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Understanding Galactic Cosmic Ray Modulation: Observations and Theory © Januar 2018 Erster Gutachter (Supervisor): Prof

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Understanding Galactic Cosmic Ray Modulation: Observations and Theory © Januar 2018 Erster Gutachter (Supervisor): Prof UNDERSTANDING GALACTIC COSMIC RAY MODULATION: OBSERVATIONS AND THEORY Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel vorgelegt von jan gieseler – Kiel, Januar 2018 – Jan Gieseler: Understanding Galactic Cosmic Ray Modulation: Observations and Theory © Januar 2018 erster gutachter (supervisor): Prof. Dr. B. Heber zweiter gutachter: PD Dr. H. Fichtner tag der mündlichen prüfung: 27. März 2018 ABSTRACT The modulation of Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) in the heliosphere has been a topic of ongoing research almost since the first detection of GCRs more than 100 years ago. Over this time, different aspects of the modulation have been discovered and investigated, like various timescales and periodicities of variation, charge-sign effects correlating with the 22-year cycle of the Heliospheric Magnetic Field (HMF), or dependences of the modulation strength with the particle energy. One recent example of periodic short-term variations of GCRs and Jovian electrons is analyzed in the beginning of this thesis (Gieseler et al., 2009). But although GCR measurements were available for decades, they also were very often suffering from various observational limitations, whether it be the constrains in energy range and resolution or the lack of continuous observations over longer time periods and at different locations in the heliosphere. In 1990, the Ulysses spacecraft was launched. With its peculiar, highly inclined orbit around the Sun and the Kiel Electron Telescope (KET) onboard (capable of measuring electrons and protons in the GV range, where the modulation shows significant effects), this mission allowed for unprecedented investigations of the spatial distribution of GCRs in the heliosphere and charge-sign effects of the modulation. Two such analyses are presented in this thesis: For the A < 0 solar minimum in the 2000s, the radial and latitudinal gradients of GCRs were calculated (Heber et al., 2008), and also charge-sign effects of this so-called unusual solar minimum were examined (Heber et al., 2009). However, this investigations were hindered by the fact that there were no corresponding measurements at Earth, and workarounds like comparison with same-rigidity particles of different species or assumptions regarding the behavior of different charged particles needed to be introduced. With the launch of the Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) detector on an Earth orbiting satellite in 2006, this gap was closed. PAMELA provided for the first time in-situ intensities of GCR electrons and protons (as well as higher nuclei and anti-particles) over a wide range of energy with unprecedented energy resolution and statistics. With this tool at hand, it was possible to re-investigate the radial and latitudinal gradients of positively charged GCRs for the 2000s A < 0 solar minimum with more accuracy than ever before (De Simone et al., 2011; Gieseler et al., 2013; Gieseler and Heber, 2016). Additionally, the high-resolution rigidity spectrum of GCR protons provided by PAMELA allowed us to investigate the rigidity-dependence of the so-called force field approach. This is a very simple but also quite handy one-parameter model to describe the modulation of a given Local Interstellar Spectrum (LIS) throughout the heliosphere until it is observed at Earth. Demonstrating the severe limitations of this commonly used model, a straightforward and easy to use workaround introducing a rigidity-dependence is presented in the last part of this thesis (Gieseler et al., 2017). iii ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die Modulation der Galaktischen Kosmischen Strahlung (GKS) in der Heliosphäre ist praktisch seit der Entdeckung der GKS vor mehr als 100 Jahren ein Thema andauernder Forschung. Im Laufe dieser Zeit wurden unterschiedliche Aspekte der Modulation entdeckt und untersucht, darunter verschiedene Zeitskalen und Periodizitäten der Variation, vorzeichenabhängige Effekte, die mit dem 22-Jahres- Zyklus des Heliosphärischen Magnetfeldes (HMF) korrelieren, oder Abhängigkeiten der Modulationsstärke von der Teilchenenergie. Ein aktuelles Beispiel periodis- cher, kurzzeitiger Variationen der GKS und von Jupiterelektronen wird zu Beginn dieser Arbeit analysiert (Gieseler et al., 2009). Aber obwohl GKS-Messungen seit Jahrzehnten verfügbar waren, litten sie die meiste Zeit über unter verschiede- nen Beobachtungs-Einschränkungen. Seien es Limitierungen im messbaren En- ergiebereich oder der Energieauflösung, sei es ein Mangel an kontinuierlichen Beobachtungen über längere Zeiträume oder an verschiedenen Positionen in