Chapter II Re-Understanding Patabjali's Yogasutra

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Chapter II

Re-understanding Patabjali’s Yogasutra

Introduction

Students of Indian philosophy will clearly notice that the term

‘yoga’ has been in vogue from very early times, and it has been a term used by many traditions, in different nuances of meaning. An inquiry into the early beginning of religious thought and practices in India makes clear that the Vedic Aryans were not familiar either with the term yoga or the practices connected with it. This absence of any reference to any kind of yoga in the early phases of Vedic religious thought is understandable, as the aim of Vedic religious practice was mainly to secure secular or other- worldly happiness and gain. In other words, Vedic religious practices mainly targeted the accomplishment of mundane goals. Contrariwise yoga from its inception was aiming at the accomplishment of spiritual attainments. The perplexity experienced by the Vedic Aryans when they confronted religious practitioners whom one would describe as yogins is seen from the Vedic hymn, the Keśin Sukta. 41 By reading through the content of this hymn it becomes clear that these early Aryans were not only

41Rv, 10.136. For a detailed discussion see Karel Werner (ed), The Yogi and the Mystic Studies in Indian and Comparative Mysticism, School of Oriental Studies, University of Durham, 1989. 51

perplexed by such encounters with yogins, but also expressed awe and admiration about them.

This reference in the Rgveda is very important to show that besides what is particularly known as the Vedic religious and philosophical tradition, there existed in ancient India, a completely different tradition which was alien to the Vedic tradition. This tradition, is generally treated as a part of Indian culture, which got assimilated later with the Vedic Aryans, and immensely contributed to the rise of a very strong philosophical and religious tradition, rather opposed to Brahmanism, and came to be described as the Śramana tradition.

This fact should be clearly borne in mind when interpreting the yogic tradition, for otherwise such interpretation could be completely biased toward Brahmanic beginning of yoga, and then may prompt a student in building a hemenutional approach that will block evidence suggestive of non-Brahmanic features in yoga.

2-1.The Term Yoga

The term yoga is from the root yuj / yubj, meaning ‘to yoke, to join, to fasten or harness’. In its developed meaning, especially in religious meaning, it meant also ‘to concentrate the mind in order to obtain union with the universal spirit’; ‘to be adopted in meditation’ etc.42Hiriyanna

42See monier Willams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary (SED), under the term ‘yuj’. 52

observes that the term is cognate with English word ‘yoke’, and that, in

Indian religious usage, it refers essentially to a process of self conquest and was not unoften resorted to in ancient India for the acquisition of supernatural or occult power.43

Radhakrishnan observes that the term is used in a variety of senses, and it may simply mean method. It is often used in the sense of yoking. He suggests that, in Bhagavadgita and other religious texts it connotes the meaning of spiritual unification. In Patabjalayoga it does not mean union, but only effort; or as Bhoja says it means separation (viyoga) between Purusa and Prakrti. He further observes that this term means also exertion, strenouos endeavour, and hence, came to be used for the system of restraint of the senses and the mind.

The same writer further observes that according to Patabjali yoga is a methodical effort to attain perfection, through the control of different elements of human nature, physical and psychical.44

Obviously, the term is impregnated with meaning in the way it is used in religious literature. It has been further complicated by modern scholars who venture to give wide explanations of the term. At present the terms yoga, yogin etc. are very much in vogue in writings connected with

43M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 110 44S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. II, pp 337-338. 53

religious practices, especially concerned with sense restraint, and mental culture.

2-2. Early Traces of Yoga Practices

As pointed out before, yoga, in the sense of sense restraint and mental culture, was rather alien to Vedic religious systems. But hints suggestive of practitioners of such disciplines are found in Vedic texts too. The word muni, a particular category of sages different from both Brahmin hermits engaged in sacrificial rites and rituals and chanting (hotr, udgatr) and rather closer to sages (rsis), is found in the Rgvedga.45 Scholars have pointed out that the Atharva-veda makes reference to the belief that severe ascetic practices enable a practitioner to attain super-natural powers. The rsis were considered as inspired persons who have attained special spiritual status through special practices involving sense and mind culture.

This belief got more crystallized in the Upanishads when they refer to religious practitioners engaged in concentration and meditation.

