© Kamla-Raj 2013 J Hum Ecol, 42(1): 69-93 (2013)

Use, Production and Conservation of Palm Fiber in South America: A Review

Carolina Isaza1, Rodrigo Bernal2 and Patricia Howard1

1Anthropology Department, University of Kent at Canterbury 2Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia (Current Address) Apartado 7495, Bogotá, Colombia (Actual) E-mail: 1; 2

KEYWORDS Arecaceae. Fiber. Conservation. Forest Extraction. Forest Products. Palms. South America. Sustainable Use

ABSTRACT South American ethnic groups traditionally use palm fiber, which provides materials for domestic, commercial, and ceremonial purposes. A literature review of 185 references was carried out in order to identify and understand the extent of palm fiber production and the sustainability of harvesting and use in South America. The reports recorded 111 palm species and 37 genera used for fiber in the region; the genera Attalea, Astrocaryum and Syagrus had the highest diversity of fiber-producing species. Mauritia flexuosa and Astrocaryum chambira were the species mostly reported and with the largest number of object types manufactured with their fibers. The geographical distribution of the species use nearly overlaps the natural distribution of palms in South America, reaching its highest diversity in northern Amazonia, where palms are used mostly by indigenous people and peasants. The techniques used for extraction, harvesting and processing are usually basic and minimal. Most species are represented by wild populations found on common lands, the little detailed information available suggests that when use is intensive it is mosly unsustainable, and those with a greater market demand usually become locally extinct. Market demand, ecosystem conservation, and management practices used to boost fiber production are the major variables determining the sustainability of fiber extraction.

INTRODUCTION 1860; Crizón 2001). But in many of the world’s tropical areas, palm fiber use may date back to Palms are an important part of everyday life hunter-gatherer societies (Baleé 1988). Accord- for many South American peoples because of ing to Bellwood (2005), species with technolog- their abundance, diversity, and utility. This is ical uses, such as fiber-producing plants, might particularly true for Amerindian groups and ru- have been the first to be managed or domesti- ral colonists, for whom palms provide raw mate- cated. In spite of this, palm fibers are poorly rials to fulfill basic needs such as food, medi- documented in the archaeobotanical record (Mor- cines, oils, waxes, fuel, fibers, and materials for cote and Bernal 2001), probably as a conse- construction and for producing ornaments and quence of their poor preservation. The oldest many other kinds of artifacts for domestic use, palm fiber item recorded by these authors is a subsistence, or ceremonial purposes (see, for mat that was found in Minas Gerais, Brazil, dat- example, Lévi-Strauss 1952; Macía 2004; Pa- ing from 3420 ±120 yr before present (Morcote niagua-Zambrana et al. 2007; Macía et al. 2011). and Bernal 2001). Neotropical palms have been known worldwide Recently, the extraction of palm fiber has in- as a source of fiber since at least the mid 19th creased in many areas of South America to pro- century, especially the piassabas Attalea duce handicrafts and brooms for local and re- funifera and Leopoldina piassaba), which are gional markets (Borgtoft Pedersen 1996; Vormis- used to make brooms both for domestic use and to 2002; Coomes 2004). This new trend can be for international markets (Wallace 1853; Spruce explained in part by the promotion of non-tim- ber forest products (NTFPs) by governments and non-governmental organizations over the Address for correspondence: Dr. Carolina Isaza past few decades (Peters et al. 1989). The market Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, value for some of these products, especially Universidad Nacional de Colombia handicrafts, has increased, and various indige- Sede Bogotá, Apartado 7495, Bogotá, nous and rural communities have exploited the Colombia (Actual) E-mail: [email protected] opportunity to increase their incomes, which has 70 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD led to growing pressure on the species that pro- tance of palm tissues. Palm thatching was not vide the raw materials. Whereas some research- included in the review as most authors consider ers consider that the extraction and use of palm that this use is subsumed under the general cat- fiber for commercial purposes could improve the egory of construction materials. The use of palm living conditions of local communities while con- for thatch is so widely reported that it deserves serving the species involved (Nepstad and a study on its own. Schwartzman 1992; Macía 2006), most studies The literature review was carried out based actually show that populations of useful palms on collections in the following libraries (and with- are decreasing due to over-harvesting, inade- in their respective online resources) located in quate management techniques, and ecosystem the United Kingdom (UK) and Colombia (COL): conversion (Borgtoft Pedersen and Balslev 1990; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (UK), The British Cárdenas and López 2000; Fadiman 2003). In Library (UK), Templeman Library at the Univer- some cases, the use of practices that increase sity of Kent at Canterbury (UK), Natural History fiber extraction is causing a decrease in the num- Museum-Botany Library (UK), Biblioteca del ber of palms and is threatening both palm popu- Instituto de Ciencias Naturales – Universidad lations and trade (Cárdenas and López 2000; Nacional de Colombia (COL), Biblioteca General Vormisto 2002). Therefore, in order to design “Ramón de Zubiría” - Universidad de Los Andes management and conservation strategies and (COL), Biblioteca del Banco de la República - thus ensure the sustainable use of palms, it is Luis Angel Arango (COL), Centro de Documen- necessary to identify the useful species and the tación del Intituto Amazónico de Investigaciones ecological impacts of palm fiber extraction (Pe- Científicas – SINCHI (COL). Bibliographical in- ters 1996; Dalle and Potvin 2004). formation was also collected using the online Most studies of palm fiber use in South scientific databases in the areas of life sciences America are restricted to lists of species in a and natural sciences, such as BioOne, CAB particular area, case studies on the use of palms Abstracts, EBSCOhost, Elsevier, IngentaCon- by an ethnic group, or in-depth studies of a sin- nect, JSTOR, SciElo, SciendeDirect, Springer gle species in a given location (for example, Lévi- Link, Wiley Online Library, among others. Strauss 1952; Schultes 1977; Anderson 1978; The documents for the general analysis were Pinheiro and Balick 1987; Balick 1988; Borgtoft selected if they met two key conditions: 1) they Pedersen 1994; Hiraoka 1999). In this paper, the named (scientific name or a sufficient botanical researchers review the published literature on description) a palm species used for fibre and 2) palm fibers from South America, and analyze the they recorded use within South America. The trends in palm fiber use, extraction, management, review comprised 185 literary references, cen- and conservation in order to assess the sustain- tered in the areas of botany and ethnobotany, ability of palm fiber use in South America, and to composed of: journal articles (98), books (57), point out needs for further research. taxonomic guides (8), country and continental floras (1), ethnographies and ethnographic METHODOLOGY monographs (4), dissertations and grey litera- ture (reports, unpublished documents, booklets This study is based on a literature review, on and others) (6). The information was entered into a study of the ethno-botanical collection of the one Excel table and two word documents. To Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and on unpub- process the data collected, tables were compiled lished field data gathered by one of us (RB). The and frequencies were calculated, depending on researchers define fibers as those items whose the objective or section analysed. mechanical features are due to a wide array of The fields included in the Excel table are: 1) anatomical structures, ranging from hard aggre- species, 2) common names, 3) ethnic group of gates of vascular bundles to long and fine the users, 4) language spoken by the users, 4) strands, capable of being threaded, twisted, or country of the record, 5) region of the record, 6) pleated (Dodge 1897; Esau 1972; Tomlinson locality of the record, 7) geographic coordinates 1990). Thus, this study includes cordage and (latitude and longitude), 8) altitude, 9) palm abun- other kinds of palm-derived strings, and also dance in the locality of the record/study, 10) use various items such as brooms, hats, and clothes status: wild, semi-cultivated and cultivated, 11) whose nature is ultimately based on the resis- reproductive stage of the harvested palms, 12) PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 71 conservation status (IUCN classification), 13) number of species that are only mentioned as a sustainability of harvest according to the con- fiber source in ethnobotanical lists, but in depth clusions and perceptions of the researcher, 14) research about their use has not been done yet, part of the palm employed: leaves, stem, inflo- in spite of field observations suggesting that rescences, roots, bark, etc., 15) type of fibre ex- their use is extensive and important. tracted: description of the fibre characteristics and quality, 16) extractive and productive pro- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION cess: description of fibre extraction techniques and the process used to manufacture fibre items, Species Used 17) type of objects manufactured, 18) quantity of fibre collected/fibre products produced in the One hundred and eleven palm species in 37 locality or in the country, 19) type of use: do- genera were recorded as sources of fiber in mestic, local markets, national markets and in- South America (Appendix 1). This accounts for ternational markets, 20) prices of the fibre or fi- 24 % of the 457 palm species known in the sub- bre objects (if commercialized), 21) whether the continent (Pintaud et al. 2008). The genera At- use is current or has been abandoned, 22) sub- talea, Astrocaryum, and Syagrus had the high- stitution by other plant fibres or synthetic mate- est number of useful species, with 15, 14, and 10 rials, 23) literature references or records, and 24) species, respectively (Appendix 1). Fibers of notes relating to synonyms, and important in- Mauritia flexuosa and Astrocaryum chambira formation to complement the information gath- were those used for the greatest variety of pur- ered. poses, with 14 and 13 different object types, re- Objects made with palm fiber that were re- spectively. ported in the literature were assigned to one of the following 16 categories: bags, baskets, Kinds of Fiber brooms, clothes, cordage, fans, filling, furniture, hammocks, hats, mats, necklaces, nets, screens, The fibers obtained from palms in South strainers, and traps. Information about the struc- America come from the entire leaves, stems, tural features of palm fibers was obtained from spear leaves, petioles, leaf blades, leaf sheaths the direct observation of raw fibers and fiber and spathes (Appendix 1). All of them are struc- items in the Economic Botany Collection of the tural fibers. No record of uses of coconut coir Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The researchers fiber was recorded from South America, even followed Dodge’s (1897) economic classifica- from those areas where this species is widely tion, which is still the most comprehensive, but cultivated. incorporated modifications made by Hill (1965). South American palm fibers fall into five of Names of the species were updated in accor- Dodge’s (1897) and Hill’s (1965) major groups, dance with current use, mostly following Pin- (Fig. 1): taud et al. (2008), Govaerts and Dransfield (2005) Spinning Fibers: Fibers mainly from leaves and Henderson et al. (1995). (leaf sheaths, petioles, and blades), stems, and The review covered roughly 85% of the liter- roots. This category comprises fibers derived ature available for palm fibre use cited in on-line from palm leaves in different stages of develop- catalogs, covering literature since the 1800´s to ment and which are not a part of the leaf’s vas- 2009. However, three sources of bias could have cular system (Dodge 1897; Tomlinson 1990). The affected the results here presented: First, due to fibers are used for spinning and weaving into the requirement of a scientific name or botanical fine and coarse textures that can be used in description, a considerable amount of ethno- clothes, home decorations, or for different in- graphic and economic reports was left out of the dustries (sails, tents, etc.), lace fibers, coarse analysis; however, those sources were reviewed, netting fibers (such as those used for bags and and helped to find gaps in knowlegde. Second, hammocks), and cordage fibers (used to make because it was not possible to physically ac- strings, fishing lines, ropes and cables) (Dodge cess each relevant library in South America, 1897).Tie Material: Very coarse material such as many documents, such as thesis or grey litera- striped leaves, stems, or other coarse material ture that did not appear in online catalogs were without preparation. These are used as emer- not included in the review. And, last, there are a gency cordage or construction rope.Natural 72 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD

