ous riparianareas,animportant streambankstabilizer. snags arehabitatforcavity-nesting birds.Inmountain- and northernIdaho;retains shrubbyform.Pacificyew foliage inwinter. BrowsedheavilyinwesternMontana fruit anddisperseseed.Moose,deer, andelkbrowse Ecological relations: seed inopenings. communities. Shadetolerant,butreproducesfrom growth Douglas-fir, grandfir, andwesternredcedar Successional stage: fires removecanopyandexposebaremineralsoil. found inopenforestsoraftermanagementactivity and midtolowerslopesorcanyonbottoms.Seedlings Habitat: fern. leaf, queencupbeadlily, wildginger, andwesternsword lock; vinemaple,dwarfOregongrape,deerfootvanilla- grand fir, whitefir, Pacificsilverfir, andwesternhem- silver fir, grandfirandmixed-coniferzones.Douglas-fir, Associations: from scatteredindividualstothickunderstorypatches. sea levelto1500m;widely, butvariablydistributed central CaliforniatoAlaska,westernMontana;from Range anddistribution: on lowersideofbranches. (strobili) inconspicuous;fruitfleshy, redaril,attached forming flatsprays;bothmaleandfemale“flowers” and attachedtotwigsbyshort-ridgedstalksintworows needles flat,yellowgreen,palebelow, sharplypointed, 5-10 mtall;barklightredbrown,thin,andpapery; Description: Ecology TABR2 Taxaceae Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia Dense,moist,mature,mixed-evergreenforest, Native. Smalldioeciousevergreentree, Sitkaspruce,westernhemlock,Pacific Commoncomponentofold- Birdsandsmallmammalseat Pacific Northwest,northand Nutt. term freezerstorage. to lowmoisturecontentretain viabilityduringlong- and seededinspring.Seeds arehighinfatcontent;dry nate untilsecondspring.Storedseedscanbepretreated collected fruitandsowndirectlyinbedmaynotgermi- can breakdormancyofyewseeds.Seedsfromfreshly temperatures. Warm stratificationfollowedbychilling prechilling treatments,andstoredatrecommended seeds areextractedfromfruit,putimmediatelyinto losses topredation.Ifusedforseedlingproduction, Fruits shouldbepickedassoontheyareripetoavoid Seed: dation bybirdsandanimalsalsoincreases. production increaseswithopennessofcanopybutpre- arils ripenfromSeptembertoOctober;fruitandseed Flowering andfruiting: Biology seed bankastheoverstorycanopydevelops. establishes bymeansofbird-dispersedoffsiteseedor rarely survivesmajorfires.Afterfire,generallyre- cal orsomefiredamage,butbecauseofthinbark,it Susceptible toheatdamage;canresproutaftermechani- Seedsarematurewhenfleshyarilturnsred. FlowersfromApriltoJune; Taxus brevifolia 109
Plants Plants used asanornamentalplant. Wood usedforcrafts. system, andexternallyforskinproblems.Occasionally Foliage usedasherbalmedicineforboostingimmune used forchemotherapyoncertainformsofcancer. Common uses: Uses andProducts about 3to4years. ary buds.Newgrowthwillreplaceremovedmaterialin tips, newsproutingandgrowthwilloccurfromsecond- regenerate. Whenfoliageharvestedbyclippingbough sufficient stumpisleft,butnotalways.Barkwill Regeneration afterharvest: Bough tipsareharvestedinsummerandearlyfall. summer whensapflowmakesiteasiertopeeloff. Harvest season: where stembeginstobecomewoody(about15-20cm). bough tipsareclippedwithsharpclippersuptopoint from circumferenceoftrunk,treewilldie.Foliage: strips fromcutstemorstandingtree.Ifbarkispeeled Harvest techniques: Part harvested: Collection shade. lings; seedlingestablishmentusuallybetterinsome Transplant viability: cially available. ceptible torootweevil.Plantsandseedsarecommer- Cultivation: fall andwinteraftercurrentgrowthhasstopped. of reproductioninthewild.Branch-tipcuttingscollected cuttings. Inmanyareas,layeringistheprimarymeans Vegetative reproduction: 110 Can becultivated;undercultivation,sus- Barksourceofphytopharmaceutical Barkandfoliage. Barkisharvestedinspringandearly Barkpeeledwithknivesinvertical Goodforsmallsaplingsorseed- Easilypropagatedfrom Cuttreesmayresproutif mestic; internationalbulkexportmedicinalmarkets. whole plant,domesticlandscapenursery. Foliage,do- Types ofmarkets: carved specialtyproducts;landscapeplant. species. Foliage:salves,tinctures,andteas.Wood: Comments andAreasofConcern et al.(1996) USDA ForestService(1963,1974),Walters-Vertucci (1998), HortusWest (1998),Tirmenstein (1990e), Antos etal.