Radhakrsihanan point out that the term yoga as a technical term occurs in the Kathapanisad.46 Further, it is pointed out that the Katha speaks of the highest condition of yoga as a state in which the sense, mind and intellect, are brought to a standstill.47 It is also pointed out that the Maitri-Upanishad

45Rgveda , x, 136, 4,5 46Radhakrishnan, op. cit, p. 339. 47Ibid loc. cit. 54

refers to six fold yoga, and some of the technical terms are similar to those used in Patabjali’s system. 48

The situation becomes still clear at the time of the Buddha. There is direct reference to Bodhisattva receiving training under two reputed meditation masters of the time. One was Alara Kalama; and the other,Uddaka Ramaputta.49 Though there is no certainty regarding their affiliations to particular traditions, it is quite clear that they practiced yoga of a certain kind, if not some form of Savkhya-yoga, at least, some practice very close to it. The term yoga is of frequent occurrence in Buddhist texts, especially in the Suttas.50 The phrases such as ‘yogam karoti’, ‘yogam apajjati’ occur which convey the meaning, ‘makes effort’, ‘strives after’.

The two extremist paths which the Buddha’s Middle path avoids are called kamasukhallikanuyoga (engagement in enjoyment of sensual pleasure) and attakilamathanuyoga (engagement in self-tormentation). Though the term yoga is not used to refer to sense-restraint or mental culture, the term was commonly used to convey the sense of ‘committed application’, which, generally is the primary sense of the term.

2-3. Patabjali's Yoga

48Ibid, loc. cit 49M. I, Sutta, 26; Ariyapariyesana sutta. 50S. II, 131; A. II, 93.

A primary concern of this thesis is Patabjala Yoga system, a particular religious tradition that has played a very important role in the

Indian religious thought and practice. This system is known by the name of the founder of the system, Patabjali. The exact identity of Patabjali is not clear. There is reference to two Patabjalis; one is the auther of Yogasutra, the fundamental text of the Yoga school; and the other in the grammarian.

Some consider the two to be the same. Hiriyanna assigns the Yogasutra to about the end of the 5th century A.D. On this basis he says that, if the date is accepted as correct, the traditional identification of its author (i.e.

Patabjali) with the grammarian Patabjali, who is known to have lived in the

2nd century B.C., cannot to be maintained.

James Haughton Woods, the author of the work, ‘The Yoga system of Patabjali’ ascribes the Yogasutra between 300- 500 A. D.. After a careful study of the authorship of Yogasutra, he says that the tradition that identifies51 the two Patabjalis, is not older than the 10th century, which is a thousand years after the date of the grammarian Patabjali, and also that this identification is not supported by comparison of philosophical concepts.

51This identification is based on Bhoja's Rajamartanda. This work assigned to the 10th century A.D. (See James Haughton Woods, The Yoga System ofPatabjali, (1992 Print). However, see Radhakrishnan (op. cit. p 341, n. 2 for different views. According to him Patabjali of Yogasutra cannot be placed later than 300 A.D. Even if this is accepted, the identification of the two Patabjalis cannot be maintained. Compare also, S. N. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy, In relation to other system of Indian Thoughts, p. 556.)

Thus, the founding of the Yoga system is a moot point.

Radhakrishnan says that according to the Yajbavalkya smrti. Hiranya- garbha is the founder of this system; and he argues that Madhava points out that this does not contradict Patabjali’s authoriship of Yogasutra. This is on the ground that Patabjali himself calls his work ‘Anuwasana’, by which he meant that his work follows a primary revelation, and Yogasutra is not the first formulation of the system.

However, the Yogasutra was considered a very important text as it is proved by the existence of a number of exegeses on it. One of the earliest amongst these is Vyasa’s commentary (4th century A.D.). On this

Vacaspati wrote a glossary called Tattvavaiwaradi (9th century). Vijbaana

Bhiksu’s Yogavarttika, a commentary on Yogabhasya and the

Yogasarasavgraha are also noteworthy contributions.

2-4. Yogasutra

Yogasutra of Patabjali is the oldest text book of the yoga school.

Though all agree that there are references to yoga in Upanisads, especially in the later ones, the exact origin of this tradition is not clear. Some regard it as an independent tradition. However, the fact is that there can hardly be any independent religious tradition in the religious milieu of India. All religions are social products. They are the results of interaction among religious traditions, and schools influencing each other. It is not quite reasonable to call Yoga an off-shoot of Upanishads, and just describe it to 57

be as old as Upanishads. It is far more reasonable to describe Yoga as a heritage coming down from even pre-Vedic times. The Yoga tradition must have got gradually developed under the influence of other religious traditions, when it interacted with them. There appear to be two levels of theYoga tradition; the late one, namely the classical Yoga which is laid out by the Yogasutra and the other belonging to the pre-Yogasutra period.