Fig. 1. Kinds of palm fibers: A. Spinning fiber from Astrocaryum vulgare, B. Plaiting mate- rial from Copernicia tectorum C. Tie material from Oenocarpus bataua, D. Brush fibres from Aphandra natalia, E. Natural textures from Manicaria saccifera. Textures: A fabric-like structure produced by of a single item. For example, cordage made with naturally interwoven fibers.Brush Fibers: Most various Astrocaryum species is woven into neck- South American fibers in this group come from laces and is also used for fish lines or to manu- the leaf sheaths, which are shredded structural facture nets. Each of these objects was assigned fibrous vascular bundles that persist on the plant. to one of the 16 object types in our gross classi- This group includes fibers for soft brushes fication of fiber use (Table 1). Object types pro- (grass-like), and for hard brushes (bass fibers). duced from multiple palm species include bas- Plaiting Fibers: This group is the most het- kets (67 species), hats (39 species), and cordage erogeneous, stemming from different sources (strings and ropes) (31 species) (Table 1). For such as stems, spear leaves, expanded leaves, some object types, the use of a few species that and petioles. The plaits, made from split leaves, yield a specific kind of fiber is prevalent, such as can be used to make hats, sandals, sleeping Attalea funifera and Leopoldinia piassaba for mats, and screens. For basketry in general, the brooms and brushes, or Desmoncus polyacan- fibers comes from split stems or other rigid or- thos and Ammandra descasperma for baskets. gans, such as petioles. Human Groups and Palm Fiber Useful Species and Objects The researchers found records of at least 69 At least 16 different kinds of objects are pro- ethnic groups belonging to 31 linguistic families duced that involve the use of palm fibers. This that use palms for fiber. This represents just a figure is not exact, as it is sometimes difficult to fraction of the several hundred ethnic groups establish from the written source whether two that inhabit South America. The distribution of objects represent different items or just variants palm fiber use roughly corresponds to the geo- PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 73

Table 1: Objects manufactured with palm fibers in South America, and the involved species

Object type Objects included Reports No. of Most used species species

Bags 8 1 2 6 Astrocaryum chambira, Mauritia flexuosa, Manicaria saccifera Baskets Temporary baskets, 221 6 7 Desmoncus polyacanthos, Oenocarpus mortuary baskets minor, Attalea phalerata, Attalea speciosa Brooms Brooms, brushes 115 3 4 Aphandra natalia, Attalea funifera, Leopoldinia piassaba Clothes Straps, textiles 6 0 2 6 Astrocaryum vulgare, Mauritia flexuosa, Astrocaryum chambira Cordage Strings, lines, ropes 161 3 1 Mauritia flexuosa, Astrocaryum chambira, Astrocaryum vulgare Fans Fans,fly brushes 6 0 2 7 Attalea speciosa, Parajubea sunkha, Astrocaryum aculeatum Filling 2 2 Attalea tessmanii, Chelyocarpus ulei Furniture 1 4 9 Desmoncus polyacanthos, Astrocaryum standleyanum Hammocks 113 1 6 Mauritia flexuosa, Astrocaryum chambira, Astrocaryum vulgare Hats 9 9 3 9 Copernicia prunifera, Mauritia flexuosa, Manicaria saccifera Mats 100 3 6 Mauritia flexuosa, Attalea maripa, Copernicia prunifera Necklaces 1 6 4 Astrocaryum chambira, Mauritia flexuosa Nets 6 2 1 5 Astrocaryum chambira, Mauritia flexuosa, Astrocaryum aculeatum Screens 7 6 Attalea maripa Strainers Manioc strainers, 1 7 1 4 sieves Traps 1 3 8 Desmoncus cirrhifer, Raphia taedigera, Attalea speciosa