(1996),Cooke(1997),DiFazio References have requestedlimitedcommercialuse. traditionally usedbyAlaskantribes;AlaskaNatives populations, whichhavenotyetrecovered.Yew is harvest practiceshaveresultedinlossesorreductions precisely thespecies.Yew barkharvestandpasttimber genus aretoxicsousecautioninharvestingandknow seeds mayhavehigherlevels.Otherspeciesinthis Although foliarplantpartsarelowintoxicalkaloids, bark of Common products: Used formakingbows,othertools,andcarvings. coast NativeAmericansbecauseitisstronganddense. Indigenous uses: Taxus brevifolia Wood ishighlyprizedbythewest Allparts,internationalanddomestic; Pharmaceuticalproductsfrom andfoliageofother Taxus Shade tolerant. but canbefoundinallstages offorestsuccession. Successional stage: mid elevations;below1800 m. alluvial sites,alsoindrierhabitatsrichersoils;lowto Habitat: prince’s pine. berry, westernswordfern,maidenhairand Devil’s club,salal,falsebox,blackhuckleberry, rasp- fir zones.Western hemlock, Douglas-fir, redalder, Associations: associated withothertreespecies. Pure standscoversomesmallareas,butitisusually Oregon toBritishColumbiawesternMontana. northern California,CascadeRangefromcentral Range anddistribution: brown. seeds, threetosixpercone,4-6mm,narrow, light cones green,becomingbrown,10-19mm;winged short stalks;pollencones1.5-2mm,numerous;seed tered neartheendsoftwigsandbecometurnedupon shingled arrangement,1.5-3mmlong;conesareclus- pair, unfolded,closelypressedtosteminoverlapping four rows,theleavesinonepairfolded,other tened horizontally;leavesscalelike,oppositepairsin upward, J-shaped;branchletsspraylike,stronglyflat- branches tendtospreadordroopslightlythenturn fluted andbuttressedatbase;manyhaveforkedtops; off inlongfibrousstrips,aromaticwood;maturetrees more; bark1-2cmthick,graytoreddishbrown,tearing trunk 0.6-1.2mindiameter, occasionallyto1.8mor Description: Ecology THPL Cupressaceae Western redcedar Thuja plicata Wet soils,shadyforests, bestonseepageand Native. Evergreentree,30-70m,tapering Western hemlock, Pacificsilverfir, grand Latesuccessionalinmostforests, Donn exD.Don Pacific coast,Alaskato revegetation potential. Gilbertson), respectively;erosioncontrolandlong-term (Pilát) Overholt)and Maire) andtrunkrootrots( host, leafblight( in earlyAugust,seedfall October toNovember. months; flowersinlateMay toearlyJune,conesripen Flowering andfruiting: Biology redcedar borer( gall midge( host forseveraldamaginginsectspecies,suchasthe mammal dens,andnesttreesforcavitynestingbirds; hiding andthermalcoverforseveralwildlifespecies, black bearsremovebarkfeedonexposedsapwood; Ecological relations: Mayetiola thujae Trachykele blondeli Didymascella thujina (Phellinus weirii Deer, elk,androdentbrowse; Reproductivecycleover16 Hedlin)andwestern Poria asiatica Marseul),fungi (Murrill)R.L. (E.J.Durand) Thuja plicata 111
Plants Plants conditions. in 3yearswhenfertilizedand 5yearsundernatural limb, thenewgrowthwillreplace theremovedmaterial limbs areremovedleaving small greengrowthoneach 3 to5yearsdependingonthehealthoftree.Ifside and itsbrancheswillrecovertooriginalmasswithin regenerate. Taking barkleavespermanentscar. Thetree sprout laterallyafterbranchtipisclipped.Barkdoesnot Regeneration afterharvest: season runsuntiltheweekbeforeChristmas. materials. Forlocalfinisheddecorations,theharvest until twoweeksbeforeChristmasforwholesaleraw greenery isharvestedtypicallyfromlateSeptember harden off foliage;rootsandwoodallyear. Holiday for Christmasgreensinfallaftercooltemperatures spring whensaprunsandbarkcanbepeeled;foliage collected whentheyturnfromyellowtobrown;barkin ered insummerorfallforhighestoilcontent;cones Harvest season: chanical damage. should befreeofdirt,leafspot,insectdamage,orme- dles keptwet,shaded,andcooluntilused.Branches lengths from30-75cm.Branchesin40-to60-lbbun- branches withhealthygreenfoliageareclippedin downed woodwithsplittingwedgeandmaul.Live and pulled;barkisscoredwood,usually Harvest techniques: and wood. Part harvested: Collection Transplant viability: commercially available. Cultivation: branches, androotingofstemcuttingsallsuccessful. Vegetative reproduction: ally infallorspring.Seedlingsurvivalislowthewild. Seed: 112 Seedsgerminatewellwithoutstratification;gener- Can becultivated.Plantsandseedsare Branches,cones,bark,smallroots, Branchesofyoungertreesaregath- Young seedlingstransplantwell. Foliage isclipped;rootsaredug Layering,rootingoffallen Foliagebranchescan nal, herbal,floral,crafts,andwoodproducts. Types ofmarkets: al tinctures. Common products: colds, anddiarrhea. to treatvariousailments;teaofboughsforcoughsand implements, baskets,andclothing.Foliageorbarkused