86 anime efforts to recuperate aesthetics of, 82 adult targeted, 119 The Flintstones (1960–1966), 90 associated with child-friendly friction between modes of consumer goods, 87 production and consumption in, Astro Boy (1963/1980), 98–106, 118, 83, 84 119 impact on craft of animators, 80, 81 Axis Powers Hetalia (2010), 165–97 The Jetsons (1962/1985), 20, 78, Battle of the Planets (1978), 120 90–8 conceived of as global language, 2 “limited,” 80, 81 cultural imperialism/nationalism merchandising profits from, 47 and, 4, 15, 50, 83, 148 230 INDEX anime—Continued fans as major players in global debates over dubbing/subtitles, 121 circulation of tapes, 121, 122 denationalized styling of, 100 geographical scope of, 118 for educational media literacy, growth in, 119 104–6 history of, 118–22 effect of DVD on, 121 online intersections, 117 first production, 28, 29 opportunities granted by different global circulation of, 1 media formats, 121 hybridity of, 3, 143 production of consumption in, 122 liberating potential of cultural proselytization commons shaping exchange through, 4 commercial enterprise of, 122 Mazinger Z (1972), 120 renegotiation of kinds of media mix and, 87, 168, 180–2 communities formed using new preservation of early, 209n2 technologies, 2, 121 Ranma 1/2 (1989), 120 women in, 117 Samurai Champloo (2004), 124 “Anime in America” discourse, 2–5 Science Ninja Team Gatchaman Anime News Network (web), 125 (1972), 120 animetism, 12 soft power through, 4, 138 Annecy International Animation Film Space Battleship Yamato (1974), 120 Festival, 151 Star Blazers (1979), 120 The Apostle (1917), 32, 33 subcultural function of, 147 Appadurai, Arjun, 8, 18, 107, 115, 125, television, 180 127, 130, 131, 148, 160, 201, 203 There She Is!! (2003–2008), 136–63 Artz, Lee, 4 transnationalism of, 3 Asahi Shinbun (newspaper), 28 UFO Robot Grendizer (1975), 120 Asano Shirō, 25 Urusei Yatsura (1984), 120 Asia Content Business Summit violent, 80, 114 (ACBS), 181 Western reception of, 2–3, 117–22 Association of Mothers (Japan), 78, women in, 187 89, 90 anime fans/culture. See also fan Astro Boy (1963/1980), 20, 78, 110, 118, communities, transcultural 119, 203 animation attempts at cultural neutrality in ages, 117 making, 100 American as closed proselytisation broadcast history, 87, 99–100 commons, 121 budget for, 81 beginning with new technology, censorship and, 114 social connections of diasporic cultural odorlessness of, 98–106 ethnics, and global SF fan designed as globally mobile community, 120 program, 99 cosmopolitan fan affect and, 120, English-language, 100 121 as globally circulating product, 124 defining, 116–18 intended as global text offered to educational level, 117 “global” audience, 100 English speaking fans in, 117, 125 meaning of long pauses and limited ethnic groups, 117 action in, 83 INDEX 231

postnationally oriented animation story line, 182, 183 of, 100 touches on divisive political/ repeated re-adaptations of for historical issues in East Asia, 188 “deodorization/reodorization,” transcultural dimensions of 79 animation fandom in, 168 resultant postnational distribution, transition between manga and 98–106 anime platforms, 183 revisions for differing markets, 99 use of ahoge in, 82, 174 supports idea that globalization Azuma Hiroki, 82, 143, 171, 173, 174, of television/culture is one-way 182 flow from U.S., 102 “The Autograph Hound” (1939), 31, 32 Bacon-Smith, Camille, 13 Axis Powers Hetalia (2010), 165–97, Bad Subjects (journal), 117 206, 213n1 Baigent, Robert, 123, 126 animation of audiences as well as Baldwin, Dan, 142 characters, 174 Bandai Entertainment, 125 criticisms of, 188, 189 Barré, Raoul, 11 ethnic stereotypes of nations, 182, Barrier, Michael, 58, 80 183, 188–93 Baskett, Michael, 26, 36, 50, 67, 201 fan conflicts over, 193–5 Battle of the Planets (1978), 120 fangirls, 166, 167 Bauman, Zygmunt, 8 fujoshi and, 168 Bendazzi, Giannalberto, 33, 80 generation of transnational Bennett, Chad, 109 community by, 197 Betty Boop, 36–47, 135, 180, 200, imperialist conceptions of national 210n4 identity in, 192 advertising for, 42, 43 international conflicts over, 187–97 attempts to capitalize on adult kyara as key feature of, 182, 191 market, 37 lack of narrative continuity in, 185 attempts to form international merchandise contributing to relations and film distribution worldview, 186tab with, 40 merchandise from, 166, 167 “Betty’s Bamboo Isle,” 38 moé elements in, 174 canonical appearances by, 46 as part of transnational response to consumer culture around, 47 volatile global social conditions, cultural climate of Lower East Side 167–8 and, 37, 38 personifications of Axis/Allied differing appearances and attitudes, powers from World War II, 165 38 reflexive nods to fujoshi, 178 effect of Hays Code on, 38 satirization of sovereignty disputes as goodwill ambassador, 44 in, 188 “Japan Visit” (1935), 43, 43, 44 shows formation of fan “A Language All My Own” (1935), communities by processes of 39–44, 50, 72, 73 friction, 168 popularity in Japan, 39, 43 shows web anime’s role in “content re-designed to be more modest, industry,” 168 38, 39 232 INDEX

Betty Boop—Continued Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reflexively recast in different lines (CBC) of gender and genre, 45, 46 Saturday morning offerings on, 85 repositioned through diplomatic Canadian Radio-Television policy, 44 Telecommunications sex appeal and, 37 Commission (CRTC), 105 showing travels of, 27 Capra, Frank, 54 trope of the “ethnographic body” Carey, Peter, 101 and, 38 Carlton, Donna, 40 unauthorized merchandizing of, 47 Carter, Sean, 111, 112 “Betty Boop’s Rise to Fame” (1934), 31 “The Cartoon Factory” (1924), 31 “Betty’s Bamboo Isle,” 38 Cartoon/Fantasy Organization (C/ Bewitched (1964), 92 FO), 120 Bhabha, Homi, 206 cartoons. See also films, animated Blackton, James Stuart, 25, 30 “Dizzy Dishes” (1930), 37 Bluto, 69, 200 “primitive hieroglyphics” of, 42 Bolter, J. David, 190 seen as children’s entertainment, 37 Bouldin, Joanna, 38 Talkartoon series, 37 Bray Studios, 37 used to promote US-Japan Briggs, Laura, 9 friendship, 44 Brydon, Diana, 9, 18, 106, 169 Western Flash, 142 Buckingham, David, 83 cartoons, television, 37 “Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips” (1944), 54 Action for Children’s Television bumpers influence on, 78 acting as station identifiers, 77 bumpers, 77 function of, 77 as devalued genre, 80 indicative of upcoming “limited animation” of, 80 commercials, 77 Ren and Stimpy (1991–1992), 80 made mandatory by FCC, 77–8, 89 role of scheduling and sponsorship Burch, Noël, 35 in creation of, 84 Burton, Julianne, 66 Saturday morning, 77 transformation of into children’s Canada genre, 84 Axis Powers Hetalia depiction of, Castells, Manuel, 17 195, 196 Castoriadis, Cornelius, 115 cross-border flow of programs, 85 censorship, 1 elimination of commercials during Astro Boy (1963/1980) and, 114 children’s programming in, 104–6 Cowboy Bebop (1998) and, 124–5 multiculturalism in, 196 in postwar Japanese animation, 86 narrowcasting in, 85 as social process, 104 National Film Board, 145 in South Korea during Japanese underground trade networks colonial governance, 145 enabled by media technology, of TV/anime violence, 114, 124–5 119, 120 “Chameko’s Day” (1931), 3, 33 variety in programming for multi- Chaplin, Charlie, 33 cultural national character, 85 Charren, Peggy, 88, 89, 91 INDEX 233