Basically, Yoga system has been much influenced by Savkhya school, which appears to be earlier of the two. These two schools are so close in teachings that the two are complementary to each other, and this appears to be supported by the epics, specially the Mahabharata. When considering very broadly, it is reasonable to conclude that Savkhya represents the theory and philosophy, whereas Yoga represents the practical and the religious aspects. It is this system of Yoga that was more systematized and methodically presented in the Yogasutra by Patabjali, in its classical form.

When taken as a whole it appears that Savkhya is more inclined towards logical investigation, whereas, Yoga is more concerned about devotional exercises and, especially mental discipline and mental culture.

Though not predominantly theistic, it has a marked tinge of theism without totally subjugating the individual to the God. When compared to Savkhya,

Yoga clearly shows features of a fully fledged religion with certain devotional exercises. Hence, the Yoga needed to introduce the concept of

God. Thus, Kapila's Savkhya came to be known as ‘Niriśvara Savkhya’ when compared to Yoga which came to be designated as ‘Sewvara

Savkhya’.

The Yogasutra is considered the oldest textbook of the Yoga school. It is divided into four parts. The first part deals with Samadhi

(Samadhi-pāda). The second deals with the means employed to obtain samadhi (sadhana-pada). The third is about supernatural powers attainable through yogic practices (vibhuti-pada) and its fourth part deals with final liberation (kaivalyapada).

Yogasutra lays down the doctrinal fundamentals and practice of

Patabjala Yoga. It is seen that Savkhya metaphysics serves as the basis, of course, with a few modifications. The basic focus of Savkhya metaphysics is on a minute analysis of consciousness and matter.52 The accommodation of Savkhya metaphysic into Yoga may have happened through a gradual process and, possibly, it was Patavjali who finally arranged and systematized it, presenting a fully fledged philosophy. He appears to have collected different terms of yoga practices that were prevalent then, and grafted them all on Savkhya metaphysics. This conclusion also justifies the view, already cited, why Patabjali himself calls his work as ‘Anuwasana.53

52So does Buddhism with regard nama-rupa (mind and matter) 53See S. N. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy. In relation to other system of Indian Thought, p. 51. 59

Patabjali adopts the Savkhya doctrine of Prakrti; Purusa and the theory of three gunas 54:sattva, rajas and tamas and explains the process of evolution. Prakrti and Purusa are the key principles in this process with the three gunas propelling it, giving rise to its first product which Savkhya calls mahat (or buddhi) and Yoga designates it as citta, a form of matter.

Being a product of Prakrti, citta is also subject, to three gunas and consequently undergoes modification in accordance with the predominance of the gunas. However, it is unconscious and becomes conscious only by the reflection of the self which abides by it. The cittas are many just as the purusas are.

The Purusa is different from the citta, for it is non-matter, sentient, conscious, and unlike Prakrti, passive; it is pure intelligence.

However, there is some connection between, Purusa and citta, for there are many cittas just as there are many Purusas. This is because each Purusa is said to have a citta connected with it. This connection or proximity of

Purusa and citta lies at the bottom of the problem concerning samsara.

Being passive, the Purusa is not involved in any movement or activity; it may perhaps be taken as representing the affective or receptive side of the

54It is said these gunas are not what the term suggests, that is, not qualities of prakrti, but are said to be components of prakrti; sattva represent whatever is fine and light, tamas whatever is coarse or heavy and rajas whatever is active. See Hiriyanna, op. cit. p. 27,f.; S. N. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy..Chapter III. See also Radhakrishanan, op. cit, pp. 272- 275. 60

mind. 55 Citta, being a product of Prakrti is active, but essentially unconscious. However it becomes conscious by the reflection of the Purusa which abides by it. This consciousness of Purusa reflected in citta leads to the impression that the Purusa, which really is the spectator, to misconstrue that it is the experiencer. It is the absence of this undifferentiated knowledge leading to the mixing up of citta56 with Purusa that causes the samsaric process, which is nothing other than the process of duḥkha.