make canoes,houseplanks,totempoles,toolsand Alaska andintheCascadeRange,providingwoodto Americans onthePacificNorthwestcoastupthrough Indigenous uses: lead refiningandglueextenders. rations; veterinarysoaps;extractivesandresiduesin perfumes anddeodorants;insecticides;medicinalprepa- posts, interiorfinishing,closets,chests,boxes,etc.; material, shingles,shakes,siding,utilitypoles,fence and floral.Tree boleandbranchesusedforbuilding fluids, salves,liniments;industrialcleaners;ornamental fungus infections;aromaticoilandincense,embalming terial, milddiuretic,fortoothaches,oilwarts,and Common uses: Uses andProducts and Schumann(1993),Willard (1992) non (1994),Roseetal.(1998), Tesky (1992), Thomas Kruckeberg (1993),Moore (1993),PojarandMacKin- Hitchcock andCronquist(1978), HortusWest (1998), and Dyrness(1973),Freed (2000),Hickman(1993), Honkala (1990),Cooke(1997),Davis(2000),Franklin British ColumbiaMinistryofForests(1995),Burnsand References purposes. tree; besttocollectfromtreesbeingfelledforlegitimate limited commercialuse.Barkandrootharveststressthe American tribes,andAlaskaNativeshaverequested and convulsion.RedcedaristraditionallyusedbyNative Oil ofleavescanbetoxic,causinglowbloodpressure Comments andAreasofConcern Boughsusedasanantifungal,antibac- ThemostvaluabletreetoNative Internationalanddomestic.Medici- Ornamentalboughs,oil,andherb- one flowerforeachplantannually. Flowering andfruiting: Biology seed iseatenbyants. Ecological relations: tolerant butalsofoundinsmallopenings. Successional stage: in spring. slopes, dampmeadows,streambanks,andoftenboggy Habitat: prince’s pine,queencupbeadlily, andsalal. grand fir, Alaskahuckleberry, starryfalseSolomonseal, Pacific silverfir/rosytwistedstalkassociates;whitefir, Associations: spread. forest andmontanezones;10-2000m.Wide- to CaliforniafromcoastinlandMontana;lowland Range anddistribution: many seeds. petals 0.5-7cmlong;fruitsoval,berrylikecapsulewith 0.5-6 cmlongandthreewhitepinkorpurple(withage) erect tonodding,solitary, erect,withthreegreensepals stemless leaves,4-20cmatendofthestalk;flowers to 45cm;singlestalkfromshort,fleshyrhizome;three Description: Ecology TROV2 Melanthiaceae Western trillium,wake-robin Trillium ovatum Mixedevergreenforestonmoistwooded Native. Perennial,erectunbranchedherb Western hemlock/westernswordfern, Midtolatesuccessional.Shade Theoil-richappendageofthe FromMarchthroughJune; Common. BritishColumbia Pursh seed propagationmoresuccessful. Transplant viability: commercially available. Cultivation: propagated fromrhizomedivision. Vegetative reproduction: moist asseedlingspronetodampingoff. month to3years.Caretakennotkeepconditionstoo stratification, 15ºCisrecommended,maytakefrom1 Seed: Growsreadilyfromseed.Seedrequirescold Can becultivated.Plantsandseedsare Doesnotsurvivetransplanting, Cultivatedplantsmaybe Trillium ovatum 113
Plants Plants herbal, landscapenursery, andhorticultural. Types ofmarkets: plant. Common products: eyes, childbirthaid,andsometimescookedforgreens. Indigenous uses: plant, landscapingandasshadeplant. ine bleeding,bladderirritation,andnosebleeds.Whole Stems, leaves,androots,formedicinalpurposes,uter- Common uses: Uses andProducts following season. harmed andwillproducenewaerialstemleavesthe just beforetheyyellowlateinseason,plantmaynotbe Regeneration afterharvest: Harvest season: or duringbloomwillharmandmaykillplant. reduced byharvest.Gatheringleavesinearlysummer be collectedinsmallquantities.Plantpatchesareeasily for winterandcanproducenewgrowth.Plantsshould so therootswillhavealreadystoredadequatenutrients late intheseason(justastheyareabouttoturnyellow) collection fromwild.Leavesandstemsarecollected Harvest techniques: Part harvested: Collection 114 Cutflowersforfreshfloralbouquets. Leaves,stems,androots. Latefall. Rootsusedasaneyewashforsore Internationalanddomestic.Florist, Freshfloral,herbal,andlandscape Hassmallroots;donotencourage None. Ifleavescollected sensitive specieslist. cally imperiled”andonForestServiceNorthernRegion ( medicinal plants“AtRisk”list.Siskiyoutrillium fore collecting.OnUnitedPlantSaversNorthAmerican issued. Ensurethatharvestisnotlocallyrestrictedbe- gions (MontanaandIdaho),nopermitsarebeing tional forestsintheNorthernandIntermountainRe- from MontanaStatelands.Harvestprohibitedonna- inal plantsunderamoratoriumonharvestorremoval have reducedpopulations.Oneofthesevenwildmedic- for useabroad.InCalifornia,collectingandhabitatloss Large amountsreportedremovedfromeastcoastforest Comments andAreasofConcern (1993), UnitedPlantSavers(2000) Ross andChambers(1988),StewartToogood (1998b), Moore(1993),PojarandMacKinnon(1994), (1993), Loganetal.