Fig. 2. Types of objects made with fibers of Astrocaryum chambira (A. Bag, B. Basket) and Mauritia flexuosa (C. Bag, D. Basket). 74 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD graphical and altitudinal distribution of palms ture of most fiber use cases is that functional across South America. Most of the fiber palm parts such as expanded leaves, spear leaves, species found in the literature were distributed petioles, stems (in climbing palms) and leaf in the Amazon, which reflects both the high palm spathes are selectively harvested. However, diversity and the high cultural diversity of the when extractors are in urgent need of fiber, palms area. Most ethnic groups that were recorded as may be massively cut down to supply market using palms as a source of fiber live also in the demand; as a consequence, the palms are killed Amazon, with a predominance of Tukanoan, Gua- and sometimes the surrounding habitat is also rani-Tupi, Chibchan and Panoan speakers. The heavily disturbed. This has been reported as ethnic groups with the largest recorded num- early as the 19th century for the extraction of bers of palm fiber uses are the Huaorani, the fibers from Attalea funifera (Voeks 1988), and Cashinahua, and the Shuar, all from Ecuador. more recently for Aphandra natalia (Kronborg However, this result may be biased due to the et al. 2008; Balslev et al. 2010), Astrocaryum greater number of detailed ethnobotanical stud- chambira (Vormisto 2002; Guel and Penn 2009), ies done on these groups compared with other A. standleyanum (Borgtoft Pedersen 1994), Le- ethnic groups in South America (Bennett et al. opoldinia piassaba (Crizón 2001), and Para- 2002; Byg 2002; Byg and Balslev 2004). The spe- jubaea torallyi (Vargas 1994). The predominant cies with most records of use within indigenous tool used to harvest and collect palm parts is the communities were Mauritia flexuosa and Astro- machete. It is employed in versatile ways to cut caryum chambira (Fig. 2). On the other hand, parts, process fiber, and make objects (Jensen the use of Astrocaryum standleyanum and Aph- and Balslev 1995; Borgtoft Pedersen and Skov andra natalia was remarkable for Afro-descen- 2001). Ladders as well as ropes are used to reach dants inhabiting the Pacific lowlands of Colom- and harvest tall palms (Fejos 1943; Borgtoft Ped- bia and Ecuador. Interaction between the nu- ersen and Balslev 1990; von Andel 2000). A sim- merous indigenous groups, and between them pler technique is to harvest the shedding peti- and mestizos or caboclos, has possibly in- oles of Copernicia prunifera and Aphandra creased the transfer of knowledge and the rep- natalia, which involves manual dislodging ertoire of palms species used among these (Dodge 1897; Demers 1909; Kirby 1950; Borgtoft groups. Pedersen and Skov 2001). In most cases, wild palm populations are used Fiber Palm Harvest, Management and for fiber (97% of the species), whereas in a few cases a combination of wild and semi-cultivated Conservation populations were harvested (18% of the spe- cies); only in one case each were fibers exclu- Harvest and Management sively obtained from a semi-cultivated popula- tion, or from a cultivated population. For most Detailed information about palm fiber har- species, there was no information about the vest and management, as well as about the sus- stage or age of plants harvested. Where infor- tainability of such practices and the local con- mation was available (ten species) it indicated servation status of the involved species is that palms are harvested mostly in juvenile and scarce. Nearly all of the references provide only mature stages (seven species); only Mauritiel- lists of palm species used by an ethnic group or la aculeata was reported as used only in juve- within a region, and offer just a brief description nile stages, and one species, Astrocaryum vul- of the use, parts used, and current abundance gare, was harvested only in the mature stage. status. About 14% of the studies reviewed (27 out of 185) provided more detailed accounts, Social and Economic Aspects giving information on two or more aspects relat- ed to harvest, management, and sustainability. Fiber extraction, processing, and transform- Each study generally covers different topics, ing is labor-intensive, employing mostly peas- leading, in most cases, to incomparable results. ants and indigenous communities (Hübschmann Consequently, the information that is useful for et al. 2007; Crizón 2001; Fadiman 2003) (Fig. 3). determining the trends in fiber production and Usually, fiber collectors and manufacturers live species conservation is limited.A common fea- in rural areas where roads are poor or nonexist- PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 75

Fig. 3. Stripping leaflets of Astrocaryum chambira in the Colombian Amazon ent and, as a consequence, traveling to the near- Currently, the major outlets for fiber and fi- est market place requires much time and is ex- ber objects are local markets and tourist markets pensive. Furthermore, there is market competi- in cities such as Quito, Lima, Bogotá, Leticia, tion between products made by different social Iquitos, Manaus, and Belém, and in tourist shops groups, as is reported for products made of cham- along some highways. However, many fiber craft- bira (Astrocaryum chambira) in Peru (Vormisto ers cannot access these markets and they fre- 2002) and mócora (Astrocaryum standleyanum) quently sell to tourists visiting their villages in Ecuador (Borgtoft Pedersen 1994). Where (Jensen and Balslev 1995; Coomes 2004). The such competition is evident, there is great varia- market chains for fiber products are variable: it tion in prices so that, at the end, manufacturers is usual to find two market chains for a species, and harvesters who can access markets tend to which represents a strategy to increase sales earn little from the commercialization of fiber and and access more markets (Fig. 4). The most com- fiber objects. mon are those in which the extractor is also the Despite this, fiber collecting and processing artisan, who sells the product to a middleman, may constitute a very important part of the cash who finally sells it to a shopkeeper or to the final income of artisan and extractor communities and buyer; in this case, the middleman earns most of households (Lescure et al. 1992; Jensen and the profit. Another common chain is one in which Balslev 1995; Crepaldi et al. 2007; Balslev et al. the extractor/artisan sells directly to the final 2010). Fiber harvesters can earn from $0.15 to buyer or shop, which is more profitable for the $19.16 USD per day with an average of more artisan (Crizón 2001; Vormisto 2002; Balslev et than $1.25 USD per day, which is considered to al. 2010). place them above the poverty line for underde- Fiber production from South American palms veloped nations (Ravallion et al. 2008). Such in- has been repeatedly affected as fibers from oth- come may be complemented with other activi- er sources have provided substitutes. As early ties such as cattle husbandry, agriculture, and as the 19th century, African and Asian piassabas the extraction of other NTFPs (Mayer 2006). Due (mainly Raffia ruffia and Borassus flabellifer) to the importance of fibers, fiber extraction and began to compete with the American species artisanal production of fiber objects have been (Attalea funifera and Leopoldinia piassava) that promoted as a source of income that can also previously dominated the market (Dodge 1897; serve to conserve resources in rural areas of Kirby 1950). In the 20th century, synthetic fibers South America (Artesanías de Colombia 1997; and fibers from other plants that are cultivated CENPOL 2000; Vantomme 2004; Saraiva 2009). at a large scale, such as cotton or sisal, also 76 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD

Aphandra natalia Extractor Threader Artisan Intermediary Seller Syagrus coronata

Astrocaryum chambira Extractor Intermediary Seller/Tourist Leopoldinia piassava Mauritia flexuosa

