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Boredom and Its Psychological BOREDOM AND ITS PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES : A MEANING -REGULATION APPROACH Wijnand A. P. van Tilburg Submitted for the award of PhD, 2011 University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland Supervisor: Eric R. Igou Submitted to the University of Limerick, November, 2011 i ABSTRACT ABSTRACT This thesis by publication documents the results of a three year PhD research project investigating boredom. Even though boredom is a common experience that has been suggested to hold major implications for life and society, surprisingly little research has been conducted on its experiential character and its consequences. The research presented in the current thesis sought to fill this void Following the observation that boredom involves a lack of perceived meaning in one’s activities or circumstances, it was hypothesized that boredom triggers self- regulation attempts aimed at re-establishing a sense of meaningfulness. Five articles are included that detail the results of a systematic study of boredom and the effects of this ‘meaning-regulation’ process on a variety of important factors. After introducing the broader theoretical framework in Chapter 1, the four studies of Chapter 2 confirmed that bored people experience a lack of perceived meaningfulness and are motivated to engage in meaningful courses of action. Chapter 3 includes five studies that help define meaningful behavior from an expectancy-value perspective. Consistent with the notion that social identification contributes to a sense of meaningfulness, the five studies reported in Chapter 4 indicate that boredom leads to polarization of in- and outgroup attitudes. The seven studies included in Chapter 5 reveal that boredom can counter-intuitively make people act more prosocially, if this behavior presents an opportunity to act meaningful. The ten studies of Chapter 6 indicate that boredom increases feelings of nostalgia, and nostalgia subsequently contributes to bored people’s meaning in life. The overall findings, their implications, their limitations, and future research directions are discussed in Chapter 7. Overall, the research presented in the current thesis indicates that boredom increases social identification, prosocial behavior, and nostalgia, and these consequences of boredom can be explained according to a meaning-regulation approach. ii DECLARATION DECLARATION This research was in part funded by a PhD scholarship grant from the Irish Research Council for the Social Sciences and Humanities (IRCHSS). The ethical standards of the University of Limerick and the American Psychological Association (APA) were followed in the conduct of this PhD research. This thesis is written in American English and formatted according to the American Psychological Association (APA) style (6 th edition) to conserve the original format of the included articles. A small portion of the data in this thesis was already collected during a prior Research Master’s education at Tilburg University in the Netherlands. These data are included as Study 1 of Chapter 3, Study 1a, 1b, 3, and 6 of Chapter 5. It was decided to include these data in order to conserve the original format of the included articles. I declare that this thesis in my own original work. Any assistance or information I have received in developing the materials herein is duly acknowledged. Limerick, November 4th , 2011, Wijnand A. P. van Tilburg iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The observation that my name is solely shining on the cover of this thesis should not be taken as evidence that I spent the last years in intellectual and social solitude; my PhD was an interactive process in which many others were involved – either directly or indirectly. Descartes may have had his insights while ‘meditating’ in bed, Archimedes may have shouted ‘Eureka!’ while stepping in his bathtub (both presumably while being alone), but I neither manage to stay awake when meditating, nor own a bathtub; which made the option of working with others at the University of Limerick a quite attractive alternative. Importantly, the continuing support I have received from friends and family was a very pleasant experience that greatly helped me to successfully complete and enjoy my PhD. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my parents, Ellen and Peter, who have always supported me no matter the circumstances. I realize how lucky I am with such great support and a big part of the success of my PhD goes to you. Juriaan and Lennert, I am proud of you as by brothers, and although many people have implied to me that it must be uncomfortable being the only psychologist among the physicists, I know it definitely is not. Eric, besides being an outstanding supervisor, you are also a good friend. I have enjoyed the many chats we had, whether it was about politics, research, or the origin of the German language (which is Dutch, of course). I am hopeful that we will continue collaborating in the future, and somehow I cannot imagine that there will ever be a time that we run out of new research ideas. Great thanks go the members from Roy’s Largest Root – the most geeky experimental-polka-industrial-absurdist-electro-no-wave-dark- funk-goth-avant-garde band on the face of the planet. Tamzin, Tim, Roman, and Annemieke, I never expected to make music inspired by Lady Gaga, Barbie, or the cheesy drum-computer sample iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS under Techno/House program number 2 of the Korg . More importantly, you are great friends and Limerick would not be the same without you. Frederieke, we have been cognition lab ‘VIPs’ in Tilburg, roomies in Cappavilla, colleagues at UL, and I finally turned my back to you in CS2-045 (but so did you!). Your presence has been fantastic – not just because of the Irish flashing experiences, dead-chicken infestations, or solid-green milk adventures, but also because you are a grandest grand master. I want to thank my friends in The Netherlands for their support, friendship, and hospitality on my trips back. Kasper and Willem-Jan, it was fun to crash at your places, spend new year’s eve in an atmosphere of the most liberating sarcasm, irony, and dark humor, followed by invasions of Sander’s home in search for free food and drinks. Holidays well spent indeed. I also wish to thank my fellow PhDs in the postgraduate office. Carmel, Elaine, Caitriona, Frederieke, Sarah, Geoff, and Steven, you are a great bunch both when it comes to being friends and being fellow academics. The ‘license to be obnoxious’ that I received during the last weeks prior to submitting my Thesis for the Viva clearly was an act of incredible selflessness on your behalf, and I hope I did not use (nor deserve!) my license too much. Last but not least, I want to thank Annemieke for all her support that helped me getting my PhD. Living in Limerick can be a bit rough – especially near dock road – but living with you really made Limerick city a great place to be. I want to thank you for all your help, your feedback, and your virtually limitless patience while listening to my sometimes endless research stories. You made my PhD and the time besides my PhD really pleasant. I am both very happy and lucky that you are my girlfriend. v LIST OF TABLES LIST OF TABLES Chapter 1 Table 1 Articles by Chapter and Their Primary Research Questions 41 Chapter 2 Table 1 Experiential Content Items of Boredom 80 Table 2 Results for the Experiential Content Items of Boredom 81 Table 3 Results for the Aggregated Experiential Content of Boredom 82 Table 4 The Effects of Copying References on Experiences 823 Chapter 3 Table 1 Overview of the Design Employed in the Main Experiment of Study 4 124 Chapter 7 Table 1 Effects Sizes For Manipulation Checks of Studies with Categorical Independent Variables 304 Table 2 Effects Sizes For Main Dependent Measures of Studies with Categorical Independent Variables 306 Table 3 Effects Sizes For Control and Comparison Measures of Studies with Categorical Independent Variables 309 Table 4 Effects Sizes For Correlational Studies 311 Table 5 Effects Sizes For Mediation Analyses Based on R 2 312 vi LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES Chapter 2 Figure 1a Mediation by Causal Appraisal on the Experiential Content 84 Figure 1b Mediation by Causal Appraisal on the Experiential Content, While Controlling for Sadness, Frustration, and Anger 84 Chapter 3 Figure 1 The Meaninglessness of Recalled Behaviors 125 Figure 2 The Meaningfulness of Running 126 Figure 3 The Meaningfulness of Running 127 Figure 4a The Meaningfulness of Recalled Behaviors 128 Figure 4b The Instrumentality for a Valued Goals of Recalled Behaviors 128 Figure 4c The Fun of Recalled Behaviors 129 Figure 5 The Meaningfulness of Four Common Behaviors 130 Chapter 4 Figure 1a Allocated Jail Sentences as a Function of Boredom and Offender Nationality 167 Figure 1b Allocated Square-Root Transformed Jail Sentences as a Function of Boredom and Offender Nationality 167 Figure 2 Evaluations of Self-Generated Ingroups as a Function of Boredom 168 Figure 3 Irish Participants’ Evaluations of a Shamrock and Neutral Symbols as a Function of Boredom 169 Figure 4 Ingroup Symbol Evaluations as a Function of the vii LIST OF FIGURES Motivation to do Something Meaningful and Induced Boredom 170 Chapter 5 Figure 1a Boredom as a function of Recalled Experience 215 Figure 1b Sadness as a function of Recalled Experience 215 Figure 2a Meaninglessness of the Situation as a function of Recalled Experience 216 Figure 2b Experienced Meaninglessness as a function of Recalled Experience 216 Figure 3 Multiple Mediation Model on Boredom and Meaninglessness
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