(1987),Mizerak(1998),Moerman Cronquist (1978),HortusWest (1998),Kruckeberg Gardenbed (2000),Hickman(1993),Hitchcockand Craighead etal.(1991),FranklinandDyrness(1973), References Trillium angustipetalum ) islistedinOregonas“criti- penetrable standsmaybeused tokeeplivestockoutof tects riparianhabitatsfrom humanencroachment.Im- replenishes thesoilthrough rapiddecomposition;pro- sites asitmaybetolerantofmetal-contaminatedsoil; birds; mayhavevalueforrehabilitationofdisturbed Ecological relations: mediate inshadetolerance. also partofstableripariancommunities.Lowtointer- Successional stage: in deep,rich,andundisturbedsoils. to marshesandmeadows,thickets,streambanks;grows Habitat: meadow grasses,sedges,andrushes. in blackhawthorn/cow-parsnipassociations;andwet understory componentofripariancommunities,suchas coniferous zonesinthePacificNorthwest.Common Associations: large areas. under 3000m.Densecolonialpatchescandominate southern Canada;lowlandstosubalpineelevations, Range anddistribution: introduced fromEurasia. flattened, ovateachenes. drooping clustersintheleafaxilsandatstemtips;fruits like inflorescence,1-7cm;flowersgreenishindense coarsely toothed,prominentstipules5-15mm;panicle- hairs; leavesopposite,lanceshapedtooval,7-15cm, flowers sparselytomoderatelycoveredwithstinging herb, 1-3mtall;four-angledstems;stems,leaves,and Description: Ecology URDI Urticaceae Stinging nettle Urtica dioica Moist,forestedriparianareas;inandadjacent Native. Erect,perennial,rhizomatous Mixed-conifer/hardwoodforests;most Colonizesfollowingdisturbance, L. Coverforsmallanimalsand Urtica dioica Much ofUnitedStatesand ssp. dioica rhizomatous cuttings. Transplant viability: available. Cultivation: Vegetative reproduction: growing season. Seedling production: 10 yearsofstorage. Seed: mid tolatesummer. mountain plantsinearlysummer;seedsarematureby Flowering andfruiting: Biology plants. growing season,however, maynegatively impactthe early speciesonburnedsites.Frequentfiresduringthe zomes andseedafterfire.Stingingnettleisacommon streams. Stingingnettleregeneratesfromburiedrhi- Producesabundantseed,havegerminatedafter Can becultivated.Seedsarecommercially Cantransplantseedlingsand Initiatevegetativespreadinfirst Coastalplantsbloominspring, Byrhizomes. Urtica dioica 115
Plants Plants cosmetic, andhealthcare. Types ofmarkets: ment. supplement, herbalteas,tablets,andnutritionalsupple- Common products: snares. cal, andgynecologicalaid;fiberisusedforfishnets al springtonic,analgesic,gastrointestinal,dermatologi- Indigenous uses: content. conditioners, forskincare;vitaminandmineral hyperplasia; asasupplementinshampoosandhair tract inflammation;astreatmentforbenignprostatic antiallergenic, forrheumaticcomplaints,andurinary as apotherb,vegetable.Asdiuretic,antispasmodic, Common uses: Uses andProducts can grownewstems. plant removedbutrootandrhizomesystemfairlyintact, will resproutfromrootstalkandrhizomes.Ifwhole Regeneration afterharvest: seeds; falltospring,rootstalks. summer, newgrowthatendofstems;latesummer, Harvest season: from theperipheryofapatch. 5 cmabovegroundlevel;rootsaredugconservatively bloom inearlyspring;stemsarecutatanangle,least Harvest techniques: Part harvested: Collection 116 Theleavescanbesteamedandeaten Wholeplant,leaves,androot. Spring,leavesandstems;spring- Young leavesandstemseaten;gener- Dietarysupplement,specialtyfoods, Gatheredbeforeitbeginsto Skin careandcosmetic,beverage Ifaerialpartsharvested, (1989), Tilford (1998),Vance andThomas(1997) and MacKinnon(1994),RussellSchofield Foster (1996),Moerman(1998b),Moore(1993),Pojar and Cronquist(1978),HortusWest (1998),Leungand klin andDyrness(1973),Hickman(1993),Hitchcock Burrill etal.