Attalea funifera Extractor Artisan Seller/Tourist Desmoncus polyacanthos

Extractor Intermediary Artisan Seller Leopoldinia piassava

Astrocaryum chambira Extractor Seller/Tourist Attalea funifera Desmoncus polyacanthos

Astrocaryum Extractor Threader Artisan Seller/Tourist standleyanum

Fig. 4. Market chains for palm fiber and palm fiber objects in South America. Unless otherwise stated, the extractor is also the artisan or manufacturer displaced South American palm fiber (Byg and usually not reported in the studies reviewed, so Balslev 2006; Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2007). this information was obtained from Dransfield Bags, hammocks, brooms, and fishing nets made et al. (1988), Borchsenius and Skov (1999) for from Astrocaryum chambira, Attalea maripa and Ecuador, and Galeano and Bernal (2005) for Co- Leopoldinia piassaba, have been substituted lombia. Thirty-six of the 111 species reported with cheaper plastic (bags), cotton (hammocks), are not threatened, and eight have ‘lower con- monofilaments (brooms), and nylon (nets) cern’ status; several of the most used species (Wheeler 1970; Bernal 1992; Guánchez and belong to the latter group, such as Aphandra Romero 1998). In some areas of the Venezuelan natalia, Mauritia flexuosa, Leopoldinia pias- and Colombian Amazon, even the traditional se- saba, Attalea funifera, Copernicia prunifera, bucán used to squeeze cassava, usually woven Desmoncus polyacanthos, and Syagrus coro- from Desmoncus polyacanthos, is now made with nata. There are 17 species in the group of ‘vul- packaging strip (Bernal, pers. obs.). However, nerable and endangered species,’ including spe- the use of palm fiber is still prevalent for bags cies of Ceroxylon and the Bolivian endemic and hammocks because of its aesthetic appeal Parajubaea sunkha. For some important palm and durability (Vormisto 2002; Gallego 2005). species, such as Astrocaryum chambira, A. Most fiber harvesters in South America de- standleyanum, and Leopoldinia piassaba, con- pend, to different degrees, on palm fiber extrac- servation status is known only in Colombia. Five tion and handicraft production to earn cash. For species are endemic to one country and have many indigenous communities this income is not scattered populations, which may aggravate the high nor is it represented in national economic effect of harvesting pressure and ecosystem statistics (Coomes 2004; Gallego 2005; Mayer threats, as is the case with Parajubaea torallyi 2006). Women and children play an important that is classified as endangered (Vargas 1994). role in the activity and with it they contribute The conservation status of a species, how- essential cash income to their households; fiber ever, may not reflect the state of the populations harvest and processing particularly provide in the areas where they are most used. Categori- women with better economic perspectives (Hirao- zations are usually made at national or conti- ka 1999; Crepaldi et al. 2007; Guel and Penn 2009). nental scales and, in the assessment process, local depletion or extinction of populations as a Conservation and Sustainable Use consequence of over-exploitation may be buff- ered by the overall distribution of the species Information about the conservation status throughout other unexploited areas. This is the of South American fiber-producing palms was PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 77 case with some important species such as As- vesters used harmful practices (Voeks 1988; trocaryum standleyanum, A. chambira, Mauri- Borgtoft Pedersen 1992; Vargas 1994; Fadiman tia flexuosa and other twelve reported species, 2003; Coomes 2004). For five of the species, the which are now decimated near some of their few reports available and field observations major centers of use (Linares et al. 2008; Guel show that its use has a tendency to be mostly and Penn 2009; Saraiva 2009), but that are still unsustainable as a result of over-harvesting and widespread in areas of undisturbed forest.The felling of palms (Dawson and Gancedo 1977; sustainability or non-sustainability of palm fi- Balick 1985a; Moraes 1996; Moraes 1998; Balslev ber extraction depends on the interaction be- et al. 2010; Bernal et al. 2011). In most cases, the tween various factors, including ecosystem sta- introduction of a few simple practices would make tus, habitat specificity, growth rates, plant parts use completely sustainable. Unfortunately, for used, harvesting techniques and rates, and mar- 86% of the species, the sustainability of har- ket demand. Other factors have a lower impact vesting and management practices is unknown on sustainability and may act in combination (Bernal et al. 2011). with the major factors, or are triggered by them. Relationships with other NTFPs: As is the In-depth information on sustainability is scarce: case with many other NTFPs, large-scale mar- the researchers found 27 well-documented cas- kets for South American palm fibres are scarce, es discussing extraction, harvest, management, as transportation costs are too high and, with a and conservation, but there is still a substantial few exceptions, such as piassava (Attalea number of species for which information is poor funifera), the demand is low (Marshall et al. 2003; or lacking, including some species that are heavi- Belcher et al. 2005). Reduced market access, com- ly used, such as Copernicia prunifera and As- bined with deforestation, product substitution, trocaryum aculeatum (Taube 1952; von Andel and insecure land tenure, restrict markets for 2000; Campos and Ehringhaus 2003). The most NTFPs worldwide (Geist and Lambin 2002; Mar- crucial factor for palm conservation in general is shall et al. 2003; Velásquez-Runk et al. 2004; Van- habitat loss (Paniagua et al. 2007; Borchsenius tomme 2004). Nevertheless, as it is the case with and Skov 1999). Species that are not perceived other NTFPs, palm fibers are fundamental to lo- as ‘important’ for a social group in a severely cal economies, in particular for indigenous peo- transformed ecosystem can be decimated, and ple, farmers, and women. These are considered knowledge about their use and management to be vulnerable population groups whose con- might be forgotten. In contrast, species consid- tributions to national economies in most cases ered to be ‘important,’ like Aphandra natalia in are undervalued (Belcher et al. 2005; Mayer 2006; Ecuador, are likely to be maintained in agrofor- Paniagua-Zambrana et al. 2007). Indigenous estry systems or in fallows (Borgtoft Pedersen groups and farmers who live in remote forested 1992). Harvesting techniques, on the other hand, areas are increasingly being incorporated into range from the entirely harmless cutting of leaf markets, as is the case today with most palm sheath fibers in low palms to the common mal- fiber harvesters. It seems that such groups are practice of felling palms to facilitate rapid leaf intensifying management of wild populations extraction. Ultimately, the kind of economic de- and initiating cultivation schemes to increase velopment in the trade in fiber products is the income, especially around species perceived as strongest driver of sustainability. For example, ‘important’, as Astrocaryum chambira or Aph- where the activity is not mainly market-oriented, andra natalia. Other factors leading to intensi- palms are of lower importance to local incomes fied management