Chiyogamigraph, 34 identity, 18 Chomsky, Noam, 157 of imagination and interest, 7, 36, Chosun Ilbo (newspaper), 144 74, 79, 148–9, 153, 160–3 Chua Beng Huat, 8, 160, 162, 163, 187 imagined political, 49 Chun, Jason Makoto, 78, 89 (inter)national, 61 cinematism, 11 issue of in fan studies, 17 Cinématographe (Lumière brothers), 25 “real” vs. virtual, 169 CLAMP (manga team), 172 renegotiating, 18, 169 Clampett, Bob, 31 of sentiment, 20, 116, 127, 203, 204 Clements, Jonathan, 28, 68, 86, 100 social organization in, 18 Cohl, Émile, 11 virtual, 172 “Fantasmagorie” (1908), 29, 30, 31 Concerned Children’s Advertisers “Fantoche” films, 25 (Canada), 78 Coleman, William, 18, 169 Condry, Ian, 206, 211n1 collaboration connectivity across differences, 8, 9 creating new kinds of, 1 asymmetry of engagement in, 6 consumerism, 6 connotation of complicity in, 6 content industry, 181 in fan communities, 1, 6, 8, 9, 138, creative, 181 150, 157, 204 digital, 181 globalization and, 8 encourages database consumption productive formations of, 7 across media, 182 transnationalism and, 138 fujoshi-targeted, 193 “Commando Duck” (1940), 54 operation through consumable communication characters, 183 collective, 7 otaku-targeted, 182 cross-cultural, 21 support from governmental between filmmakers and agencies, 181 audiences, 27 Cooper, Arthur Melbourne, 51 formation of across cultural cosmopolitanism, 44 difference, 137 collaboration and, 8, 9 instant, 137 living in the global and local Internet, 135 simultaneously, 114 “mind to mind,” 135 of “Miraculous Cinema” discourse, online, 160 50, 150 technology, 6 toward, 106–7 communities, fan. See fan Cowboy Bebop (1998), 20, 122–31 communities, transcultural awards received, 124 animation broadcast history, 122, 124–5 community cel-style/computer-generated constituent power in, 186 imagery in, 122 of consumers, 8, 160–3 censorship and, 124–5 contestation of definition, 172 community-building in, 122–3 difficulty grasping concept of, 17 depiction of diverse society in, 126 ethnic, 50 depiction of forming a community formation, 61, 160 of sentiment, 127 234 INDEX

Cowboy Bebop (1998)—Continued odor, 98–106, 120, 123, 126, 202 fan interest in changes to, 124, 125 programming, 90 as globally circulating product, 124 property, 83 hybrid, quality of, 126 studies, 82 identification of changes between theory, 4 Japanese and translated texts, 125 culture intended for Japanese domestic consumer, 160, 180 market, 124 convergence, 180, 181 “Jamming with Edward,” 127 creating, 112 “Mish-Mash Blues,” 124, 128 reimagining through media most-cited favorite TV series, 125 consumption, 122 mukokuseki quality of, 123 Curran, James, 4 no reassurance of revival of lost Cyworld, 140, 148, 149, 160 stability in, 131 nostalgia and, 129 Daffy Duck, 30 passage between local and global Daisuke Miyao, 26, 35 audiences of, 122 Daisuke Okabe, 4 release on DVD, 125 Danet, Brenda, 139 sense of commonality between Daubs, Michael, 142 viewer and characters, 112 “Defeat of the Tengu” (1934), 44, 45, 73 spatial montage in, 137 Deibert, Ronald, 7 use of affect in, 112, 128, 129 Deleuze, Gilles, 5, 10, 111, 179 Western reception of, 125 Deming, Barbara, 66 as work of the imagination, 123 Denison, Rayna, 206 Crafton, Donald, 25, 27, 28, 29, 200, “Der Führer’s Face” (1943), 49, 64 209n1 determinism Cristiani, Quirino, 33 historical, 193 Cubbison, Laurie, 121 technological, 9, 10 cultural Deuze, Mark, 150 anxieties, 27 Devilman (1972), 119 art, 83 The Dignity of Fujoshi, 178 difference, 1, 50, 79, 137, 201 discourse diplomacy, 4 “Anime in America,” 2–5 diversity, 126 conservative, 83 domination, 73 “Disneyfication,” 4 engagement, 74 femininity, 9 exchange, 4, 7, 47, 59, 146, 148 “Gainax,” 15, 82, 83 flows, 8, 148 gender/sexuality, 9, 180 frictions, 27 imperial, 41, 192 homogenization, 4, 185 of imperial internationalism, 201 imperialism, 3, 50, 67, 101, 136, 147 of “impersonal Internet,” 171 knowledge, 172 on media globalization, 79 messages, 4 of mediated harmony, 153 nationalism, 15 “Miraculous Cinema,” 50, 150, 200 neo-imperialism, 159 nationalist, 32, 48 neutrality, 100, 101 oppressive, 6 INDEX 235