2-5. Duḥkha

Like in almost all philosophies and religion that arose in India, the main concern of the system of yoga presented by Patabjali is also concentrated on the man’s predicament. Arising in the milieu of

Upanishadic thought, it is natural to find in it obvious influence of that thought. However, it is Savkhya that did produce the real basis for

Patabjala-yoga system. Savkhya provided the whole metaphysical edifice to it. Though Patabjala-yoga is an extension of Savkhya, in certain aspect it makes it own deviations and contribution. These novelties and contributions it presents can be seen only by giving up the attitude of regarding this yoga as merely an offshoot of Brahamnic, more specially, the Upanisadic tradition, and by focusing attention on the other possible

55M. Hiriyania, op. cit. p. 279. 56Citta is also designated an Buddhi or mahat.

sources that influenced it. A deeper and a comparative study of the concept of duhkha, alongwith the way leading to freedom of oneself from it, will help one to draw new insight on this issue.

Undoubtedly there is a lot of metaphysics involved in the concept of duhkha as developed in Patabjala-yoga system. The concepts of Purusa,

Prakrti and Buddhi all point forwards this metaphysical base.Unlike Kapila who when presenting Savkhya has been more concerned in looking at it from an ontological perspective, Patabjali had widened his approach by adopting also a combination of psychological and ethical approach, without, however, discarding this ontological approach. This, very much, suggests the influence of Buddhism. Thus, Patabjali accepted the Savkhya view about misidentification of Buddhi with Purusa and calls that this is due to avidya(ignorance). However, Patabjali attemps also to see this as a misidentification due to a wrong perception of what is subject to change

(anitya) as permanent (nitya), what a subject to suffering (duhkha) as happiness (sukha), what is without a self (anatma) as with self (atma), what is subject to impurity (aśuci) as purity (śuci). This is an attempt to give a psychological explanation for the origin of duhkha.

According to the Yogasutra of Patabjali, duhkha is threefold: parinama- duhkha (duhkha due to change), Tapa-duhkha (duhkha arising

from anguish), and samskara duhkha (duhkha due to the conditioned).57

This threefold duhkha is an intrinsic feature of ever recurring cycle

(samsara) of births and deaths. The main aim of yoga is to free the individual from this incessant flow of duhkha to which all born into samsara are subject.

As already mentioned Patabjali talks about avidya (ignorance or wrong knowledge) regarding true nature of Purusa and Prakrti. Through avidya there is a mix up of the roles of Prakrti and Purusa. All activities get attributed to Purusa and Prakrti is misconceived as passive and is always in isolation. Due to non-disermination (aviveka) the Purusa, which is reflected in the Buddhi, the first product of Prakrti, misconceives itself to be the doer, the experiencer, and make all activation of the Buddhi its own.

Thus, suffering arises due to non-discrimination of the true nature of the

Purusa and wrongly attributing activities of Prakrti or more precisely those of citta as its own activities. Thus, Yogasutra explains this as the correlation of the seer and the object of sight.58 Thus, when ontologically viewed it is false identification (anyathakhyati), as it referred to in

57This division of duhkha is very must similar to the divisions given in Buddhism as dukkha-dukkha, viparinama-dukkha and sajkhara-dukkha. For a discussion see Encyclopedia of Buddhism.Vol. IV, p. 696 off. 58Yogasutra ii, 17. James Haughton Woods(ed) translates it as the correlation of the seer and the object-of-sight is the cause of that which is to be escaped. (drastr-drśyayoh sajyogo heyahetuh)

theYogasutra or as aviveka in Savkhya. In whichever way it is taken, it is the cause of arising of suffering. Therefore, to free oneself from this, one has to adopt the means of discriminative knowledge (vivekakhyati) that is the way to liberation (moksa).

Patabjali attempts also to explain the arising of duhkha as a consequence of psycho-ethical cause. This is what is meant when he explains that the root of duhkha lies in receptacle of deeds (karmawaya). All deeds or activities fall into either of the two categories meritorious (punya) or evil (papa). There these mature and generate corresponding consequences; and these lie in the citta, awaiting an opportunity for fruition.

According to this explanation all happiness and unhappiness, pleasant and unpleasant feelings and experiences are due to the nature of one’s karma or deeds. This store house of consequences of deed is the Karmaśaya; and from this are generated both happiness and suffering.