and higher income are more and palm populations are less affected. On the secure land and tree tenure, so that the labor other hand, in places where markets are expand- invested in sustainable management and use will ing, palm populations are in decline, causing lo- be returned to the owner in the form of higher cal extinctions (Belcher et al. 2005).For three of production rates (Marshall et al. 2003; Ruiz-Pérez the 111 species recorded (Attalea funifera, Des- et al. 2005).But as market demand for NTFPs moncus polyacanthos, Leopoldinia piassaba), grows, harvesting pressure also grows; three use, harvest, and management were considered patterns can be identified: 1) extraction is inten- sustainable (Putz 1979; May et al. 1985; Crizón sified through over-harvesting, resulting in de- 2001). For six species, use was considered to be pletion of the resource, 2) intensified manage- sustainable but this was qualified, as some har- ment is undertaken and harvesting limits are im- 78 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD posed to ensure species viability and availabili- the species’ demography, are needed, in order ty, and 3) cultivation and enrichment programs to develop strategies for the sustainable use of are initiated to guarantee supplies (Velásquez- fibre palms, particularly when palm fibre extrac- Runk et al. 2004; Ticktin 2004; Peters et al. 2007). tion has been promoted by governments and These three proceses are evident in palm fiber non-governmental organizations as a ‘sustain- extraction activity in South America. What is able’ means to improve welfare, as it is the case clear is that both management and cultivation with other NTFPs. There is still a very substan- increase production, help to protect the species, tial number of fibre palm species for which use, and increase household welfare. Unrestrained management and extraction rates are unknown, use, on the contrary, may be a direct path to including some species that are heavily used, local species extinction. such as Astrocaryum aculeatum, Astrocaryum standleyanum, Attalea butyracea, Bactris set- CONCLUSION osa, Copernicia prunifera, Desmoncus polya- canthos, Manicaria saccifera, and Syagrus Of the palm species present in the region romanzzofiana, among others. Furthermore, 24% are used in any extent for fiber, revealing there are few palm fiber studies in certain geo- the acknowledgement of the palm group as a graphical areas such as the Caribbean region, key source of fiber materials. The palm species the Inter-Andean Valleys, the Llanos savanna with the higher number or reports and most types and the Great Chaco, which may harbor less palm of objects made from are Astrocaryum chambi- species than other regions, but have some fiber- ra and Mauritia flexuosa, both distributed main- producing species used by local people and with ly in the Amazon, where the highest number of a great potential but were not included in the palm species is used for fiber. The manufacture study since formal studies of such species have of utilitarian objects, such as baskets or cord- not published yet. age, is the primary use of fiber in the subconti- nent, however due to substitution of industrial- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ly produced alike objects, palm fibre items in South America are increasingly made as handi- We are grateful to the people of the Royal crafts to satisfy a rising and thriving market. Fi- Botanic Gardens, Kew, especially to Mark Nes- bre harvest and process is made mostly by in- bitt, William Baker and Melinda Trudgen, and digenous gropus and peasants, for whom the we also thank the AlBan Programme of the Euro- selling of palm fiber object is an important source pean Union for funding this project and Manuel of income that requires minimum management Macía for support in the research design. Final- of the species obtained, since the majority comes ly, thanks to Daniel Dávila for his reviews and from wild populations, freely harvested in terms support. of frecuency and quantity. The harvest meth- ods currently employed when fiber extraction is REFERENCES continous and intense, are destructive, affect- ing the conservation of population stands and Acosta-Solis M 1952. Fibras y lanas vegetales en el therefore the sustainabitly of the activity. This Ecuador. Boletín de Informaciones Científicas Na- cionales no. 21. 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1995 . 1995, Ferreira 2008 . Ehringhaus 2003, Vargas an 1995 . Pacific lowlands, 2. Andes, 3. and s employed, fiber types, objects . B. Fiber classification after Dodge illing, 8. Furniture, 9. Hammocks, 10. Filling material and 7. Paper material. C. ckolt and Peckolt 1889, Pinheiro and Balick References Dodge 1897, Peckolt 1903,and PeckoltMarkley 1889,1956,and BertoniBalickCárdenas 1987,1969, LorenziPe Pinheiro 2006 Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Bernal and Galeano 1993,1995, Henderson Macía 2004, Linares et al. 2008 Borgtoft Pedersen and Balslev 1990,Borgtoft Barfod Pedersen1991, 1991, and 1992,Balslev 1992,Borgtoft Henderson Pedersenet Pedersenal. 1995,1996, BorgtoftBorchsenius and et Baluarte al.1998, 1998,Borgtoft and Skov Vásquez 2001, 2004,Macía Boll et al. 2005, Meyer 2006 Wallace 1853, Dodge 1889,1897, HendersonPeckolt et and al Peckolt Mors and Rizzini 1966, JohnsonKitzkeand 1982, Johnson Pinheiro1975, Hendersonand etBalick al 1987, Peckolt and Peckolt 1889,1977,Johnson Dodge 1897,1982, BoomSchultesPesce 1987,1985, Balslev Boom and2002, 1986,Moraes Campos 1989, Vormisto2003, Amaral 2010, Balick González 1988, 2011Henderson et al Objects manufactured 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10,11, 13 2 2 1, 2, 6 3 2, 4 3, 5, 10, 13 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13 1 3 Fiber type 1 5 5 5 4 5 1 1, 5 1, 5 APPENDIX Fiber origin Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, petioles Leaves, leave sheath, petioles Leaves, petioles, caatinga, Leaves Leaves Leaves, spear leaves Leaves Geographic region Amazonas, Cerrado, Mata Atlantica ND Mata Atlantica Amazonas, pacific Amazonas Amazonas spathe, spear leaves Amazonas, Mata Atlantica Amazonas, Cerrado Cerrado Countries Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay Brazil Brazil Colombia, Ecuador Brazil,Ecuador, Peru Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela Brazil Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Guyana Brazil Appendix 1. manufacturedPalm species andAmazonas, used references 4.Llanosfor (1897)fibres savanna, of 1.in5. theSpinningCerrado,South Types reports. of material,America, 6. objects Caatinga, A.2.Hats, withmanufactured: Tie Geographic 7.11. thematerial,Mats,Mata Atlantica,geographical 1.12. 3. regionBags, Necklaces, Natural8. 2. Great according13.recordBaskets,textures, Chaco,Nets, 3.of4.14. 9. with BroomsBrushCaribbeanuse,Screens, Species ecosystem, fibers,part15.4. Strainers,Clothes, 5. units: Plaiting, 16.5.Cordage, Traps. 1.6. 6. Fans, 7. AcrocomiaF aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd. ex Mart. Allagoptera arenaria (Gomes) Kuntze Allagoptera campestris (Mart.) Kuntze Ammandra decasperma O.F.Cook Aphandra natalia (Balslev and A.J.Hend.) Barfod Astrocaryum acaule Mart. Astrocaryum aculeatissimum (Schott) Burret Astrocaryum aculeatum G.Mey. Jordan Astrocaryum campestre Mart. 86 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD d Balslev 1995, Patiño 1997