popular, 114 experience(s) of postmodern fragmentation, 7 imagined, 115 postnational, 126 of immigrants, 38 racist, 48, 73 individual, 2 utopian, 200 personal, 47 Disney. See Walt Disney Studios quality of, 111 diversity cultural, 126 Facebook, 140 linguistic, 72 fan clubs management of through use of cute, benefits of, 93 ethnic Other, 65 potential of, 20 promotion of as cover for fan communities, transcultural inequality, 137 animation, 1, 13–18, 209n1 “Dizzy Dishes” (1930), 37 affective engagements practiced Dobbs, Mike, 39 by, 159 Dodd, Jim, 100 “Anime in America” discourse and, Donald, Stephanie Hemelryk, 107, 125 2–5 Donald Duck, 49, 54, 63, 64, 65 bond-forming “convention feel” in, “Donald Gets Drafted” (1942), 54 169, 170 Donovan, Hope, 161 built through flow and friction, 131 Dorfman, Ariel, 66, 101 collaborations of, 1, 8, 9, 138, 157, 204 Dower, John, 52, 53, 55, 59, 211n1 defining, 6, 13 Drazen, Patrick, 32 early limitations on, 27 “Dreams of a Dog (1936), 144 emotional engagement and Dreamwidth, 171 reflexivity in, 150 “Duck Amuck” (1953), 30 exchanges now possible between unequally positioned fan groups, Edison, Thomas, 25, 28 138 “Education for Death experiences of in-person The Making of the Nazi” (1943), interactions in, 169 59–62, 69, 112, 154 experiencing sense of connection Eiga Jumpo (magazine), 69 across difference in, 137 Eisenstein, Sergei, 42, 45 female, 161 emotion first intimations of, 27 affect and, 110 focus on issues of language in, 150 devaluation of, 112 formation of, 8 identification with, 58 forming connections across manipulation and, 61 differences in, 206 personal dimension of, 112 found and created, 113 in propaganda, 61 friction in, 154 subjective, 112, 113 gender aspects of, 173–80 Eureka (magazine), 177 grassroots activity in, 4 Everard, Jerry, 136, 160 influence of technologies of Everest Video Company, 120 production on, 141 experience, animated intersections at corporate and intersection of different levels of, 1 interpersonal levels, 5 236 INDEX fan communities, transcultural as consumers, 110 animation—Continued “cosplay” by, 174 made up of intersection of cultural actions of, 17 conflicting Internet positions, 172 empowerment of, 4 as mediated relations between people engagement in process of in urban/regional and national/ renegotiating community, 169 international structures, 5 engaging with each other across movement/mobility in, 10, 11 distance and differences, 1, 2 mutual collaborations in, 6 enjoyment of particular area, 109 mutual language coaching in, 141 fiction, 14 negotiating frictions within, 6 fragmentation into program or online, 168–73 character-based interest groups, overlooked cultural work of fans 172 in, 147 generational divide, 173 possibility of through different importance of feeling of fandom, media platforms, 1 109 postnationalism as forerunner of, 8 interaction at conventions, 169, 170 postwar growth of, 84 motivation to consume, 110 problems and potentials of, 131 negative stereotype followed by providing collaboration across reappropriation, 13, 14 difference, 150 participation in Hollywood relations of continuity and rupture glamour through film, 32 in evolution of, 169 postnational, 109–31 as site of renegotiation, 18 as producers, 15 tension between younger and older qualities of, 109 fans, 170 “reading” postmodern mode of transcultural ventures, 1, 2 media texts, 173 working across gendered cultures relation of continuity/rupture as aspect of, 168 between subculture based on Fan Studies tape trading vs. web animation, cultural studies approach, 4 169 political economy approach, 4, 112 sensation of digital disconnect Western, 110 among, 170 “Fandom is Beautiful” approach, 15 sense of “commonality and fan(s) community” in, 14 and anti-fans, 109 slash, 178, 213n5 association with “fanatics,” 13 as “textual poachers,” 14, 181 backlash against perceived transcultural creative practices of, utopianism of, 15 206 building a community of sentiment understanding sociality of, 109–10 across distance based on shared “Fantasmagorie” (1908), 29, 30, 31 genre interest, 20 fantasyscapes, 4, 125 changed by intersection of as sites of play, 125 new media and animation sites of productive imaginary technologies, 168, 169 engagement between people, 125 conflicts among, 193–5 “Fantoche” films, 25 INDEX 237

Farley, Rebecca, 90 reflexivity and, 27–31 “Felix in Hollywood” (1923), 31 “She Was an Acrobat’s Daughter” feminism (1937), 31, 37 third-wave, 179 silent, 26, 31 Fernback, Jan, 17, 169, 172 specificity theory of, 10 film teaching audiences how to behave, 31 becoming global medium, 25 themes of movement in, 27 challenged by television, 7 The Thief of Baguda Castle (1926), 35 imperialsts, 50 “trick,” 25 international exchanges of, 41 Western, 27 live-action, 25 films, propaganda, 47, 49–74 as political tool, 44 affective power of, 48 reflecting glamour of Hollywood building international communities and fan participation in, 32 of supportive viewers, 47 structures of trade and discourses construction of national audiences of internationalism for through direct address and, 49 circulation of, 26 implication of in imperial transformative power of local internationalist discourse, 52 appropriation of, 45, 46 influence on behaviors of viewers, “The Film Fan” (1939), 31 49 films, animated “Matches: An Appeal” (1899), 51 advertisements for, 42, 43 patriotic appeals in, 49 “Betty Boop’s Rise to Fame” (1934), positioning American and Japanese 31 nations as rival imperial leaders, “Bosko’s Picture Show” (1933), 31 47 “The Cartoon Factory” (1924), 31 racialization in, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, chances for mutual cultural 60, 61, 190 exchange through, 47 reflexivity and, 49 distribution and promotion “The Sinking of Lusitania” (1918), channels for, 41 51 “Dizzy Dishes” (1930), 37 “speciesism” in, 55, 56 “Felix in Hollywood” (1923), 31 uncommon during World War I, 51 “The Film Fan” (1939), 31 use of “like me”/”not me” dialectic as goodwill ambassadors, 44 in, 59 from imperial international to “war hates” in, 55 postwar period, 73–4 films, propaganda (America) interjection of filmmaker into, 27 American use of primitivism in for international markets in pre- stereotypes of enemy, 53, 56 World War II era, 25–48 animation based on logic of the “Japan Visit” (1935), 43, 43, 44 companion species in Disney little evidence of early non- films, 67 American, 33 “Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips” Out of the Inkwell (1918), 37 (1944), 54 overlapping space of home and “Commando Duck” (1940), 54 space of theater, 33 “Der Führer’s Face” (1943), 49, 64 process of identification in, 61 “Donald Gets Drafted” (1942), 54 238 INDEX films, propaganda diffuse structuring of race/species (America)—Continued through “proper place” context, 56 “Education for Death: The Making expression of new oppositions of the Nazi” (1943), 59–62, 69, between American and Japanese 112, 154 media empires, 69 emotional identification as mode of influence of American animation spectatorship in, 58 on, 54, 55 “The Flying Gauchito” (1945), 64, 66 less depiction of enemies in, 53 imperial internationalism and, 66 Momotarō’s Divine Ocean Warriors “Japoteurs” (1942), 54 (1945), 66, 68–73 “Know Your Enemy: Germany” “Momotarō’s Sea Eagles” (1943), 49, (1945), 54 68–73 “Little Hiawatha” (1937), 57–9 “The Monkey Sankichi’s Air mixing education with Defense Battle” (1933), 67 entertainment in, 62 need to find revisions of previous neoteny in, 58 use of American imagery, 67 “The New Spirit” (1941), 73, 74 nuance in, 55 “Out of the Frying Pan, Into the participation in geopolitical Firing Line” (1942), 54 imaginary in, 51–6 participation in geopolitical preoccupation with self-elevation imaginary in, 51–6 in, 53 racial bias in, 54 propensity toward use of animal reconciliation of diverse, opposed imagery, 54, 55 groups in, 58 restructuring mutual references to nations and political understanding relations with leaders in, 54tab U.S. from ally to enemy., 69 Saludos Amigos (1942), 62–6 Sankichi the Monkey (1934), 55 “Scrap the Japs” (1942), 54 shows importance of learning some seen as empire-building, 66 Japanese language, 72 Three Caballeros (1944), 62–6 speciesism in, 66 “The Thrifty Pig” (1933), 52 structure of Otherness in, 55 “Tokio Jokio” (1944), 54 “Taro the Guard” (1918), 51 use of caricature in, 54 “Taro the Guard, the Submarine” use of grotesque distortion in, 54, 56 (1918), 51 use of hunt/chase and wild animals theme of expulsion of enemy in, 53 in, 56 use of caricature in, 69 villainization of Japan in, 54 use of cute figures in, 66 “You’re a Sap, Mr. Jap” (1942), 52 use of imaginary of companion films, propaganda (Japan), 66–73 species in, 56 animation based on logic of the use of serene imagery in, 53 companion species in, 67 use of speciesism in, 71 colonial depictions of others, 71 films, short dehumanization of the enemy in, 69 attempts to build global harmony depiction of peaceful communities and, 49 of cute animals of differing “The Autograph Hound” (1939), species, 66 31, 32 INDEX 239

