Chapter II Re-Understanding Patabjali's Yogasutra
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Chapter II Re-understanding Patabjali’s Yogasutra Introduction Students of Indian philosophy will clearly notice that the term ‘yoga’ has been in vogue from very early times, and it has been a term used by many traditions, in different nuances of meaning. An inquiry into the early beginning of religious thought and practices in India makes clear that the Vedic Aryans were not familiar either with the term yoga or the practices connected with it. This absence of any reference to any kind of yoga in the early phases of Vedic religious thought is understandable, as the aim of Vedic religious practice was mainly to secure secular or other- worldly happiness and gain. In other words, Vedic religious practices mainly targeted the accomplishment of mundane goals. Contrariwise yoga from its inception was aiming at the accomplishment of spiritual attainments. The perplexity experienced by the Vedic Aryans when they confronted religious practitioners whom one would describe as yogins is seen from the Vedic hymn, the Keśin Sukta. 41 By reading through the content of this hymn it becomes clear that these early Aryans were not only 41Rv, 10.136. For a detailed discussion see Karel Werner (ed), The Yogi and the Mystic Studies in Indian and Comparative Mysticism, School of Oriental Studies, University of Durham, 1989. 51 perplexed by such encounters with yogins, but also expressed awe and admiration about them. This reference in the Rgveda is very important to show that besides what is particularly known as the Vedic religious and philosophical tradition, there existed in ancient India, a completely different tradition which was alien to the Vedic tradition. This tradition, is generally treated as a part of Indian culture, which got assimilated later with the Vedic Aryans, and immensely contributed to the rise of a very strong philosophical and religious tradition, rather opposed to Brahmanism, and came to be described as the Śramana tradition. This fact should be clearly borne in mind when interpreting the yogic tradition, for otherwise such interpretation could be completely biased toward Brahmanic beginning of yoga, and then may prompt a student in building a hemenutional approach that will block evidence suggestive of non-Brahmanic features in yoga. 2-1.The Term Yoga The term yoga is from the root yuj / yubj, meaning ‘to yoke, to join, to fasten or harness’. In its developed meaning, especially in religious meaning, it meant also ‘to concentrate the mind in order to obtain union with the universal spirit’; ‘to be adopted in meditation’ etc.42Hiriyanna 42See monier Willams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary (SED), under the term ‘yuj’. 52 observes that the term is cognate with English word ‘yoke’, and that, in Indian religious usage, it refers essentially to a process of self conquest and was not unoften resorted to in ancient India for the acquisition of supernatural or occult power.43 Radhakrishnan observes that the term is used in a variety of senses, and it may simply mean method. It is often used in the sense of yoking. He suggests that, in Bhagavadgita and other religious texts it connotes the meaning of spiritual unification. In Patabjalayoga it does not mean union, but only effort; or as Bhoja says it means separation (viyoga) between Purusa and Prakrti. He further observes that this term means also exertion, strenouos endeavour, and hence, came to be used for the system of restraint of the senses and the mind. The same writer further observes that according to Patabjali yoga is a methodical effort to attain perfection, through the control of different elements of human nature, physical and psychical.44 Obviously, the term is impregnated with meaning in the way it is used in religious literature. It has been further complicated by modern scholars who venture to give wide explanations of the term. At present the terms yoga, yogin etc. are very much in vogue in writings connected with 43M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p. 110 44S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. II, pp 337-338. 53 religious practices, especially concerned with sense restraint, and mental culture. 2-2. Early Traces of Yoga Practices As pointed out before, yoga, in the sense of sense restraint and mental culture, was rather alien to Vedic religious systems. But hints suggestive of practitioners of such disciplines are found in Vedic texts too. The word muni, a particular category of sages different from both Brahmin hermits engaged in sacrificial rites and rituals and chanting (hotr, udgatr) and rather closer to sages (rsis), is found in the Rgvedga.45 Scholars have pointed out that the Atharva-veda makes reference to the belief that severe ascetic practices enable a practitioner to attain super-natural powers. The rsis were considered as inspired persons who have attained special spiritual status through special practices involving sense and mind culture. This belief got more crystallized in the Upanishads when they refer to religious practitioners engaged in concentration and meditation. Radhakrsihanan point out that the term yoga as a technical term occurs in the Kathapanisad.46 Further, it is pointed out that the Katha speaks of the highest condition of yoga as a state in which the sense, mind and intellect, are brought to a standstill.47 It is also pointed out that the Maitri-Upanishad 45Rgveda , x, 136, 4,5 46Radhakrishnan, op. cit, p. 339. 