(1996),Carey(1995),Cooke(1997),Fran- References have requestedlimitedcommercialharvestofnettle. used byNativeAmericantribes,andAlaskaNatives from industrialandagribusinessareas.Traditionally have beensprayedwithherbicides;absorbscompounds habitats; ongrazinglandsconsideredaweedypest;may irritating tothekidneys;thrivesineasilydamagedmoist bloom, olderleavescandevelopparticlesthatbe cause contactdermatitisuntildried.Onceitbeginsto The stemsandleavesarecoveredinstinginghairsthat Comments andAreasofConcern quality. trees. Becauseofsensitivity toSO invertebrates; naturalantifungal,mayservethatrolefor Ecological relations: ately shadetolerant. Successional stage: common intreesalongbeachandriparianareas. conifer/deciduous forests;rareonconiferbranches; shrubs, inopen,well-ventilateddeciduousandmixed- Habitat: alder, andbig-leafmaple,otherlichens. Mixed-conifer/hardwood forests.Oregonwhiteoak,red Associations: wirthii longissima States, CanadatosoutheastcoastalAlaska. Usnea of temperateNorthAmerica;atleastfourspecies Range anddistribution: inside strandawhitecentralcord. branched centralstrandwithshortlateralbranchlets; sima yellow centralcord,sparseredspotting. tufted, multiple,stiffbranchestwotofourlong,pale brown, greenishyellow, andwhitishgray. Description: Ecology USNEA2 Parmeliaceae Old man’s beard Usnea lowland. U. wirthii U. longissima hairlike,15tomorethan35cmlong,singleun- areabundantthroughouttheWestern United frequent.
Usnea longissima Usnea wirthii Dill. exAdans.spp. infrequentbutlocallyabundant. Native. General:fruticose,hanginglichen, P. Clerc,Bloodspatteredbeard-USWI Sitkaspruce,westernhemlockzones. Ach.,Beardlichen-USLO50 Midtolatesuccessional.Moder- Browsedbydeerandfoodfor growsonconifersinopen Widespread. Forestedareas growsonvarioustreesand 2 , goodindexofair Usnea longis- Usnea wirthii Usnea Usnea Part harvested: Collection forest habitattootherhosttrees. Transplant viability: Cultivation: on anotherbranch. tissue thatfallsfromonetreebranchandreestablishes Vegetative reproduction: Seed: Flowering andfruiting: Biology Notapplicable. Not cultivated. Wholeplant. Can betransplantedwithinits Doesnotflower. Reproducesfromdetached Usnea 117 spp .
Plants Plants herbal. crafts. Internationalanddomesticformedicinal Types ofmarkets: ceutical, teas,andtinctures. Common products: antifungal. and femalesanitarynapkins;sourceofyellowdye; wound dressingmaterialandbandages;babydiapers unavailable; towipeslimewhencleaningsalmon; Indigenous uses: as adecorative. positive bacteria,fordriedfloralarrangements,and trials suggest antimicrobial, andantitumor. Labstudiesandclinical Common uses: Uses andProducts ing needed. thought tobeslowandrecoverytakesyears.Monitor- Regeneration afterharvest: it isoftentoodryanddisintegrateseasily. Harvest season: taken. reached fromgroundorcollectedfallentreesis tain growthandtorecover. Generallywhatiseasily known, careistakentoleavesufficientlichenmain- tree branches.Becauseregrowthandrecoverynot Usnea Harvest techniques: 118 toregrow. Thelichenisgently removedfrom Usnea Asanimmunostimulant,antifungal, Nospecialtime;however, insummer Inbagsaspillowswhenfeathersare Primarilydomesticforfloraland maybeusedtoinhibitgram- Craftmaterial,floralfiller, nutra- Itisnotknownhowlongittakes Unknown;regrowth (1998) Moore (1993),PojarandMacKinnon(1994),Tilford and Cole(1988),Mizerak(1998),Moerman(1998b), Franklin andDyrness(1973),Geiseretal.(1994),Hale References confused withwitch’s hair( spreads fromtalloldertreestoyoungertrees.Canbe Does notoccurinyoungforestsbecauseitgenerally range owingtoairpollutionandhabitatdestruction. Has threatenedorextinctstatusinmostofitsEuropean Comments andAreasofConcern range. species. Hasalreadydisappearedthroughoutmuchofits strand. Lossofold-growthhabitatandharvestthreatens however, A. sarmentosa lacksacentralcordinside Alectoria sarmentosa ); Associations: Cascade RangeandOlympicMountains. deliciosum fornia easttoIdahoandwesternMontana. ish ColumbiasouththroughOregonmountainstoCali- northwest California. Columbia south,westsideofCascadeRangetocoast Range anddistribution: black; an uprightspreadingshrub;fruits,purpletoreddish shrub; fruitsduskblue. ters of3-10. usually bellshaped,typicaloftheheathfamilyinclus- shiny, andtoothed. Flowersarepinktoredand ovate, simple,andalternate; Description: Ecology VACCI Ericaceae Huckleberry, blueberry, bilberry Vaccinium Habitat: and rhododendron. munities. lock, beargrass; V. deliciosum and coniferous forestsnearcoastalareas; crease inopenings,orafter fire. tolerant butflowering,fruiting, andreproductionin- Successional stage: of wetmeadows. V. deliciosum V. ovatum V. deliciosum V. membranaceum V. deliciosum huckleberry-VAME V. ovatum
Vaccinium ovatum Vaccinium ovatum , BritishColumbiasouthtonorthernOregon Vaccinium deliciosum : Pacificsilverfirzone.Mountainhem- , subalpineparklands,heaths,andedges Pursh.,Evergreen huckleberry-VAOV2 Native.