“Chameko’s Day” (1931), 3, 33 “Betty’s Bamboo Isle,” 38 “Defeat of the Tengu” (1934), 44, “The Cartoon Factory” (1924), 31 45, 73 concern regarding offending “Dreams of a Dog (1936), 144 Japanese customers, 39 “Duck Amuck” (1953), 30 “Dizzy Dishes” (1930), 37 early Disney, 42 films reflecting concern with “Education for Death: The Making culture of audience, 37, 38, 39 of the Nazi” (1943), 59–62, 69, form Fleischer Studios, 37 112, 154 internationalism of works by, 44 “Fantasmagorie” (1908), 29, 30 “Japoteurs” (1942), 54 Gae Koom (1936), 144 “A Language All My Own” (1935), “The Haunted Hotel” (1907), 25 39–44, 72, 73 “Humorous Phases of Funny Faces” move into sound film, 37 (1906), 30 Out of the Inkwell (1918), 37 “Mickey’s Gala Premier” (1933), overt wooing of Japanese audiences 31, 32 by, 41 modeling of filmgoing behavior on “Scrap the Japs” (1942), 54 national level, 26, 27 Talkartoon series, 37, 47 reviewed in Kinema Junpo, 41 use of caricature of immigrants Silly Symphonies, 47, 57 by, 38 “Spring Song” (1931), 34, 35, 36 “You’re a Sap, Mr. Jap” (1942), 52 “Tengu Taiji” (1934), 44, 45 “Flim Flam Films” (1937), 31 films, silhouette The Flintstones (1960–1966), 87, 90 Kokka Kimigayo, 52 flow “Malay Offshore Naval Battle” as “cascades,” 8 (1944), 52 global media, 203 Fiske, John, 13 of information, 115 Flash (Adobe), 13, 138, 141–3, 150 intense, abstracted affect of hosting websites, 151 television viewing, 114 as hybrid product of information key metaphor in cultural and exchange between cultures, globalization studies, 127 143 media globalization and, 115 parallels to Japanese-produced metaphor interlinking formal cartoons in mature themes, structure of TV, mobile 142 audiences, and postnational social practices of Flash culture as economic globalization, 115 extensions of networks of video planned, 88, 114 tape trading, 169 postnational, 205 web anime and, 141–3 postnational globalization Flash animation. See animation, development and, 203 web reflections of East/West models of Fleischer Brothers, 36–47, 48 power in, 143 advertising for Betty Boop regional cultural, 148 features, 43 space of, 127 “Betty Boop’s Rise to Fame” as technology and cultural form, (1934), 31 114 240 INDEX flow, postnational media database consumption and, 173–80 commonalities in different sites, defining, 176 79, 80 identified as lesbian, bisexual, or in distribution of television asexual, 177 cartoons, 79, 80 interest in homoerotic yaoi, 176–7 lack of uniformity in, 79 limitless fantasy of, 179 “The Flying Gauchito” (1945), 64, 66 not subject to same negative Franco, Jean, 62 stereotypes as otaku, 176–7 Freleng, Friz recognition of each other, 177 “She Was an Acrobat’s Daughter” reimagining of sociability, 178 (1937), 31, 37 representing fan subjectivity and friction sociality, 179 arguments over language among scope of transgressive intimacy of, fans, 157–9 179 collaborative, 9 seen as relationship-oriented, 178 confrontational, 157 as subset of otaku community, 168 cultural, 27 working across gendered styles of defining, 1, 8 fandom by, 180 dependence of global circulation of Fukuro Ippei, 42 animation on, 1 Furniss, Maureen, 10 in fan communities, 6 FutureWave Software, 141 formation of fan communities by, 168 Gae Koom (1936), 144 keeping global power in motion Gainax Studio, 15 and, 1 Gajjala, Radhika, 160 linguistic diversity as source of, 72 Galbraith, Patrick, 14, 179, 180, 194 negotiation between modes of “Gangnam Style” (2012), 151 production and consumption, Geijutsu Eiga-Sha Studio, 68 83, 84 Genosko, Gary, 58, 65 possibility of being productive in Geourgiou, Myria, 6 forming bonds between fans, 151 “Geronimo’s Report,” 104–6 reflections of East/West models of Gerow, Aaron, 35, 68, 69 power in, 143 Giammarco, Thomas, 144 theorizing, 1, 8, 9, 138, 157 globalization, media, 206 transnational collaboration and, 138 affect and emotion in, 113 Fuji Television alternatives for organization of Astro Boy on, 87 traffic in, 8 fujoshi, 17 “Americanization” and, 37, 38 appearance of normal social and changing environment of, 6 sexual lives, 177 early animation, 25, 26 community described as fan affects linked to, 110 “counterpublic,” 178, 196 fans’ active engagement with, 17, as community of consumers, 180 122 concepts of moé elements, 180 flowing imaginaries of, 113–16 creative motive and consumption friction and, 8 behavior of, 175 influence of Disney on, 3 INDEX 241