47Ibid loc. cit. 54 refers to six fold yoga, and some of the technical terms are similar to those used in Patabjali’s system. 48 The situation becomes still clear at the time of the Buddha. There is direct reference to Bodhisattva receiving training under two reputed meditation masters of the time. One was Alara Kalama; and the other,Uddaka Ramaputta.49 Though there is no certainty regarding their affiliations to particular traditions, it is quite clear that they practiced yoga of a certain kind, if not some form of Savkhya-yoga, at least, some practice very close to it. The term yoga is of frequent occurrence in Buddhist texts, especially in the Suttas.50 The phrases such as ‘yogam karoti’, ‘yogam apajjati’ occur which convey the meaning, ‘makes effort’, ‘strives after’. The two extremist paths which the Buddha’s Middle path avoids are called kamasukhallikanuyoga (engagement in enjoyment of sensual pleasure) and attakilamathanuyoga (engagement in self-tormentation). Though the term yoga is not used to refer to sense-restraint or mental culture, the term was commonly used to convey the sense of ‘committed application’, which, generally is the primary sense of the term. 2-3. Patabjali's Yoga 48Ibid, loc. cit 49M. I, Sutta, 26; Ariyapariyesana sutta. 50S. II, 131; A. II, 93. 55 A primary concern of this thesis is Patabjala Yoga system, a particular religious tradition that has played a very important role in the Indian religious thought and practice. This system is known by the name of the founder of the system, Patabjali. The exact identity of Patabjali is not clear. There is reference to two Patabjalis; one is the auther of Yogasutra, the fundamental text of the Yoga school; and the other in the grammarian. Some consider the two to be the same. Hiriyanna assigns the Yogasutra to about the end of the 5th century A.D. On this basis he says that, if the date is accepted as correct, the traditional identification of its author (i.e. Patabjali) with the grammarian Patabjali, who is known to have lived in the 2nd century B.C., cannot to be maintained. James Haughton Woods, the author of the work, ‘The Yoga system of Patabjali’ ascribes the Yogasutra between 300- 500 A. D.. After a careful study of the authorship of Yogasutra, he says that the tradition that identifies51 the two Patabjalis, is not older than the 10th century, which is a thousand years after the date of the grammarian Patabjali, and also that this identification is not supported by comparison of philosophical concepts. 51This identification is based on Bhoja's Rajamartanda. This work assigned to the 10th century A.D. (See James Haughton Woods, The Yoga System ofPatabjali, (1992 Print). However, see Radhakrishnan (op. cit. p 341, n. 2 for different views. According to him Patabjali of Yogasutra cannot be placed later than 300 A.D. Even if this is accepted, the identification of the two Patabjalis cannot be maintained. Compare also, S. N. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy, In relation to other system of Indian Thoughts, p. 556.) 56 Thus, the founding of the Yoga system is a moot point. Radhakrishnan says that according to the Yajbavalkya smrti. Hiranya- garbha is the founder of this system; and he argues that Madhava points out that this does not contradict Patabjali’s authoriship of Yogasutra. This is on the ground that Patabjali himself calls his work ‘Anuwasana’, by which he meant that his work follows a primary revelation, and Yogasutra is not the first formulation of the system. However, the Yogasutra was considered a very important text as it is proved by the existence of a number of exegeses on it. One of the earliest amongst these is Vyasa’s commentary (4th century A.D.). On this Vacaspati wrote a glossary called Tattvavaiwaradi (9th century). Vijbaana Bhiksu’s Yogavarttika, a commentary on Yogabhasya and the Yogasarasavgraha are also noteworthy contributions. 2-4. Yogasutra Yogasutra of Patabjali is the oldest text book of the yoga school. Though all agree that there are references to yoga in Upanisads, especially in the later ones, the exact origin of this tradition is not clear. Some regard it as an independent tradition. However, the fact is that there can hardly be any independent religious tradition in the religious milieu of India. All religions are social products.