This explanation has tri-temporal application: past, present and future. The past sufferings have been experienced and, therefore, are gone beyond remedy; the present suffering is ripened and it inevitably has to be experienced. What is left is future suffering which is yet unborn, and therefore, can be stopped or avoided. Suffering is the result of deeds prompted by defilements which prevail in the citta in four modes as: dormant, tenuous, alternated and fully operative. All these defilements are due to avidya, false identification; the most palpable affects of this are seen

by the appearance of attachment (raga) and hatred (dvesa). Thus, the pleasant and unpleasant experiences of the past give rise to corresponding experiences in the present. These help to mould the future experiences.

Thus, it is seen that attachment (raga) and hatred (dvesa) are stored in the karmawaya, and when an individual encounters a situation which generates his attachment or hatred, he reacts, and accordingly experiences duhkha (conflict).What one experiences at present in present duhkha; what is left over will go into the future. So, this is a continuous process, from which an individual should escape.

Patabjala-yoga is for the purpose of completely arresting this process and leading an individual to liberation (moksa). For this Patabjali expounds a path constituted by eight limbs (astanga). It is a gradual, long and hard journey to moksa. It calls for firm resolution, commitment and striving.

2-6. The role of citta

As mentioned before citta is on the side of Prakrti (matter). The citta is the experience. When objects come into contact with citta through the senses, it gets affected and undergoes modification in accordance with the object it experiences. This is one reason why Purusa that abides by citta, gets reflected in the citta due to the proximity, and also gets affected by this modification in keeping with the many shades of images. Through

this occurs a misidentification (anyathakhyati) which also is referred to as ignorance (avidya). The Purusa takes this experience to be his own. It is this process of misidentification that plays a very prominent role in the process of generating duhkha. The prime of yoga psychology is about this role of citta in giving rise to duhkha. Hence, it is clearly seen that, unlike

Savkhya which is more inclined towards metaphysic, Yoga gives a very prominent place to psychology as well as ethics. This is because Yoga adopts the Savkhya ontological perspective in explaining the arising of duhkha. This is complemented in yoga by adding a psycho-ethical perspective.

2-7. The way of Yoga

Yoga is both a philosophy and a religion; a religion with a theistic tinge which is absent in Savkhya. This theistic tinge does not affect the independent status of the individual; he is not made to seek the grace of

Iwvara. Hence, this tinge of theism in yoga does not make it a theistic religion. The basics dealt in yoga, as presented by Patabjali, appear to be the advocation of the practice leading to escape from duhkha, and this is to be accomplished by conquering desire. In its practices it gives a very important place to the cultivation of knowledge (Prajba). This Prajba is to be had only through the practice of yoga. Thus, just as Sankhya, yoga also holds that empirical knowledge obtained through perception, inference and

scriptural testimony is not absolute, and yoga is essential to promote the practice of mental culture. This is supported by Vyasa’sYogabhasya59.

As clearly seen from its designation namely, yoga, the system is concerned not only with the mind, but also with the body. Thus, Yoga admits a close interaction between the mind and the body. Healthy body is a precondition for a healthy mind. It is not body building that is the concern of Yoga, but the culture, which controls lethargy, inertia, sluggishness which are all hindrances to mind culture. Hence, Yoga shows much concern about maintaining a healthy body to support a healthy mind.

Nurturing the body as a supportive apparatus of mind is an important part of yogic spiritual life. The eight-limbed (astanga) yogic practice laid by

Patabjala yoga system thus covers both the body and mind.

The eight limbs advocated are: yama (abstention), niyama

(observances), asana (bodily posture), pranayama (regulation of breath), pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), dhyana, (Fixing of attention) dharana (contemplation) and samadhi (concentration).

An analysis of this eightfold 60 path shows that the first two factors namely; yama and niyama are mainly concerned with preparation of

59Yoga bhasya, 1.48 : 60Buddhism also presents an eightfold path. Its eight factors are right-view (samma-ditthi) right intention (samma-savkappa), right speech (samma-vaca), right action (Samma- Kammanta), right livelihood (samma-ajiva), right effort (Samma-vayama), right 67

this ethical foundation which is a necessary preliminary condition to commence the practice of yoga as presented by Patabjali. Cultivation of ahimsa (non-violence) is what is most emphasized in the ethical build up.