opportunity for coalitions and Harman, Hugh, 42 collaborations in, 8 Harrington, C. Lee, 15 oppression in, 8 Harris, Cheryl, 15 plurality of isolations in, 128 “The Haunted Hotel” (1907), 25 postnational, 9, 79 Hays Code, 38, 210n4 problems and potentials in, 6, 7 Hello Kitty, 148, 152 promotion of flow across national Hench, John, 56 borders, 79 Hendershot, Heather, 88, 89, 97, 104 regional flows and frictions in, 143 Herring, Susan, 139 transcultural, 3, 5 Hills, Matt, 17, 112, 114, 116, 122, transnational, 3 125 virtual illusion underlying theories Himaruya Hidekaz, 165, 174, 185, of, 115 188, 191, 192 World War II and, 2, 3 Hirai Hideko, 33 Go Nagai, 119 Hjorth, Larissa, 148, 160 Godard, Jean-Luc, 123 Hoffmann, June, 73 The Goddamn George Liquor Project Holberg, Amelia, 37, 38 (1997), 142 The Honeymooners (1955), 92 Goggin, Gerard, 139 Horkheimer, Max, 4 The Goldbergs (1949), 92 Hu, Kelly, 143 Golden Shield Project, 139 Hubka, David, 85 Goldie, Terry, 59 “Humorous Phases of Funny Faces” Goldorak (1978), 120 (1906), 30 Good Neighbor Policy, 56, 62–6 Hurd, Earl, 11 Goofy, 63 Hutcheon, Linda, 92 Goossens, Ray, 100 Gordon, Ian, 210n3 I Dream of Jeannie (1965), 92 Gorton, Kristyn, 112 Ichikawa Kon, 86 Gottlieb, Nanette, 139 identity Grant, Joe, 211n2 collective, 169 Gravitation (1996–2002), 183 community, 18 Gray, Jonathan, 15 conflation Great Firewall of China, 139 dialectics of, 206 Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity ethnic, 115, 144 Sphere, 53, 56, 67, 201 fixed ideas of, 50 Grierson, John, 52 formation, 47, 116 Grossberg, Lawrence, 4, 111, 112, 116, intersection with media 169 technology, 34 Grusin, Richard, 190 intranational, 47 Guattari, Félix, 5, 111, 179 national, 7, 34, 42, 96, 144, 147, Gyeonggi Digital Contents Agency 192 (GDCA), 161, 181 pan-Asian, 144 personal; renegotiating, 18 Hagio Moto, 176 self-Other, 2, 5, 51, 55, 72 Hanna-Barbera Studios, 78, 81, 85, 90, Ien Ang, 83 92, 119, 203 Im Seok-gi, 144 242 INDEX images Internet “automated,” 12 allows on-line communities to form character, 182 emotional connections through in digital animation, 3, 12 symbolic networks, 172 “kawaii,” 138, 148, 151, 173 Anglophone and Asian-language, nationalistic, 34 138–41 neotenous, 153 animation, 13 rasterized, 141 beginnings in Department of transferable, 142 Defense, 139 “vulnerable child,” 89 celebrated as medium providing Western, 100 equal, democratic space of imaginary engagement for all, 135 of companion species, 53, 56 communication, 135 of media globalization, 113–16 continuing problems and emerging postnational, 131 potentials, 137 social, 130, 200 creation of links between everyday sympathetic, 73, 74 life and experiences of the world imagination through, 172 as collective, social fact, 115 cultural imperialism and, 136 community grounded in work culturally specific issues about of, 18 access to information, 139 establishing “cascades” between effect on tensions between younger different scales of being, 115 and older fans, 170 linked with affect, 115 enabling formation of transcultural links to technology, 200 animation fan communities, 137 practice that creates ideas facilitation of growth of anime neighborhoods/nationhood, fandom by, 147 115 fan created archives of mutual social discipline of, 130 translations, 140–1 working throug affect, 115 importance to fan communities, 6 Imamura Taihei, 42, 46, 48 inability to erase hierarchies of imperialism race, class, and gender, 136 cultural, 50, 101 instant communication on, 137 film, 50 as marker of generational divide in histories of, 5 anime fandom, 169 opposing, 27 as “network of networks” created internationalism differently and accessed animated, 144 differently, 138, 139 cinematic technologies and, 9 pervasiveness of associated with circulation of early films and, 26 spread of English, 139 imperial, 36, 40, 41, 47–8, 52, 59, points of access/restrictions 73, 79, 201 rendering transcultural in Japan, 36 exchanges asymmetrical, 140 nation as imagined political posting languages used, 157, 158, community in, 7, 49 159 INDEX 243

power to generate sameness seen as maintenance of “Yamato” race in, 53 equalizing or as homogenizing, media mix culture in, 181 136 modernizing energy and, 130 resurrection of racist narratives in preoccupation with national self in propaganda films, 190 propaganda filming, 53 sense of closeness across distance Proletarian Film League (Prokino), through, 171, 172 67 sense of community and, 171 propagandization of animation as site of personal freedom of working against postwar expression, 142 acceptance in, 85, 86 transnational media economies purging of animators from postwar and social ecologies developed work, 86 around, 168 sense of fading in-person Ising, Rudolf, 42 communication in, 171 Ito, Mimi, 181 soft power and J-Cool, 148 Ito Mizuko, 6 visions of “empire” in film culture Iwabuchi Koichi, 6, 20, 78, 99, 101, of, 50 103, 123, 126, 130, 131, 143, 148, “Japan Cartoon Film Center,” 42 201 “Japan Visit” (1935), 43, 43, 44 Izumi Tsuji, 4 “Japoteurs” (1942), 54 Jenkins, Henry, 4, 13, 14, 15, 17, 157, Jancovich, Mark, 15 169, 180, 181, 182, 185 Jankowski, Nicholas, 17 Jenson, Joli, 109 Japan. See also films, propaganda Jeong Mi-Kyeong, 189 (Japan) Jeongrim Movie Company, 144 American occupation of, 85, 86 Jet Black, 123 censorship in postwar animation, 86 The Jetsons (1962/1985), 20, 78, 90–8 conflicts with South Korea, 187–97 broadcast history, 90 corporate hybridism in, 143 complicities of, 92 cultural exchanges with Korean “A Date With Jet Screamer,” 95, 96 fans, 21 depiction of postnational spaces of depiction in American flow in, 98 propaganda, 53 “Elroy’s Pal,” 92–5, 105 desire to unite Asia, 67 family roles in, 92 difficulties with multispecies nuclear family unit intact in, 92 ideal, 67 as reaffirmation of dominant difficulty marketing anime in early structure of family/nation, 91 postwar years, 119 reestablishment of real life/nuclear East Asia racial hierarchy and, 190 family in, 95 effort to build multiethnic empire reflexive portrayal of television by, 66 in, 98 film imperialism during World seen as subversive parody, 90 War II, 50 shifting of patterns of family lack of “Saturday Morning Ghetto” relations, 92, 93, 94 in, 87 staunchly white, middle class, 97 244 INDEX

The Jetsons (1962/1985)—Continued Kricfalusi, John, 80, 142 subversive aspects of, 92 Kujira (1928), 210n9 use of exaggerations of animation Kusanagi Satoshi, 2 in, 90, 91 kyara Journey to the West, 202 devotion of fans to, 185 Jūjiro (1928), 210n9 encounters with cultural friction of Jungle Emperor (1965), 119 globalization, 187–97 encouragement of affective bonds Kane, Helen, 37 with products by, 185 Kanfer, Stefan, 80, 89, 114 prominence in Axis Powers Hetalia Kang Sun Kyung, 147 (2010), 182 Kashimura Aiko, 16, 171, 178 Kawaii, 138, 148, 151, 173 Ladd, Fred, 100, 102 Kazumi Nagaike, 192 Lai, Sherry, 196 Kelts, Roland, 2 Lamarre, Thomas, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 55, Kenichi Ohmae, 115 56, 58, 66, 67, 71, 82, 83, 136, 141, Khiabany, Gholam, 137 186, 192, 201 Kim, Joon-Yang, 144, 145, 147 Lang, Fritz, 91 Kim Dae-Jung, 148 “A Language All My Own” (1935), Kim In-Tae, 145 39–44, 50, 58, 72, 73, 153 Kim Yong-woon, 144, 189 advertising for, 43 Kimba the White Lion (1966), 119 Lantz, Walter, 42 Kinda Kiyoko, 178 Latin America Kinema Junpo (film magazine), 41, American political and economic 42, 43 intentions in, 62 Kinetoscope, 25 cultural imperialism in, 101 Kinsella, Sharon, 14, 176 despite hemispheric sameness, Kinue Hitomi, 33 “us”/”them” distinctions exist Kinugasa Teinosuke, 210n9 in, 65 Kitayama Seitarō, 11, 51 early anime in, 120 “Taro the Guard” (1918), 51 Good Neighbor Policy in, 56, “Taro the Guard, the Submarine” 62–6 (1918), 51 use of “soft power” tactics in, 62 Kittler, Friedrich, 73 Lee, William, 87 Klein, Norman, 37, 38 Leni, Paul, 35 “Know Your Enemy: Germany” Lent, John, 120, 145, 147 (1945), 54 Leonard, Sean, 119, 121, 122 Ko, Yu-fen, 148 Levi, Antonia, 2, 17, 121, 177, 178 Kobe Animation Festival, 124 Liberty Film Institute, 34 Kojève, Alexandre, 174 Lisosky, Joanne, 105 Kokka Kimigayo (1931), 52 “Little Hiawatha” (1937), 57–9, 110 Koko (clown), 37 animated “method acting” in, 58 Kon Satoshi, 199, 204 emotional identification in, 58 “Korean Alphabet” (1967), 146 holistic coexistence of all woodland Kotani Mari, 17 species in, 58 Kōuchi Jun’ichi, 34 infantilization in, 59 INDEX 245