Guel and Penn 2008

2009 1995 2007, .

. et al.

iño iño 1975, Forero-Pinto 1980, Barfod an References Cortés 1897, Hardenburg 1947,1913, FejosHodge 1943, 1967,Dugand Jordan1961, 1970, PatiñoWheeler Patiño1970, 1975,Schultes 1974,Glenboski 1985, 1983,La RottaPadoch 1988,et Boeral. Mejía1988, 1988, Borman Wessels Pedersen1992 and Borgtoft Balslev 1992,Jensen and CerónBalslev 1995,1995, 1996,Gómez et Jensenal. 1997, 1998,Borchsenius Cerónet al. and LópezMontalvo-Ayala et al. 1998,1998, Vásquez1998, and BorgtoftBaluarte and Skov2001, 2001,Sánchez García2001, Coomes Bennett2004, et Macíaal. 2002,2004,Castaño Gallego 2005, Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Peckolt and Peckolt 19871889, Pinheiro and PeckoltBalick and Peckolt 1889,Pinheiro andSchultes Balick 1977, Pedersen1987, and MejíaBalslev 1988,1990, HendersonBorgtoftGragson et 1992,al Cortés 1897, Pérez ArbelaezPatiño 1956,1975, Dugand1961,Henderson et al. Peckolt and Peckolt Strauss1889, 1952, DodgeSchultes 1897,1977,1979, Lévi- Bodley Mejiaand 1988,Benson SonowskaCampos etand al Ehringhaus 2003 Peckolt and Peckolt 19871889, Pinheiro and Pat Balick 1988, Borgtoft Pedersen1995, 1994, Barfod Hendersonand KvistBorchseniuset al.1996,et al. Patiño1998, 1997,Velásquez-RunkBorgtoft and2001, Skov Fadiman2001, 2006 Objects manufactured 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9,10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16 ND 4 1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14 2, 3, 11 2, 6, 10, 11 10, 11 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 Fiber type 1 ND 1 5 5 3 5 5 Fiber origin Spear leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, petioles, spear leaves Leaves, spear leaves Leaves, spear leaves Leaf raquis Amazonas Leaves Spear leaves Geographic region Amazonas, Llanos savanna ND Amazonas Amazonas Andes Amazonas, Cerrado Ama zon Brazil Pacific Countries Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela Brazil Brazil Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela Colombia Brazil, Peru Peru Colombia, Ecuador Mart. (Miq.) Pulle Mart. Appendix 1: Contd... Species Astrocaryum chambira Astrocaryum gynacanthum Astrocaryum huaimi Mart. Astrocaryum jauari Mart. Astrocaryum malybo H.Karst. Astrocaryum murumuru Astrocaryum perangustatum F. Kahn and B.Millán Astrocaryum sciophilum Astrocaryum standleyanum L.H.Bailey PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 87 ck 1987 2007 . 1991

1995, Grimarães et al

Peckolt 1889, Pinheiro and Bali and

derson et al. References Wallace 1853, Peckolt and Peckolt1957, 1889, BalickCivrieux 1985a, Baleé Pinheiro1989, and OliveiraBalick et Peckolt1987,al. and Peckolt Bodley1889, and Benson Pérez1979, Arbelaez Campos 2003,and1956, EhringhausBernal et al. 2010 Acosta-Solis 1952, Borchsenius et al. 1998 Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Peckolt and PeckoltHooker 18891849, Archer 1855,1863, SquierDodge 1863,1897, Demers Moody Peckolt1909, andGoulding Peckolt1917,Bondar 1889, Rendle1942a, 1917, Dewey Strauss1943, 1952,Kirby Hodge1950, 1961, 1963,Lévi- Moses Mors 1962,and RizziniKirby and1966, Johnson León 1968,1975, KitzkePinheiroJohnson and1982, Balick Pesce 1987,Hen 1985, Voeks 1988, PranceMacía 2004 Peckolt and Peckolt Civrieux1889, 1957,Lévi-Strauss Moses 1962,Anderson1952, Braun1978, 1968b,Balick 1979,1979, HoyosBodley andand BraunBenson Guánchez 1984,and Romero Balick1998, y Vargas Jordan1985b, 2003, Macía 2004, Rondón 2005,Peckolt Oliveira and et Peckoltal. 20061889 Peckolt Objects manufactured 1, 2,5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10,1 1 5 2 1, 5 2 2, 3, 5, 10, 11 1 1 1, 2, 5, 6, 11, 14,1 6 ND, 2 Fiber type 1 5 1 5 1 5 4 5 1, 2, 5 ND 5 Fiber origin Leaves, spear leaves Spear leaves, leaves, spathe, inflore- scence Leaves, petioles Leaves Leaves Petiole Petiole Petiole Leaves, petioles, spear leaves Leaves Leaves, spear leaves Geographic region Amazonas, Cerrado, Mata Atlantica, Llanos savanna Amazonas, Andes, Caribean, Llanos savanna Pacific Mata Atlantica Caatinga, Cerrado, Mata Atlantica Cerrado Mata Atlantica Amazonas Amazonas, Llanos savanna Amazonas Mata Atlantica Cerrado, Mata Atlantica Countries Brazil, French Guiana, Surinam Brazil, Colombia, Peru Ecuador Brazil Brazil Brazil Brazil Ecuador Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela Brazil Brazil Mart. Drude eichleri

Species Astrocaryum vulgare Mart. Attalea butyracea (Mutis ex L.f.) Wess.Boer Attalea colenda (O.F.Cook) Balslev and A.J.Hend. Attalea dubia (Mart.) Burret Attalea (Drude) A.J.Hend. Attalea exigua Attalea funifera Attalea insignis (Mart.) Drude Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. Attalea microcarpa Mart. Attalea oleifera Barb.Rodr. Appendix 1: Contd... 88 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD v v and os and alick 1987, Boom 1987, nd Ehringhaus Kirby 1963, Pinheiro and B 1989, Prance 1998, Campos a heiro heiro and Balick 1987, Balick 1988, Balsle eckolt eckolt and Peckolt 1889, Boom 1986, References P Boom 1988, Balslev and Moraes 1989, Camp Ehringhaus 2003, Vargas y 2004,Jordan 2003,Borchsenius Moraesand PeckoltMoraes 2006and Peckolt 1889 Irmay 1949, Lévi-Strauss Pin 1952, May et al. Moraes 1985, 2003, Vargas and Jordan 2003,Peckolt Moraesand 2004 Peckolt 1889 Bodley and Benson 1979, Campos 2003and Ehringhaus Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Pinheiro and Balick 1987 López et al. 1998, Byg and Balslev 2004, Sonowska et al. 2009 Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Peckolt and PeckoltMoraes 18892004 Peckolt and Peckolt Peckolt1889, and MacíaPeckolt 2004 1889, Macía 2004Peckolt and Peckolt Strauss 1952,1889, Dodge 1897,Fonseca-Kruel Lévi- and PeixotoPeckolt 2005 and Peckolt 1889 DaSilva 2008 Pittier 1978 Objects 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11 4 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15,11, 16 5, 13 2, 3, 6, 7, 10 5, 13 5 4, 5, 13 1, 4, 6, 11 1, 5 4 3 3, 4 1, 4, 5, 9, 10, 13 ND 3 1 0 Fiber type manufactured 4,5 1 1, 5 1 4, 5, 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1, 4 1 ND 4 5 Fiber origin spear leaves Leaves, stem Leaves, spear leaves Leaves Leaves, spear leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves ND Stem Leaves, stem Leaves Leaves Leaves Spear leaves Geographic region Amazonas, Cerrado, Leaves,Great Chaco Amazonas Cerrado, Great Chaco, Amazonas Amazonas Mata Atlantica Amazonas ND Amazonas, Llanos savanna Matto Grosso Amazonas Amazonas, Andes, Great Chaco Amazonas, Cerrado, Matto Grosso Mata Atlantica Amazonas Cerrado Andes Countries Brazil, Bolivia Brazil, Venezuela Brazil, Bolivia Brazil Brazil, Peru Brazil Brazil Brazil Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Brazil Brazil Bolivia Brazil, Ecuador Brazil Brazil Brazil Venezuela Mart. Mart. Jacq. Mart. pecies S Attalea phalerata Mart. ex Spreng. Attalea racemosa Spruce Attalea speciosa Mart. Attalea spectabilis Mart. Attalea tessmannii Burret Bactris acanthocarpa Mart. Bactris brongniartii Mart. Bactris cuspidata Mart. Bactris gasipaes Kunth Bactris glaucescens Drude Bactris hirta Bactris major Bactris riparia Bactris setosa Barcella odora (Trail) Drude Butia capitata (Mart.) Becc. Ceroxylon alpinum Bonpl. ex DC. Appendix 1: Contd...

PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 89

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Borchsenius and Moraes 2006

1956, Mors and RizziniJohnson 1966, 1985, JohnsonPinheiro 1982, Pittierand Balick1978, 1987Henderson et al. 1995

Markl et al. 1995 Moody 1863, Mueller 1895, Dodge 1897, Taube

Bodley and Benson 1979, Campos and2003 Ehringhaus Hoyos and Braun 1984

Peckolt Peckolt and Peckolt 1889, Balslev and Mo Hende

Borchsenius and Skov 1999 Borchsenius et al. 1998, Macía 2006

References

, , 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 13

5

2, 8, 15

2

2, 8 1, 2, 6, 8, 11, 15

2, 8, 13, 16

3

2, 10

1, 5, 8, 9, 10 1

2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12 1, 11

2, 10, 15

2 4, 10, 11

Objects manufactured

1

2, 5

2, 5

2, 5 2, 5

2, 5

4

5

1 1, 5

5, 6 5

5

5 5

Fiber type

Leaves

Stem

Stem

Stem Stem

Stem

spear leaves Leaves

petioles Leaves,

Leaves Leaves,

Leaves Spear leaves

Spear leaves Leaves, petioles

Spear leaves

Fiber origin

Caribbean

Amazonas, Andes

savanna, Mata Atlantica Amazonas

Amazonas, Llanos savanna Amazonas, Llanos

Pacific

savanna Andes

Atlantica Llanos

Great Chaco Caatinga, Mata

Amazonas Caribbean

Andes Amazonas, Cerrado

Andes

Geographic region

Venezuela

Peru Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Guyana, Peru, Suriname

Colombia, Ecuador, Guyanas, Venezuela Brazil, Colombia,

Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Brazil, Bolivia,

Colombia, Ecuador Amazonas,

Venezuela Colombia

Bolivia Colombia,

Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay Argentina, Brazil,

Brazil, Peru Venezuela

Ecuador Brazil, Bolivia

Ecuador

Countries

Mart.

Mart.

(Lodd. ex

Galeano

Burret

(Kunth) Cortés

Elaeis oleifera

Mart. Desmoncus polya- canthos

Splitg. ex Desmoncus mitis

Desmoncus giganteus A.J.Hend. Desmoncus horridus

Dahlgren Desmoncus cirrhifer A.H. Gentry and

(Kunth) Mart. Cryosophila kalbreyeri (Dammer ex Burret)

(Mill.) H.E.Moore Copernicia tectorum

Mart.) Becc. Copernicia alba Morong Copernicia prunifera

Chelyocarpus ulei Dammer Coccothrinax barba- densis

Ceroxylon ventrico- sum Chelyocarpus chuco (Mart.) H.E.Moore

Ceroxylon echinu- latum Species Appendix 1: Contd... 90 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD

1987

slev slev 2004

and Balick 1987

1992, Henderson 1995,

.

et al

2006

.

rgas and rgas Jordan 2003, Byg and Bal

and Peckolt 1889, Pinheiro

olt and Peckolt 1889, Pinheiro and Balick

References

Balslev and Moraes 1989, Cerón and Montalvo-Ayala 1998, Henderson

1995, von Andel 2000,2003, Va Campos and EhringhausOliveira et al

Anderson 1978 Anderson 1978, Henderson 1995, Borchsenius et

al. 1998

Macía 2004 Peck

Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Peckolt

Peckolt and Peckolt 1889

Henderson 1995, Borchsenius2002, etByg andal. Balslev 1998,2004, Sonowska Byg et al. 2009 Guánchez and Romero 1998

Grau 2006

Pinheiro and Balick 1987 Wallace 1853, Spruce 1855, Spruce 1860, Moody

1863, Peckolt andDodge Peckolt1897, Goulding1889, 1917, 1943,CortésRendle 1917, Kirby 1897, Dewey 1950, 1957,Lévi-Strauss Dugand 1961,1952, Kirby 1963,Civrieux Mors and Rizzini

1966, Braun 1968a,Kitzke León and1968, JohnsonSchultes 1978, 1975,1974, PutzPatiño 1979, 1975, Johnson Pittier 1982, Pesce 1985,

Pinheiro and Balick Oliveira1987, Wessels Boeret 1988,1992,al.1991, Lescure Anderson and Ioris 1992,

Objects

manufactured 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 11,1 5

2 2 2

3 2, 5, 14

2 1, 2

2

2, 3, 5, 11 2, 16

2, 3, 11

4 2, 3, 5, 10

Fiber

type 1,4,5

5 5

4 1, 5

5 1, 5

5

1, 4, 5 5

4, 5

1 2, 4

Fiber

origin Leaves, spear

leaves

Leaves Leaves Leaves

Stem Leaves,

petioles Petiole Petiole,

stem Stem

Leaves, spear leaves Stem

Leaves

Leaves Leaves, petioles

Geographic

region Amazonas

Ama zon Amazonas Amazonas

Amazonas Mata Atlantica

Amazonas, Cerrado Caatinga, Cerrado,

Mata Atlantica Amazonas

Amazonas Amazonas

Great Chaco

ND Amazonas, Llanos savanna

Countries

Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,

Guyana, Peru, Surinam, Venezuela

Brazil Brazil Bolivia, Brazil,

Ecuador, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela

Ecuador Brazil

Brazil Brazil

Brazil

Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela Venezuela

Chile

Brazil Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela

Mart.

Mart.

Species

Euterpe precatoria Mart.

Euterpe oleracea Geonoma baculifera (Poit.) Kunth Geonoma deversa

(Poit.) Kunth

Geonoma macro- stachys Geonoma pohlianaMart.

Geonoma leptospadixTrail Geonoma schottiana

Mart. Hyospathe elegans Mart.

Iriartea deltoidea Ruiz and Pav. Iriartella setigera

Appendix 1: Contd... (Mart.) H.Wendl. Jubaea chilensis (Molina) Baill.