This necessitates total abstention from killing, harming, injuring anyone under any circumstance, even as means of self defense. Cultivation of yama demands that one should give up hatred, jealousy, avarice, theft, use of falsehood. One who is engaged in cultivation of niyama should show friendliness and sympathy to others and, his attitudes should be nurtured to counteract their opposites. It means the cultivation of positive virtues. One should develop purity, contentment, fortitude, and even devotion to God

(Isvara-pranidhana). This last mentioned virtue is explained in the

Yogasutra as a means of attaining Samadhi.61

As already mentioned, all types of yoga lay much emphasis on the control and regulation of breath in order to develop concentration. Thus, an initial requirement is to select a suitable bodily posture (asana). Almost all systems suggest the cross-legged seated posture62 as the most suitable one, though this is not compulsory. Regulation of the breath helps to

mindfulness (samma sati) and right concentration (Samma-samadhi). The two lists clearly show that similarities between the two are very few. 61Yogasutra, I. 23 says, concentration is attained of devotion to the Iwvara, It is said that by a special kind of adoration Iwvara inclines to him and favours him merely because of this yogin's profound desire. See translation by James Haughton Woods. 62Archeological finds from Indian culture also bear evidence to the fact that was so from time immemorial. Buddhism also favors this position. 68

stabilize the mind, as well to strengthen the functioning of the lungs.63

Senses are the doors that provide all kinds of feelings, both pleasurable and painful. All beings, specially the humans have the inborn instinct of searching for sense-gratification. All philosophies and religions caution the adherents, especially those who are seriously committed to the practice, regarding the pitfalls in the way of sense- gratification.64

These five factors are quite conducive to the successful accomplishment of the Yoga-practices, and serve as the essential preparatory acts that are very supportive of the cultivation of the remaining three namely, dharana, dyana and samadhi. These five are external or indirect aids to yoga (bahiravga).65

Dharana, the first among the internal limbs of yoga, is the fixing of the mind on the object of contemplation. This arrests the inborn moving and roaming nature of the mind which is a hindrance to concentration.

63Respiratory exercises are commonly adopted as an effective means of strengthening the heart muscles. 64Buddhism very specifically condemns indulgence in excessive sense-gratification. The Buddha began his first discourse of his long mission by admonishing the followers not to resent to either of the extreme practices: sense gratification or self- mortification. The former which he designated as kamesu kamasukhallikanuyogo is totally condemned by him describing this as a practice that is low (hino), vulgar (gammo) belonging to the ordinary worldlings (puthujjaniko), ignoble (anariya) and non-beneficial (anatthasajhito). 65All eight factors constitute the path, which is one complete scheme, though the first five are regarded as indirect aids to yoga (bahiravga) and the latter three as direct or internal factors (antaravga). This is only a functional demarcation, and not a division of the path. 69

Before developing concentration (Samadhi) the mind has to be made steadfast. This ability to arrest the roaming nature of the mind is an indispensable act in the process reaching to Samadhi. To any beginner this is a very difficult achievement, for by nature the mind is extremely fickle and wandering alone far away. 66 Dharana helps to ‘hold on’ the mind without letting it wander about. This is quite conducive to the development of Samadhi.

The second among the internal limbs of yoga is called dhyāna.

Dhyana can be described as a developed state of concentration in which the fixed attention of mind becomes natural and spontaneous. In dhyana, one gets a homogeneous flow of mind without any disturbances. It is regarded as a preparatory stage for Samadhi.

Liberation of the individual is the summum bonum of Yoga practice, and for liberation Samadhi is indispensable. The attainment of Samadhi results in providing pure insight into the true nature of things. Patabjali distinguishes this insight from the knowledge gained through empirical means such as sensory perception, inference, and scriptural testimony. As

66Buddhism explains this unsteady nature of the mind very graphically in the suttas. The Dhammapada contains one short section-cittavagga- on this. The unsettled, restlessness of the mind is such that it is compared in the Suttas to the movement of a monkey that moves from branch to branch, holding new one just as it let go the one it already held. See Encyclopedia of Buddhism under the article, mind.

explained in the Bhasya, this is higher perception (paraj pratyaksam), perception achieved through concentrated insight. It is something like perception through the inner self, not through sensory organs of perception.

