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Americana Representations of the Portuguese in American Literature

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Americana Representations of the Portuguese in American Literature Reinaldo Francisco Imagens de portugueses na literatura norte- da Silva americana Representations of the Portuguese in American Literature dissertação apresentada à Universidade de Aveiro para cumprimento dos requisitos necessários à obtenção do grau de Doutor em Literatura, realizada sob a orientação científica do Professor Doutor Anthony David Barker, Professor Associado do Departamento de Línguas e Culturas da Universidade de Aveiro e a co-orientação da Professora Doutora Maria Teresa de Salter Cid Gonçalves Rocha Pires, Professora Associada da Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa 1 O júri presidente Membros do Júri 2 resumo Tendo como referência as teorias pós-coloniais e os estudos sobre a etnicidade, o presente trabalho propõe-se analisar alguns textos norte- americanos publicados entre meados do século XIX e meados do século XX contendo personagens portuguesas, estudando as relações entre a cultura dominante e as culturas das minorias. Analisa, também, os estereótipos raciais, étnicos, religiosos, económicos e culturais que os escritores norte-americanos de ascendência predominantemente anglo- saxónica criaram alusivos aos portugueses. Quer os escritores canónicos, quer os não-canónicos, retrataram os portugueses de uma forma preconceituosa. Este modo de olhar o mundo está patente nos textos produzidos, quer nas regiões onde esta minoria étnica tradicionalmente se instalou nos Estados Unidos da América, quer nos textos alusivos às mesmas, a saber: na Nova Inglaterra, na Califórnia e no Havai. Na análise destas representações com um certo cariz racista – despoletadas, em parte, pelas correntes do Darwinismo social – este estudo também questiona a veracidade dos estereótipos referentes à violência, à permissividade sexual, à sujidade, ao alcoolismo, ao tráfico de bebidas alcoólicas e do ópio, assim como a estupidez, estereótipos, por vezes, atribuídos aos portugueses por estes escritores norte- americanos. Estas representações corrosivas e de carácter questionável são, contudo, rejeitadas por um grupo emergente de escritores luso- americanos, na medida em que os seus textos literários reflectem uma preocupação com questões tais como o significado da pertença a uma cultura minoritária no seio duma cultura dominante. Ao tentarem facultar uma análise objectiva e credível quanto à localização dos portugueses no âmago da cultura norte-americana, estes escritores luso-americanos – e não os anglo-saxónicos – estão efectivamente melhor apetrechados para estabelecer a ligação entre as culturas portuguesa e norte-americana. Para além da análise do impacto da emigração portuguesa para os Estados Unidos da América, este estudo também oferece algumas pistas para uma melhor compreensão da recepção e acolhimento dos emigrantes portugueses assim como para a análise da transmissão e 3 subsequente transformação da cultura portuguesa nos Estados Unidos da América. abstract Based on postcolonial and ethnic studies theories of the relations between minority and majority cultures, this study focuses on American writings with Portuguese fictional characters, all of which written between the middle of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth century. It analyzes the racial, ethnic, religious, economic, and cultural assumptions and biases that American writers of a predominantly Anglo- Saxon background have expressed towards the Portuguese. Both canonical and non-canonical American voices have taken a prejudicial look at the Portuguese, and this is reflected in the texts produced in or about the geographical locations where this ethnic minority has traditionally settled in the United States: New England, California, and Hawaii. In its exploration of the racially-charged snapshots prompted by social Darwinism, this study also questions the validity of the stereotypes pointing to violence, sexual license, filth, drunkenness, bootlegging, opium trafficking, and stupidity often attributed to the Portuguese by American writers of Anglo-Saxon descent. Such corrosive misrepresentations, however, are rejected by an emerging group of Portuguese American voices whose writings display a concern for matters such as what it means to belong to a minority culture within the context of a dominant one. These Portuguese American writers offer an unbiased and reliable discussion of the location of the Portuguese within American culture, and they, not the Anglo writers, are likelier effectively to establish the bridge between Portuguese and American culture. In addition, this study analyzes the impact of Portuguese immigration on America while providing an understanding of how Portuguese immigrants 4 were received and how Portuguese culture was transmitted to and transformed in America. 5 ÍNDICE CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................... 8 FRAMING THE PORTUGUESE WITHIN THE MARGINS OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 8 Notes .....................................................................................................................46 CHAPTER TWO............................................................................................................. 48 SCIENTIFIC RACISM AND THE ORIGINS OF ANTI-PORTUGUESE STEREOTYPES 48 The Portuguese/Capeverdean Harpooners in the Light of Scientific Racism: A Case Study............................................................................................. 68 From the Top of the Racial Pyramid: Social Darwinism, Racial Hierarchy, and the Portuguese Farmers in California............................... 91 New England Revisited: Gloucester Fishermen, Cape Cod Cranberry Pickers and Farmers............................................................................................. 125 The Dynamic of Race in the Sugarcane and Pineapple Plantations of Hawaii: The Portuguese Farmers among Asians and Latinos..................... 168 Notes ................................................................................................................... 182 CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................... 187 VIOLENCE AND THE PORTUGUESE 187 Longing for Contact with the Ethnic Other; Economic Exploitation and Hardship: The Violent Responses in New England Writings..................... 191 In Search of Excitement: California’s Portuguese-American Youth and their Embrace of the Lynch-mob Subculture in America.......................... 228 Notes ................................................................................................................... 235 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 236 ASSOCIATIONS OF THE PORTUGUESE WITH SEXUAL LICENSE 236 The Puritan Legacy and the Portuguese: New England’s Response to Sexual Licentiousness......................................................................................... 239 Notes ................................................................................................................... 305 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................ 307 DIRT, ALCOHOLISM, STUPIDITY, BUFFOONERY, AND THE PORTUGUESE 307 Filth and the Portuguese of California....................................................... 308 6 The Portuguese during Prohibition: Alcohol, Opium Trafficking, and Bootlegging............................................................................................................. 328 Stupidity, Ignorance, Buffoonery, and the Portuguese in their Native Country.................................................................................................................... 346 Notes ................................................................................................................... 368 CHAPTER SIX........................................................................................................... 370 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE DEBATE: THE PORTUGUESE SPEAKING TO THE MAINSTREAM 370 Redefining the Ethnic Canon:The Portuguese American Contribution.376 The United States through the Eyes of the Educated Immigrant: José Rodrigues Miguéis and Jorge de Sena............................................................. 383 Alfred Lewis: A Writer of Transition........................................................... 395 Consolidating Portuguese American Writing: The Contributions of Thomas Braga, Frank Gaspar, and Katherine Vaz......................................... 403 Notes ................................................................................................................... 452 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 455 Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 460 Primary Sources 460 Secondary Sources 464 7 CHAPTER ONE FRAMING THE PORTUGUESE WITHIN THE MARGINS OF AMERICAN LITERATURE There is a body of American literature written between the middle of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth century containing some minor references to the Portuguese as an ethnic group living in the United States of America. Many of these texts – whether written by canonical writers or by second- and third-rank regional or local voices – stereotype this ethnic minority. As a cultural phenomenon within the framework of mainstream American culture, this attitude can be grasped
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