Vaccinium membranaceum L.spp. V. deliciosum fruitusuallyshinyandpurplishblack. Piper., Cascadebilberry-VADE , high-elevationforestsmidtoalpine; Earlytolatesuccessional. Shade Vaccinium Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. exTorr., Black Vaccinium membranaceum Vaccinium ovatum : Edgesandopeningsof : Sitkasprucezone.Salal V. ovatum , mountainheathercom- leaves aredeciduous, , lowmat-forming V. membranaceum , evergreen, , Vaccinium , British , Brit- is several timesbeforebeingestablished outside. of peatandsand,aresmall, andmustbetransplanted Vaccinium is helpful.Lightessential forthegerminationof stratification mayaidgermination;overwinteringoutside dried. Seedmaygerminatewithoutstratification,but Seed: species, butfruitsremainonplantuptoDecember. Vaccinium ovatum September. Fruitmaycontain several dozenseeds. July dependingonelevation;fruitsfromthrough Flowering andfruiting: Biology been showntodelayberryproductionfor520years. huckleberry areas.High-intensityfire,however, alsohas pression andcanopyclosurehasreducedproductive fruit, soburningcanhelpberryproduction.Firesup- tablishment israre.Newshootstendtoproducemore berry canresproutfromrootcrowns,butseedlinges- Fruits areeatenbyvariousbirdsandmammals.Huckle- Ecological relations: acnu vtmV eiismV. membranaceum V. deliciosum Vaccinium ovatum Seedsarecollectedfrommaceratedfruitand seeds.Seedlingscanbereared inamixture flowersandfruitsearlierthanother Browsefordeer, elk,andsheep. FlowersfromMaythrough 119
Plants Plants Part harvested: Collection mum rootexposure. able. Transplant shouldhavealarge rootballwithmini- not becomeestablishedifsoilconditionsarefavor- Transplant viability: cies. are commerciallyavailableforvarious and Cultivation: and stemcuttings. regeneration. Canbestartedfromlayeringorrhizome Vegetative reproduction: 1 hourofpickingtomaintain freshnessandsalability. recommended. Berriesare cooled tobelow5ºCwithin hand rake.Largerakesthatstripfoliagewithberriesnot market. Food:berriespickedbyhandorwithsmall bed for1yeartobesoldinthecommercialnursery disturb otherplants,andmustbeplacedintransplant from rhizomesproutsaredugcarefullysoasnotto damage, andblackleafspots.Transplants: smallplants the red-huckmarkets.Allfoliageisfreeofdirt,insect long areharvestedfromplantsgrowninopenareasfor from understoryplants.Newgrowthsspikes45-60cm long, andsprays30-50cmlongfortipsareharvested sprays. Largespraysofdark-greenfoliage,60-75cm growth. Thismethodproducesthemostattractive stems areprunedbackheavilytoencouragenew are foundunderpartialshade.Olderplantswithheavy are desired.Desirablegrowthandcolorcharacteristics branches, deepgreenincolorwithoutflowersorberries branches aresnappedoffbyhand,orclipped,flat Harvest techniques: of markets, berriesforfoodandthetotalplant with foliageandleaves.Leavesstemsforfloral V. deliciosum 120 V. ovatum V. deliciosum for landscapemarket. : berries. Vaccinium membranaceum
Vaccinium membranaceum canbecultivated.Plantsandseeds Possibleforseedlingsbutmay For Vaccinium ovatum V. ovatum Primarymeansofnatural (floralgreens), Vaccinium , : branches V. ovatum and spe- , scaping, andrestorationmaterial. Vaccinium ovatum syrups, candies,beverages, andotherfooditems. V. membranaceum Common products: berries providedessentialvitaminCduringwinter. fresh, mashed,ordriedandmadeintocakes.Preserved 50 kmannuallytoharvestthefruit.Berrieswereeaten The CapellaIndiansreportedlytraveledupto30 the westcoastandinteriorasafreshordriedstaple. was traditionallyusedbymanyindigenouspeoplesof Indigenous uses: plant orgroundcover. ments; manyhorticulturalusesincludingasahedge foliage isusedinfreshandpreservedfloralarrange- food, beverage,andwinecoloring. tion ofmouthandthroat,improvedvision;for order; fruitsfordiarrhea,mucousmembraneinflamma- diabetes, gastrointestinal,kidney, andurinarytractdis- and leaves,astringent,diuretic;leaves(Europe)for antioxidant, juiceasabeverageandtomakewine,fruits fresh, asanaturalfoodcoloring,sourceofvitamins, used