issues on racial and speciesist McCay, Winsor, 27 grounds, 58, 59 “The Sinking of Lusitania” neoteny in, 58 (1918), 51 reconciliation of diverse, opposed McCormack, Derek, 111, 112 groups in, 58 McCormick, Gladys, 9 use of animalized “noble savage” McGray, Douglas, 124, 148 figure in, 59 McLaren, Norman, 10, 146 “Little Nemo” (1911), 27 McLelland, Mark, 139, 189, 190 LiveJournal, 171, 195 McManus, John, 65 Lolicon, 176 McVeigh, Brian, 148 Los Angeles Science Fiction Society media (LASF), 119 analog to digital cultures, 131 Ludwick, John, 142 changing processes of circulation Lumière brothers, 25 and consumption, 146 community-building, 148, 149 MacArthur, Douglas, 86 consumption, 48 Mainichi Shinbun (newspaper), 28 ethnic, 150 “Malay Offshore Naval Battle” evolution, 167 (1944), 52 ideological qualities in, 136 Maltin, Leonard, 57, 80 imperialism, 136 manga mix system, 168 boys love, 178, 179 postnational economy, 79 by/about female fujoshi themselves, print, 7 178 technology, 7 gender representations in, 179 theory, 12 parental response to inappropriate, transnational economies of, 168 88 media, electronic as subspecies of Disney, 4 provides resources for self- viewer identification and, 82 imagining, 115 visual grammar of, 153 media, global. See also globalization, women in, 187 media Manga Burikko (magazine), 14 commercialism in, 6 Manovich, Lev, 136, 137 copyright legislation, 6 Masaoka Kenzō, 42, 47 institutional control in, 6 “The Monkey Sankichi’s Air media, mass Defense Battle” (1933), 67 corporate hegemony in, 4 Massumi, Brian, 58, 111, 112 cultural homogenization in, 4 “Matches: An Appeal” (1899), 51 globalization, 2 The Matrix series, 181 movement across multiple sites, 3 Matsumoto Fragment, 28, 29, 30 oppression, 4 Matsumoto Natsuki, 28 passive receptivity of cultural Mattel Company, 84, 87 messages delivered through, 4 Mattelart, Armand, 66, 101, 136, media mixing, 180–7 157 bureaucratization of, 181 Mazinger Z (1972), 120 content industry and, 181 McCarthy, Helen, 28, 114, 120 as form of convergence, 181 246 INDEX media mixing—Continued Moé, conveyance of attractions of, 182 incorporation of into new forms of cross-overs from male-to-female brand nationalism, 181 oriented text, 174 relations between corporate media defining, 141, 173 and participatory culture, 185 elements, 204 transmedia storytelling and, 181 representing personal tastes media platforms resulting in wider connections circulation/blockage of visual texts with other fans, 174 in, 5 Momotarō’s Divine Ocean Warriors making fan communities possible (1945), 66, 68–73, 130, 147, 153, through, 1 191–2 mediascapes deployment of cuteness in, 71 allows diverse audiences for form as ideological vehicle for Japanese communities of sentiment, 127 imperialism, 145 of information and imagery, 8 reflexive use of cute ethnic Other way for diasporic travelers to images in, 67 maintain connection with “Momotarō’s Sea Eagles” (1943), 49, homeland, 127 68–73 Meiji Seika, 105 concept of diverse animal species Messmer, Otto interaction in, 69 “Felix in Hollywood” (1923), 31 different propaganda modes in, 69 “Flim Flam Films” (1937), 31 satirical depiction of foreigners Meyer, Uli, 179 in, 71 MGM Studio “The Monkey Sankichi’s Air Defense reviews of shorts by Kinema Battle” (1933), 67 Junpo, 42 montage Mickey Mouse, 31 spatial, 136, 137 The Mickey Mouse Club (1955/1960), theory of, 136, 137 78, 84 Mōri Yoshitaka, 4, 146 “Mickey’s Gala Premier” (1933), 31, 32 Morley, David, 4 Mighty Atom (1963). See Astro Boy Motion Picture Production Code (1963/1980) (1930), 38 Mihara Ryotarō, 182, 197 Mukokuseki, defining, 101 Min Eunjung, 145 in Astro Boy, 100, 103–4 mini-hompys in Cowboy Bebop, 123, 126, 202 customization of, 148 Mullen, Megan, 92 opportunities for conceiving global Mun Dalbu, 145 virtual communities and, 140 Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation “Miraculous Cinema” discourse, 50, (MBC), 189 135, 150, 200 Munster, Anna, 142, 143, 168, 169 Mittel, Jason, 84, 88, 89 Murakami Takashi, 82 Miura Shion, 176, 178 Mushi Productions, 87, 118, 119 Miyazaki Hayao, 81 Musume Dōjōji (1946), 86 Miyazaki Tsutomu, 14, 15, 176 My Neighbor Yaoi-chan, 178 Mizuko Ito, 4, 207 My Neighbors the Yamadas (1999), Mobile Suit Gundam series (1979), 119 183, 184 INDEX 247

Nakajima Azusa, 177 Office of Inter-American affairs Nakamori Akio, 14 (OIAA), 61 Napier, Susan, 4, 82, 123, 125, 128 Ōfuji Noburō, 42, 47, 48, 52, 145, narrowcasting, 84 210n3, 210n9 National Black Media Coalition, 89 “Defeat of the Tengu” (1934), 44, National Organization for Women, 89 45, 73 National Science Fiction Convention, Kokka Kimigayo (1931), 52 124 “Malay Offshore Naval Battle” nationalism (1944), 52 in advertising, 83 “Spring Song” (1931), 34, 35, 36 brand, 181 “Tengu Taiji” (1934), 44 cultural, 15 The Thief of Baguda Castle (1926), imagined political community of, 49 35 inspired by “Gainax discourse,” 83 Ōgi Fusami, 179 Japanese, 36 Oguro Yūichirō, 122, 124 propaganda and, 36 Okada Toshio, 15, 82 resurgence of patriotic, militarized, Oldboy (2003), 151 131 Ōsawa Nobuaki, 3, 4, 15 sense of identity and, 7 Oshii Mamoru, 101 social/virtual aspects of, 7 otaku nation-state anti-social culture of, 171, 176 flow across borders and, 203 avoidance of personal feelings by, obsolescence of, 8, 116, 127 171 seen as unnatural business units in bashing, 15 global economy, 115 closure of lack-satisfaction circuits Natsume Soseki, 174 by, 174 Negri, Antonio, 186 concepts of moé elements, 180 Neon Genesis Evangelion (television), database consumption and, 167 173–80 The New Gulliver (1935), 32 defining, 14, 171 “The New Spirit” (1941), 73, 74 denoting “obsession,” 14 Newgrounds, 151, 153, 157 describing, 116, 117, 171 Newitz, Annalee, 117, 118 dropping out of relationships, 175 Ngai, Sianne, 112, 194 fans seen as social rejects, 14, 15 Nikkatsu Studios generalizations about, 16, 17 reviews of shorts by Kinema masculinist bias of studies of, 17 Junpo, 42 negative image of, 176 Nippon Television, 99 in network societies, 175 Nishikura Kiyoji, 33 nonsocial relations of, 171 Nobumoto Keiko, 123 “panic,” 176 Noda, Nathaniel, 161 seen as “database animals,” 171, Norakuro series, 55 174, 175 nostalgia, 81, 82, 115, 129, 130 sociality through interest in imagined, 130 particular kinds of information, imperialist, 130 175 postmodern, 131 stereotypical images of, 116 248 INDEX