2-8. Hindrance of Mental Modification

The main problem with the normal sensory perceptions is that it brings about mental modification. This is because the mind is usually afflicted by defilements, of which two main defilements are, attachment

(raga) and aversion (dvesa). These are opposite emotions that are based on the mental impressions of the objects that are perceived. There impressions are known as sajskaras. Though objects are of neutral value, raga and dvesa add value to them in accordance with likes and dislikes. It is complete cessation of sajskaras that leads to total cessation of mental modification and to final liberation. To attain this final liberation the only means is the attainment of Samadhi or concentration which has a particular noetic quality of its own. Radhakrishnan suggests this to be like “seeing with the soul when our bodily eyes are shut” and this is the highest kind of intuitive knowledge, which erases all kinds of other mental impressions.67

2-9. Two levels of Samadhi

This Samadhi is not merely an experience of deep concentration attained through stilling all mental activities and surfacing that experience.

67Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, p. 360. 71

It appears to be a more positive experience leading to the manifestation of true nature of the Purusa, removing all confusion with Prakrti. There are two levels of Samadhi: one is called samprajbata-samadhi and the other as asamprajbata-samadhi. The former can be rendered, into English as cognitive concentration. When a Yogi is abiding in this level of Samadhi he is ‘conscious’ of the object of perception. At this stage the mind is concentrated, somewhat elevated from the normal level yet not totally free from applications and modifications due to the operations of the threefold gunas. At this stage the mind is involved in ratiocination that involves employment of words, meanings and perceptual cognitions regarding the nature of the object. Hence, it has savitarka-samadhi and savicara-samadhi as its kinds.68 Such Samadhi does not provide a true picture of the nature of objects. It has to be elevated to the level of nirvitarka (non-ratiocination) level in which the mind grasps this true nature of the object. In this stage the object does not appear to be an object of consciousness, but becomes one with the mind erasing off the subject-object differentiation. Then the process is led to nirvicara Samadhi which makes the mind perceive the subtle nature of objects (tanmatra) which are constituted by atoms.

Through nirvicara Samadhi the mind becomes concentrated giving rise to truth-bearing (rtam-bhara) wisdom (Prajba). The Sajskaras of this Prajba arrest the samskaras of cittavrtti, (functioning of the mind). This is the

68Y. S. i. 42 , “Tatra sabdarthajbana vikalpaih savkirna savitraka samapattih.Savitarka- samadhi itself reaches the stage of savicara-samadhi when it has subtler objects. 72

disappearance of sabija Samadhi, leading to nirbija Samadhi, that Samadhi without any samskaras that are objects of concentration.

With this elevation of Samadhi, samprajbata Samadhi reaches to the state of asamprajbata Samadhi. In other words, this means that in the level of Samadhi, consciousness attains a higher level, in which the citta is freed from all afflictions and modifications that take place due to gunas.

The yogi gains internal calm (adhyatma Samadhi), and obtains a flash of insight. Patabjali, in his Yogasutra clearly says, that the yogin has an object other than the insight resulting from things heard or from inferences inasmuch its intended object in particular.69 This means that its object is a concrete reality, and not merely a general notion. It is at this state that there arises viveka-khyati(discriminative knowledge), opposite of avivekakhyati resulting from mental modification. No more conceptions, modifications arise. All Citta-vrttis, mental activities, are fully restrained. This indicates the shifing of citta from manifestation (vyutthana) to cessation of manifestation (nirodha). With this the yogi overcomes all misidentification of the Purusa with Prakrti, which wrongly perceives all Prakrti’s own activites as those generating from Purusa.

69Yoga sutra, 1, 49 73

This is a mystical state, a state beyond verbal expression and hence, the Bhasya70 of Vyasa says, “Yoga must be known through yoga, and yoga prevails through yoga. Whatsoever is committed to yoga, delights in yoga for long”.

2-10. Role of Knowledge

According to yoga, suffering (dukkha) is due to ignorance

(avidya).71Patabjali while accepting this as the ontological cause of duḥkha, cites also non-discriminative knowledge (avivekakhyati) as the psychological cause that leads to misidentification ofPurusa and Prakrti, and sets in motion the process of samsaric duhkhas. Many philosophies and religions consider also that it is citta that plays a vital role in the generation of ignorance. Knowledge (vidya), precisely as Patabjali puts it, is discriminative knowledge (vivekakhyati) that helps the individual to understand the true nature of Purusa and Prakrti, and their distinctive roles, and unravel his problems and find freedom from duhkha. This freedom is absolute, for it signifies the involution of the three gunas, and thus restoring the Purusa to its natural state which is pure consciousness. This is called kaivalya. A yogi who has realized this true nature of the Purusa