invariousprocessedfoodsandcondiments,eaten Vaccinium membranaceum raspberry, rosehips,andhibiscusflowers in teas. Common uses: Uses andProducts leaf areasoftheplantareremoved. response isexpectediflessthan40percentofthegreen replacing removedfoliagewithin2to3years.Good under favorablegrowingconditionshavebeenobserved buds belowharvestedbranch.Floral:healthyplants Regeneration afterharvest: winter). plants, plantsaredugafterbudsdormant(latefallto off, upuntilnewgrowthbeginsinspring.Fortrans- in latesummerthroughfallafternewgrowthhardens early fall. Harvest season: Vaccinium ovatum Huckleberryleavescombinedwith Berrieswhenripe,inlatesummerand Fruitoftheevergreenhuckleberry : driedandfreshfloralgreens, land- : freshandfrozenberries,jams,
Vaccinium deliciosum and isharvestedforitsgreens Newgrowthsproutsfrom V. deliciosum Vaccinium ovatum and : berries : leberry ( coccos heavily impactedbyharvesters.Bogcranberry( is anincreasingproblem,andsomeareasarebeing including grizzlybear( berries areasubstantialpartofthedietsomewildlife interior tonorthernRockyMountainsareofconcernas mercial useforseveralspecies.Poorberrycropsinthe tribes, andAlaskaNativeshaverequestedlimitedcom- Vaccinium Comments andAreasofConcern food, andfloral.Domesticmarketsfornurserystock. for allfoodandcraftsproducts.Specialtydessert Types ofmarkets: ) islistedasimperiledinIdaho.Velvetleaf huck- V. myrtilloides speciesaretraditionallyusedbyAmerican Internationalanddomesticmarkets Ursus arctos )
is listedinOregon. L.).Illegalharvest V. oxy- Young (1992) Service (1965),Vance andThomas(1997),Young and Tilford (1998),Tirmenstein (1990f),USDAForest Rose etal.(1998),ThomasandSchumann(1993), (1996), Minore(1972),PojarandMacKinnon(1994), tus West (1998),Kruckeberg (1993),LeungandFoster denbed (2000),HitchcockandCronquist(1978),Hor- Antos etal.(1996),FranklinandDyrness(1973),Gar- References 121
Plants Plants 122 attracted torootodor. moist siteswithheavywinter snowpack;catsandrats elk, bear, moose,andsmalleranimals;indicates cool, Ecological relations: ow communities.Shadeintolerant. Successional stage: meadows, cliffsandstreambanks,openorshadedsoils. Habitat: and sedge. Valeriana scouleri hellebore, sedge,blackhuckleberry, lupine,andarnica. from rhizomes. Description: Ecology VALER Valerianaceae Valerian Valeriana white firzones. Associations: ally widelydispersed. 3000 m.Oftenfoundinsmall,densecoloniesbutgener- species inCalifornia;moderatetohighelevations,1500- ate zone,overadozenspeciesinWestern States,fewer Range anddistribution: rhizome; crenateleaves. 15-70 cmtall;fibrousrootedfromastoutbranched occidentalis fruit generallycompressed,veinedachene. leaves; clusteredinflorescence;flowerswhiteorpink; leaves, oneormoresetsofopposite,dissectedstem 120 cm;short,hairyleaves,mostlyundividedbasal V. scouleri V. occidentalis V. sitchensis Moistsitesinconiferousforests,subalpine : commonly30-90cm. Native. About200species:perennialherb Pacificsilverfir, mountainhemlock, Rydb., Scouler’s valerian-VASC2 Valeriana sitchensis Valeriana sitchensis L. spp. Bong.,Sitkavalerian-VASI : Western hemlockzone.Douglas-fir Heller, Western valerian-VAOC2 Earlytolatesuccessionalinmead- Commonbrowsefordeer, Genus worldwideintemper- Valeriana scouleri : Americanfalse : erectstems30- Valeriana : available for Cultivation: plants. zomes. Incultivation,clumpscanbedividedtogetnew Vegetative reproduction: soil, butcansurvivedrought. established fromseed;establisheswellinrich,moist fall inafewdaysaftermature.Seedissmall.Easily Seed: fruit issmall,hardribbedwithfeatheryplumes. Flowering andfruiting: Biology are small,donotrecommend. plants areeasilyestablished fromseedandpopulations Transplant viability: cially availablefor aein cueiV oubaaV. V. columbiana Valeriana scouleri Timing iscriticalwhencollectingseedasitcan Valeriana officinalis Can becultivated.Seedsarecommercially V. scouleri Canbetransplanted,butbecause FlowersfromJunetoAugust; Canreproducefromrhi- (Scouler’s valerian). . Plantsarecommer- sitchensis 123