Other, cute ethnic, 192, 205 as forerunner of transnational distinctions between self and, 65 virtual communities, 8 function in propaganda, 51 globalization and, 9, 115 generation of distinction from/ late capitalist form of, 8 identification with allies, 47 media climate in, 8 management of diversity through stateless/odorless texts in, 126 use of, 65, 201 televisual, 167 revelation of instability in process Princess Iron-Fan (1941), 32 of community formation in, Proletarian Film League (Prokino), 67 73, 74 propaganda structure of in Japanese animated, 49–74 propaganda, 55 defining, 49 used in situations of recognition of differences/crossovers between potential allies yet are different Japanese and Western forms from “us,” 51 of, 190 Otherness emotional manipulation in, 61 ethnic, 56 within propaganda, 61 three-tiered scheme of, 68 use of cuteness in, 56–66 Otmazgin, Nissim Kadosh, 148, 159 Puff (manga magazine), 177 Ōtsuka Eiji, 3, 4, 15, 182 Pure Film Movement, 35, 36 “Out of the Frying Pan, Into the Putnam, Robert, 170 Firing Line” (1942), 54 Out of the Inkwell (1918), 37 racial community, 53 Paprika (2006), 199–202 consciousness, 52, 53 Paramount Pictures discrimination, 102 distribution of films from Fleischer distinctions, 71 brothers, 41, 210n6 hierarchy, 190 Park Chan-Wook, 151 pride, 52, 53 Patten, Frederick, 2, 99, 114, 119, 123 stereotypes, 97 Peach Boy. See Momotarō’s Divine racism, 6 Ocean Warriors (1945) attitudes comprising, 52 Philippines differences/crossovers between restricted imports of Japanese Japanese and Western forms of, programs, 119 190 Pokémon, 4, 103, 153 displacement onto relations Polan, Dana, 30 between humans and animals in Pope, Kyle, 125 film, 55, 56 Popeye the Sailor Man, 41, 52, 54, 69 elision of, 97 Porky Pig, 31 use of positive imagery to imply, Poster, Mark, 135 55, 56 postnationalism, 8 Radway, Janice, 13 communities created by affective, Ranma 1/2 (1989), 120 imaginative engagement with Rashomon (1950), 130 media in, 116 Reagan, Ronald, 105 defining, 8, 101 Reeves, Nicholas, 26, 135 INDEX 249 reflexivity Schodt, Frederik, 83, 87, 99, 100, 102 animation and, 27–31 Science Ninja Team Gatchaman audiences and, 28 (1972), 120 creativity and, 49 Sconce, Jeffrey, 109 in “Defeat of the Tengu,” 45, 46, 73 “Scrap the Japs” (1942), 54 intranational identity formation Sefton-Green, Julian, 84 and, 47 Seo Mitsuyo, 42, 153 as means of positioning, 83 “Japan Cartoon Film Center,” 42 propaganda films and, 49 Momotarō’s Divine Ocean Warriors realism and, 30, 31, 37 (1945), 66, 68–73 self, 28 “Momotarō’s Sea Eagles” (1943), 49, topics of international film viewing 68–73 and, 47 Norakuro series, 55 relations racial distinctions around issues of affective, 112 language and education, 71, 72 between audiences/media, 26 Sankichi the Monkey (1934), 55 of domination, 185 use of folklore as source material, eroding, 151 68 gender, 171 Seoul International Cartoon and intersocietal, 8 Animation Festival (SICAF), 151 mediated, 151 shadow-plays, 209n1 Ren and Stimpy (1991–1992), 80 Shale, Richard, 55 Richie, Donald, 25, 41, 53, 85, 86 “She Was an Acrobat’s Daughter” Robins, Kevin, 114 (1937), 31, 37 Rockefeller, Nelson, 61 Shin Dong-Hun, 145 Roffat, Sebastien, 51 Shirohata, Bob, 183, 184, 185 Role Playing Games, 181 Shull, Michael, 53, 55 Roosevelt, Franklin, 61 Silly Symphonies, 47, 57 Ruh, Brian, 102 Silver Screen Hetalia-Axis Powers Russ, Joanna, 178 Paint it, White!. See Axis Powers Hetalia (2010) Saitō Tamaki, 16, 177 “The Sinking of Lusitania” (1918), 51 Sakurai Takamasa, 4 Smoodin, Eric, 32, 37, 73 Saludos Amigos (1942), 62–6 Sobchak, Vivian, 12 mix of education and social entertainment, 62–6 acceptance, 156 use of short film with live-action action, 113 documentary footage in, 63 bonds, 120, 121, 172 SamBakZa, 21, 138, 141, 143, 149–63 determinism, 112 Samurai Champloo (2004), 124 ecologies, 168 Sandvoss, Cornel, 15 hierarchies, 15 Sankichi the Monkey (1934), 55 imaginaries, 130, 200 Sarikakis, Katherine, 6, 160 inequalities, 47 Satō Dai, 123, 124 interactions, 110 “Saturday Morning Ghetto,” 84 invisibility, 177 Sazae-san (1969-present), 87 networking, 140, 148, 175 250 INDEX social—Continued Studio DEEN, 183 organization, 18 Studio Ghibli, 151, 183, 213n1 reality, 30, 47 Sugiura Yumiko, 177 skills, 116 Superman, 54 space, 178 systems of classification, 15 Tagawa Takahiro, 17, 176, 177 Sogong, 138, 151 Takemiya Keiko, 176 SongSongHwa, 138 Talkartoon series, 37, 47 South Korea “Taro the Guard” (1918), 51 adult anime officially disapproved technology of, 120 of access, 141 attempts to rebuild national changes in, 7 identity, 147 cinematic, 9 censorship/economic restrictions intersection with national identity, due to Japanese colonial 34 governance, 145 links to imagination, 200 conflicts with Japan, 187–97 media, 7 cultural exchanges with Japanese multidirectional communications, 6 fans, 21 shift of in animation, 81 postwar bans on Japanese media sound/animated image in, 147 intersections, 42 regional participation in, 143 uneven flow of, 79 restricted imports of Japanese VCR/DVD, 20, 119, 120 programs, 119 television “six evils” facing, 147 access to channels of distribution underground trade networks in, 84–7 enabled by media technology, 119 affect on viewer’s ability to engage Space Battleship Yamato (1974), 120 ethically with world events, 113 speciesism, 55, 56, 58, 59, 67, 69, 71, animation as postnational 192 industrial practice, 12 Spirited Away (2001), 125 challenges film production, 7 Stam, Robert, 30, 31 communities of fans of, 8 Standish, Isolde, 44 as dispassionate atomization, 114 Star Blazers (1979), 120 economics dictating quality of Star Wars (1977), 120 programming, 81 state emotionally and morally imagined community of, 36 anaesthetizing nature of, 114 modernist organizations in, 7 found to be lacking in affective Steinberg, Marc, 12, 13, 87, 105, quality, 113 142, 181 limited animation styles, 11, 12 Stockman, Tina, 96 narrowcasting on, 84 storytelling, transmedia nostalgia and, 81, 82 divergences between American/ pressure to self-censor offensive Japanese, 182 material, 97 participation across different television animation. See animation, media, 181 television INDEX 251 television audiences film, 10 accessing channels of distribution media, 12 by, 84–7 montage, 42, 136, 137 activities in creation rather than of postmodern nostalgia, 131 solely perception, 83 postmodern social relations, 175 boredom with idealized, normal queer, 178, 179 domestic lives, 92 social network, 175 treated as insiders, 92 There She Is!! (2003–2008), 3, 21, television audiences, children 148–60 acceptance of recycled and repeated ability to bind viewers in spite of programming by, 85 differences, 168 bound up in marketing practices of addressing discrimination as mass media industries, 78, 79 theme, 157 debates concerning, 78 arguments over language among extent of understanding advertising fans, 157–9 strategies by, 78 basic narrative, 152–6 inability to discern quality of “Cake Dance” (2005), 151 animation, 85 confrontational fan frictions over, 157 inability to distinguish between cross-cultural communication cartoon fantasy and advertising, and, 21 89 customization of, 151–2 participation in cosmopolitan cuteness and, 151, 152, 153 affect, 107 Cyber Jury Award to, 151 seen as manipulable consumers as “Doki & Nabi” (2008), 151 members of advertiser-sponsored elements allowing fans to join fan clubs, 77–107 together from many parts of seen as primary audience, 78 world, 151 separated from broad national evidence of ongoing structural audience, 78 social divisions in, 156 television science fiction Flash animation program and, Astro Boy (1963/1980), 98–106 138–41, 150 conducive to fan activities into image of segregation in, 154 adulthood, 78 “Imagine” (2008), 151 The Jetsons (1962/1985), 20, 78, increasing seriousness of narrative 90–8 in, 155 participation in global economies Internet distribution platform and, by, 77–107 138–41 “Tengu Taiji” (1934), 44, 45 mobility of series, 151 Tetsuwan Atomu, 180 nationalism and, 158 Tezuka Osamu, 3, 20, 78, 98 “Paradise” (2008), 151 agrees to unbeneficial cost/ polarizations in, 156 production schedule, 87 Professional Award to, 151 Astro Boy (1963/1980), 78, 79, 81 racialization of animal species in, founding Mushi Productions, 87 153, 154 theory subcultural popularity online, 151 affecting, 110–13 transcultural interaction and, 138 252 INDEX