Leopoldinia major Wallace Leopoldinia piassabaWallace

Bernal PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 91 sa ero 1998, slev slev 2004, , , Oliveira et al. 2006, Sousa and Sou and Ehringhaus and 2003,Ehringhaus Byg and Bal rson rson et al. 1995, Guanchez and Rom References Hende Prance 1998, CrizónPeckolt 2001 and Peckolt 1889 Henderson 1995 Wallace 1853, Moody 1863, 1961,Dodge 1897, Braun Dugand 1968b, WilbertPatiño 1980,1975, OliveiraDuke et1977, al. 1991, HendersonHenderson et al. 1995 Wallace 1853, Moody 1863, Squier 1863, Im Thurn Fejos 1943, Acosta-Solis 1952, Lévi-StraussPerez Arbelaez1952, 1956, DugandRamia 1961,1962, MosesMors 1962,and Rizzini Braun1966, Suárez1968b, 1966, Suárez Schultes1968, 1977,Calvacante Balick1977, 1979,1979, Johnson Bodley1982, and Hoyos Bensonand Braun1985, 1984,Pinheiro and BalickPesce 1987, Balick 1988, 1988,Mejía Oliveira et al. 1992,1991, GaleanoAnderson and1992, Ioris al.Gragson 1992, 1992, HendersonMilliken et Guánchez et al. and1995, Romero Chávez1998, Prance1996, López1998, et al.Hiraoka 1998,Macía 1999, 2004 von Andel 2007,2000, Sampaio et al. Saraiva2008, 2009,Santana Oeninget al.2010,Pinheiro 2008, Gonzálezand Balick2011 1987, Gragson 1992 Pinheiro and Balick 1987, Henderson 1995 Dodge 1897, Prance and BalickSilva 1975,1987 Pinheiro and Beckerman 1977, Anderson Hoyos 1978,and Braun Balick1984, Galeano1980, al. 1992,1992, Milliken Borchseniuset etMontalvo-Ayala al. 1998,1998, von AndelCerón 2000, andCampos Byg 2002, Macía 2004, Sánchez et al. Moraes2005, 2006,Borchsenius Sonowskaand et al. 2009 Objects manufactured 2 2 1, 4, 10, 11 1995 3 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10,8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 114, 5 1883, Peckolt and Peckolt 1889, Dodge 1897, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 2, 4 1, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 11,1 4 Fiber type 5 5 3 1, 2 1, 2 1, 5 1, 2 1, 5 Fiber origin Stem Stem Spathe Leaves Leaves, petioles, spear leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, petioles, spear leaves Geographic region Amazonas Amazonas Amazonas, Llanos savanna, Pacific Amazonas Amazonas, Cerrado, Llanos savanna, Pacific Llanos savanna Amazonas Amazonas, Llanos savanna Amazonas, Andes, Llanos savanna Countries Brazil Colombia Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Surinam, Venezuela Brazil, Venezuela Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela Brazil Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela L.f. Mart. Species Leopoldinia pulcra Lepidocaryum tenue Mart. Manicaria saccifera Gaertn. Mauritia carana Wallace Mauritia flexuosa Mauritiella aculeata (Kunth) Burret Mauritiella armata (Mart.) Burret Oenocarpus bacaba Mart. Oenocarpus bataua Mart. Appendix 1: Contd... 92 CAROLINA ISAZA , RODRIGO BERNAL AND PATRICIA HOWARD . , , Moraes 1995, Barfod and 1998, García et al. .

60, Campos and Ehringhaus 2003 et al. 2002

1991, Henderson 1995, Henderson et al.

References Pinheiro and Balick 1987, Balick 1988 Barfod and Balslev 1988, Mejía Moraes1988, 1989,Balslev and Henderson Kvistet 1996,al Borchsenius et al.2001, Byg 2002, CamposMacía and 2004Ehringhaus 2003,Moraes 1996, Moraes Borchsenius1998, andMoraes Moraes 2004,2006, Macía 2006 Balslev and Moraes 1989, Vargas 1994,et al.Henderson 1995, Moraes 1996, Macíaet 2006,al. 2009Thompson Peckolt and Peckolt 1889 Acosta-Solis 1952, BarfodPedersen and1991, Balslev Borgtofot1992, 2004van den Eynden et al Spruce 18 2004, Sonowska et al. Macía2009 2004 Acosta-Solis 1952 Byg 2002, Byg and Balslev 2004 Bennett Wallace 1853, Dodge 1897, et Patiño al. 1975, Oliveira 1995 Patiño 1975 Peckolt and Peckolt 19871889, Pinheiro and Balick Objects manufactured 1, 2, 6 2, 10, 11, 15 2, 5, 6, 11 2, 5, 6, 8, 11, 15 2 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 6, 11 2 54, 10, 11 2, 4 3, 5, 16 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 13,1 6 5 2 Fiber type 1, 2 2, 5 1, 5 1, 2, 5 5 4, 5 4, 5 5 1, 5 1, 4 2, 5 1 1, 5 Fiber origin Leaves, spear leaves Leaves, petioles, spear leaves Leaves, spear leaves Leaves, spear leaves, stem Leaves Petiole, spear leaves Leaves, petioles Leaves Spear leaves Petiole Leaves Petiole Leaves Leaves Geographic region Cerrado Amazonas, Pacific Andes Andes Amazonas Amazonas, Pacific Ama zon Amazonas Andes Amazonas Amazonas Amazonas, Pacific Llanos savanna ND Countries Brazil Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela Bolivia, Ecuador Bolivia Brazil Ecuador Brazil, Bolivia, Peru Ecuador Ecuador Ecuador Ecuador Brazil, Colombia Colombia, Guyanas, Venezuela Brazil (Mart.) (Barfod) Ruiz and Pav. (Willd.) H.E.Moore Species Oenocarpus distichus Mart. Oenocarpus minor Mart. Parajubaea sunkha M.Moraes Parajubaea torallyi (Mart.) Burret Pholidostachys synanthera H.E.Moore Phytelephas aequatorialis Spruce Phytelephas macro- carpa Phytelephas tenui- caulis A.J.Hend. Prestoea acuminata Prestoea ensiformis (Ruiz and Pav.) H.E.Moore Prestoea schultzeana (Burret) H.E.Moore Raphia taedigera (Mart.) Mart. Roystonea oleracea (Jacq.) O.F.Cook Syagrus botryophora (Mart.) Mart. Appendix 1: Contd... PALM FIBER IN SOUTH AMERICA 93 1995, Moraes 2004 . 1995 1995 1995 1995 . . . . References Peckolt and Peckolt 1942b,1889, PinheiroHowes and1940, Balick 2004, Bondar1987, Antunes Crepaldi2006, et PeckoltLimaal. et andal. 2008Peckolt 1889 Peckolt and Peckolt 1987,1889, HendersonPinheiro et andal. Henderson Balick1995 et al Pinheiro and Balick 1987 Peckolt and Peckolt 1889,1977, DawsonPinheiro andand GancedoBalickKeller 20091987, Baleé 1992,Henderson et al Henderson et al Pinheiro and Balick 1987 Peckolt and Peckolt 1889,and BalickDodge 1987,1897, Balslev HendersonPinheiroand Moraeset al1989, Dodge 1897, Henderson et al Bernal and Galeano 1993 Byg 2002, Byg and Balslev 2004 Objects manufactured 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11,10, 15 9, 11 2, 3, 9 3 1, 2 10 2, 4, 5, 6, 11 1 0 3, 15 2, 10 3, 4, 5, 6, 10 1, 2, 6, 10 3 3 Fiber type 1, 2, 5 1 5 4 1, 2, 5 5 4, 5 2, 5 1, 4, 5 5 4 4 Fiber origin Leaves, Spear leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Spear leaves Leaves, spear leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, petiole, spear leaves Leaves, spear leaves Spear leaves Leaves Geographic region Mata Atlantica ND Caatinga, Cerrado, Mata Atlantica Mata Atlantica ND Great Chaco Mata Atlantica Mata Atlantica Great Chaco Great Chaco, Mata Atlantica Andes, Great Chaco Pacific Amazonas Argentina, Brazil, Countries Brazil Brazil Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay Brazil Brazil Paraguay, Uruguay Brazil Brazil Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Colombia Ecuador H.Wendl. Burret Species Syagrus coronata (Mart.) Becc. Syagrus inajai (Spruce) Becc. Syagrus petraea (Mart.) Becc. Syagrus pleioclada Burret Syagrus pseudococos (Raddi) Glassman Syagrus romanzoffiana (Cham.) Glassman Syagrus vagans (Bondar) A.D.Hawkes Syagrus werder- mannii Syagrus yatay (Mart.) Glassman Trithrinax brasiliensis Mart. Trithrinax campestris (Burmeist.) Drude and Griseb. Welfia regia Wettinia maynensis Spruce Appendix 1: Contd...