der Heliosphäre. Im Jahr 1990 wurde die Raumsonde Ulysses gestartet. Mit ihrer außergewöhn- lichen, stark geneigten Umlaufbahn um die Sonne und dem Kiel Electron Tele- scope (KET) an Bord (das Elektronen und Protonen im GV-Bereich messen konnte, wo die Modulation signifikante Auswirkungen zeigt) erlaubte diese Mission vorher nie dagewesene Untersuchungen der räumlichen Verteilung der GKS in der Heliosphäre sowie von vorzeichenabhängigen Effekten der Modulation. Zwei solche Untersuchungen werden in dieser Arbeit vorgestellt: Für das A < 0 so- lare Minimum in den 2000ern wurden die radialen und Breitengradienten der GKS berechnet (Heber et al., 2008). Außerdem wurden vorzeichenabhängige Ef- fekte während dieses sogenannten ungewöhnlichen solaren Minimums untersucht (Heber et al., 2009). Allerdings wurden diese Analysen dadurch eingeschränkt, dass keine vergleichbaren Messungen an der Erde zur Verfügung standen. De- shalb mussten Behelfslösungen gefunden werden, etwa indem Teilchen gleicher Steifigkeit aber unterschiedlicher Spezies verglichen wurden, oder indem Annah- men betreffend des Verhaltens von Teilchen mit unterschiedlichen Ladungsvor- zeichen getroffen wurden. Mit dem Start des Detektors Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) auf einem die Erde umkreisenden Satelliten im Jahr 2006 wurde diese Lücke geschlossen. PAMELA ermöglichte zum ersten Mal die In-situ-Messung der GKS-Intensitäten von Elek- tronen und Protonen (sowie schwererer Elemente und Antiteilchen) über einen großen Energiebereich mit bis dahin unerreichter Energieauflösung und Statistik. Mit diesen Mitteln konnten die radialen und Breitengradienten der GKS für das 2000er A < 0 solare Minimum mit höherer Genauigkeit als je zuvor und für neue Energien untersucht werden (De Simone et al., 2011; Gieseler et al., 2013; Gieseler and Heber, 2016). Darüber hinaus ermöglicht das von PAMELA gemessene, hochaufgelöste Steifig- keitsspektrum von GKS-Protonen die Untersuchung der Steifigkeitsabhängigkeit v des sogenannten Force-Field-Ansatzes. Hierbei handelt es sich um ein sehr ein- faches, aber auch leicht nutzbares Modell mit nur einem Parameter, mit dem sich die Modulation des Lokalen Interstellaren Spektrums (LIS) durch die Heliosphäre bis zur Messung an der Erde beschreiben lässt. Nach der Demonstration der schwerwiegenden Einschränkungen dieses weitverbreiteten Modells wird eine einfache und leicht zu nutzende Behelfslösung vorgeschlagen, die eine Steifig- keitsabhängigkeit integriert (Gieseler et al., 2017). vi PUBLICATIONS Latitudinal gradients of galactic cosmic rays during the 2007 solar minimum Heber, B., J. Gieseler, P. Dunzlaff, R. Gómez-Herrero, A. Klassen, R. Müller-Mellin, R. A. Mewaldt, M. S. Potgieter, S. E. S. Ferreira, Astrophys. J., 689, 2, 1443-1447 (2008), DOI:10.1086/592596 Modulation of galactic cosmic ray protons and electrons during an unusual solar minimum Heber, B., A. Kopp, J. Gieseler, R. Müller-Mellin, H. Fichtner, K. Scherer, M. S. Potgieter, S. E. S. Ferreira, Astrophys. J., 699, 2, 1956-1963 (2009), DOI:10.1088/0004-637X/699/2/1956 Latitudinal and radial gradients of galactic cosmic ray protons in the inner heliosphere – PAMELA and Ulysses observations De Simone, N., V. Di Felice, J. Gieseler, M. Boezio, M. Casolino, P. Picozza, PAMELA Collaboration, and B. Heber, Astrophys. Space Sci. Trans., 7, 425-434 (2011), DOI:10.5194/astra-7-425-2011 Simultaneous analysis of recurrent Jovian electron increases and galactic cosmic ray decreases Kühl, P., N. Dresing, P. Dunzlaff, H. Fichtner, J. Gieseler, R. Gómez-Herrero, B. Heber, A. Klassen, J. Kleimann, A. Kopp, M. Potgieter, K. Scherer, R. D. Strauss, Central European Astrophysical Bulletin, 37, 643-648 (2013) Mini neutron monitor measurements at the Neumayer III station and on the German research vessel Polarstern Heber, B., D. Galsdorf, K. Herbst, J. Gieseler, J. Labrenz, C. Schwerdt, M. Walter, G. Benadé, R. Fuchs, H. Krüger, H. Moraal, Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 632, 1, 012057 (2015), DOI:10.1088/1742-6596/632/1/012057 Spatial gradients of GCR protons in the inner heliosphere derived from Ulysses COSPIN/KET and PAMELA measurements Gieseler, J., and B. Heber, Astron. Astrophys., 589,A32 (2016), DOI:10.1051/0004- 6361/201527972 An empirical modification of the force field approach to describe the modulation of galactic cosmic rays close to Earth in a broad range of rigidities Gieseler, J., B. Heber, and K. Herbst, J. Geophys. Res.: Space Phys., 122 (2017), DOI:10.1002/2017JA024763 vii CONFERENCEPROCEEDINGS The radial gradient of galactic cosmic rays:Ulysses KET and ACE CRIS Measurements Gieseler, J., B. Heber, P. Dunzlaff, R. Müller-Mellin, A. Klassen, R. Gómez-Herrero, H. Kunow, R. Wimmer-Schweingruber, and R. A. Mewaldt, Proc. 30th Internat. Cosmic Ray Conf. (Mérida, Mexico), 1, 354, 571-574 (2008) Recurrent modulation of galactic cosmic rays:A comparative
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