The Thief of Baguda Castle (1926), 35 United States Thompson, Kristina, 41 cultural imperialism of, 101 Thorn, Matt, 44 diplomatic program in, 62 Thornton, Sarah, 15 exercise of cultural imperialism in Thorson, Charlie, 59 Latin America, 67 The Three Caballeros (1944), 62–6 film imperialism during World mix of education and War II, 50 entertainment, 62–6 Good Neighbor Policy in Latin panned by critics for imperialistic America, 56, 62–6 tendencies, 66 as nodal point for Internet users short films intended to educate from less developed countries to American audiences on Latin connect, 136 America, 63 political and economic intentions “The Thrifty Pig” (1933), 52 in Latin America, 62 Thussu, Daya, 6, 160 propaganda strategies, 53 Toei Animation Studios, 86 protests against economic and “Tokio Jokio” (1944), 54 cultural neo-imperialism of, 159 Tomino Yoshiyuki, 101 underground trade networks Tomlinson, John, 113, 114, 128, 170 enabled by media technology, 119 transculturalism universalism as contested concept, 9 in contemporary film studies, 9, 10 contradiction in, 9 Urusei Yatsura (1984), 120 defining, 9, 101 determination by category of age, 9 Van Buren, Cassandra, 190 enabling fandom generating Via le Monde, 104, 105 mutual, asymmetric connections Virilio, Paul, 11, 61, 73 across channels, 131 Voltron: Defenders of the Universe interconnection across difference, 9 (1984), 3 transnationalism of anime, 3 Wachowski, Andy, 181 collaboration and, 138 Wachowski, Larry, 181 as contested concept, 9 Waldman, Myron, 38, 41, 44 as Japan’s approach to media Walsh, Raoul, 35 globalization, 101 Walt Disney Studios media globalization and, 3 attempts to cope with internal/ transculturalism as cultural international Others, 59 dimension of, 9 “The Autograph Hound” (1939), Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt, 1, 8, 9, 138, 31–2 157, 206 “Commando Duck” (1940), 54 Tsugata Nobuyuki, 51 cosmopolitan quality of early Tsutsui Yasutaka, 43 talkies by, 46 Tulloch, John, 127 cultural imperialism/ Disneyfication and, 4, 50, 65–7 Ueda Kagura, 176, 189 “cuteness” strategy in propaganda Ueno Toshiya, 55, 68 films, 56–66 UFO Robot Grendizer (1975), 120 “Donald Gets Drafted” (1942), 54 INDEX 253

early short films, 42 Cowboy Bebop (1998), 122, 123, 181, enemy-bashing by, 56 204 “The Flying Gauchito” (1945), 64, Watanabe Yasushi, 25, 44, 46, 67, 68 66 Way, J. T., 9 influence on globalization of Wells, Paul, 82 animation, 3 White, Mimi, 115 “Know Your Enemy: Germany” Williams, Raymond, 88, 114, 115 (1945), 54 Willson, Michele, 17, 171, 175 “Little Hiawatha” (1937), 57–9 Wilt, David, 53, 55 modeling appropriate audience Wood, Andrea, 178 reactions, 65 Woolery, George, 90, 212n2 “Mickey’s Gala Premier” (1933), World War II. See also films, 31, 32 propaganda “The New Spirit” (1941), 73, 74 globalization of animation and, 2, 3 “Out of the Frying Pan, Into the Office of Inter-American affairs Firing Line” (1942), 54 in, 61 propaganda by, 56–66, relations seen as “race war,” 52 with Latin America, 3, 59, 62–3, stereotypes of enemy in, 53 65–6 worldview reviews of shorts by Kinema Junpo, digital media, 184 41, 42 prominence over rounded Saludos Amigos (1942), 62–6 characterization and setting, 182 Silly Symphonies, 47, 57 WOWOW satellite network, 124 The Three Caballeros (1944), 62–6 Wu Song, 170 “The Thrifty Pig” (1933), 52 training films, 52 Yamada Akira, 83 Walz, Gene, 59 Yamaguchi Katsunori, 25, 44, 46, 67, Warner, Michael, 178 68 Warner Bros. Studios Yanagihara, Wendy, 177 “Bosko’s Picture Show” (1933), 31 Yasuno Takashi, 47 “Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips” (1944), Yomota Inuhiko, 148 54 Yoo Seunghyun, 140 “The Film Fan” (1939), 31 Yoshimoto Taimatsu, 116, 118, 173 reviews of shorts by Kinema Junpo, “You’re a Sap, Mr. Jap” (1942), 52 42 Yu, Kie-Un, 145, 146, 147 “Tokio Jokio” (1944), 54 Watanabe Shinichirō Ziemer, Gregor, 60, 61