70Yoga Bhasya iii, 6 says “Yogena Yogo jbatavyo yogo yogat pravatate/ yo'pramattas tu yogena sa yoge ramate ciram//”. 71This is so with most of religions and philosophies of India though avidya is defined in different ways.

becomes absolutely free, for it brings about cessation of mental modification, causing total cessation of all sensations. Such a yogi is called a kevali. Just as Savkhya, Yoga also accepts the two levels of free yogin, theJivanmukta, who being free, yet continues to live with the body intact, and the videhamukta the freed yogin whose body is broken up.72

2-11. Role of God

Unlike Sajkhya, Patabjali’s Yoga accepts the existence of God, devotion to whom as well as whose grace helps a yogi to accomplish his spiritual endeavour. Hence, when the yoga of Patabjali is distinguished from Sajkhya which has exerted much influence on it, the former is called sewvara sajkhya and the latter niriwvara–sajkhya. Unlike Sajkhya, which is merely a philosophy, Patabjali’s Yoga is both a philosophy and a religion. It is less ontological in its approach than Sajkhya. It gives special importance to psychology, ethics and morals. It also gives a very special place to moral deeds and their consequences, highlighting the role played by the mind in generating suffering (duhkha). All these features add to its religious character, making room for the belief in God.

However, it is clearly seen that the accommodation of the belief in God, and the acceptance of some sort of grace of God in obtaining

72These two states can be compared with the Buddhist explanation of state of a living Arahant (Saupadiwesa) and the dead Arahant (Anupadiwesa).

freedom from duhkha does not make yoga a theistic belief. Yoga, unlike

Brahmanism, does not attempt to trace the origin of duhkha to God. It adopts a mere psychological approach and the threefold analysis of duhkha into parinama-duhkha, tapa-duhkha and samskara duhkha also shows its new approach to explain the arising of duhkha. Besides, it does not make a yogi totally dependent on God’s grace and favour to obtain freedom from duhkha. It lays down a path elaborating the practices that should be adopted in actively playing a conscious role in changing one’s behavior.

The devotion to God is made to support and supplement this practice making yoga system consisting of cultivation of factors that leads to change of personality. The God is presented as a source, granting appreciative grace to the successful accomplishment of these religiously motivated practices of the practitioner. The religious scenario of the time must have necessitated this kind of religious bent to attract the attention of the followers.

Summary

The above account clearly shows that Patabjala-Yoga is a linear development of the Vedic tradition. Hence, its contribution to new trends in

Indian religious and philosophical thought in not as strong and significant as some of the contributions made by the Wramana sects. However, it is clear from the Yogasutra that Patabjali made a valiant attempt to give a new interpretation to Sajkya-yoga which provided the whole metaphysical 76

and ontological edifice to the yoga practice. This itself is a noteworthy bold contribution.

As shown above Patabjali, while maintaining the ontological and metaphysical edifice infused the system with phycology and ethics. That really is a marked deviation embarked upon by Patabjali: He adopted the major concept presented in the Sajkhya-yoga namely, Purusa and Prakrti and the three gunas: sattva rajas and tamas. But he at the same time tried to sober down the views by infusing psychology and ethics.

While bearing an extension of Samkhya-yoga, Patabjali very clearly strived to add a new facet by using Buddhist material. This could to seen and this attempt of Patabjali can be appreciated only by discarding the traditional view that Patabjala-yoga is a mere off-short of Brahamanic and speciallyUpanshadic tradition.

To appreciate Patabjali’s new approach it is necessary to be sensitive to the minute changes Patabjali adopts even with regards to the concept of duhkha. Unlike Samkhya, Patabjali widened the long cherished ontological perspective adopted by Samkhya, by introducing a fair portion of psychology and ethics. Final attempt by Patabjali is seen when one carefully examines how Patabjali interpreted the Samkhya concept of misidentification by as due to wrong perception of what is subject to change (anitya) as permanent etc.

His explanation of the concept of karmawaya (receptacle of deeds) clearly shows the influence of Buddhist ethical teachings. The psychological bias seen in Patabjali’s explanation is an evidence for the influence of Buddhism on him.

There is no need to underscore the similarity between the Astavga yoga and Arya-astangika marga presented in Buddhism. An analysis of the practice shows the graduatedness of the practice and its closeness to Sila-

Samadhi and Prajba.

Patabjali’s introduction of the concept of Iwvara aims mainly at giving more religious garb to the system of Yoga and attract more followers to it.