Plants Plants nal, herbal,andhealthcare. Types ofmarkets: in heathcareasspecialtyproducts. Common products: incense; leavesmixedwithtobaccoasflavoring. root forfood;plantstomachtroubles;driedrootsas tapeworm medicine,rawrootpoisonousandcooked roots rubbedonrheumatismandforswelling,rootasa Indigenous uses: relieve anxietyandpromotesleep. skin softener;flavoringinbeveragesanddesserts;to Common uses: Uses andProducts or waituntilseedshavedispersedbeforeharvesting. ed; ifseedsarepresent,spreadthemattimeofharvest Regeneration afterharvest: have highermedicinalpotency. Harvest season: the plantsareflowering. For fallandwintercollecting,patchesarelocatedwhen species. Itiseasiertogrowincommercialquantities. ed speciesbutisnotbeingcultivatedasmuchother sitchensis Harvest techniques: Part harvested: Collection 124 ) isthemostpopularcommerciallywildcraft- Asanantispasmodicandhypotensive; Roots. Latesummerthroughfall;infall,roots Rubbedonsoremuscles;pounded Internationalanddomestic.Medici- Tea, tinctures, capsules,ingredient Sitkavalerian( Low;entirerootiscollect- Valeriana (1993,1998), USDAForestService(1988) non (1994),ThomasandSchumann(1993),Tilford Moerman (1998b),Moore(1993),PojarandMacKin- (1998), LeungandFoster(1996),Mizerak (1993), HitchcockandCronquist(1978),HortusWest Dykeman (1990),Hartmannetal.Hickman Brevoort (1998),Craigheadetal.(1991),Eliasand References first. disturbance. Notalwayswell-tolerated,usecautiouslyat and pronetocompaction;moistsitessusceptible ering onfragile,steepslopesandwhenthesoiliswet conservatively fromdense,healthypatches;avoidgath- Check forsignsofbrowsebeforeharvesting;gather Comments andAreasofConcern ranges. elk willeatthedryleavesandstemsonoverusedwinter areas; seedsareasourceofwinterfoodforsmallbirds; and firstsourceofsmallanimalhabitatindisturbed breaking upcompactedsoil;reintroducingpollinators Ecological relations: Shade intolerant. lowing disturbance,frequentlyinbaremineralsoil. Successional stage: rocky mineralsoil. fields, anddryopenwasteplacesordisturbedareasin Habitat: common dandelion,chickweed,andyarrow. Associations: America; below2200m.Widespread andcommon. Range anddistribution: long. low, lowertwohairless; seedsinovoidcapsule,8mm 15-30 mmwide,fivestamens,upperthreehairy, yel- stem; racemeinflorescence;flowersyellow, circular, stem leavesalternate,30-40cmlong,smallerupthe 30 cm-2mtall;basalleaves8-50cmlong,wideratend; basal leaves;secondyearproducingsingleerectstem with woolyhairs;firstyearproducingrosetteof Description: Ecology VETH Scrophulariaceae mullein Mullein, commonmullein,woolly Verbascum thapsus Commononroadsides,alongriverbottoms, Exotic.Biennialherb,denselycovered Herbsofopenfields,dock,burdock, Earlysuccessional;colonizesfol- Importantforsoilstabilization, Throughout temperateNorth L. stage. Transplant viability: available. Cultivation: cuttings takeninearlyspring. Vegetative reproduction: germinate, butestablisheseasily. tion requirements,besttemperature,30°C,slowto Seed: fruits arecapsules. Flowering andfruiting: Biology Seedsnumerousandwingless,complexgermina- Can becultivated.Plantsarecommercially Easilytransplantedinrosette FromJunetoSeptember; Canbepropagatedbyroot Verbascum thapsus 125
Plants Plants infections; smokingmixturebase. people notintheirrightmind;powderedrootforskin leaves usedonswollenglands;plantsmokedascurefor cough, andfever. Leafpoulticeappliedtocuts;scalded teething babies,decoctionofleaftakenforcolds, Indigenous uses: lient. to treatbronchitisandasthma;dyes;oilasskinemol- diuretic, sedative,astringent,andherbalcoughremedy; Common uses: Uses andProducts will produceplantstemthefollowingyear. centage ofleavesareremovedfromrosette,theplant regenerate iffloweringheadisremoved.Ifsmallper- Regeneration afterharvest: best condition;flowerswhenbudsarehalfopen. Harvest season: microsites thattheplantmaybeproviding. environmental consequencesofreducingshadeand usable. Leavesandflowersareharvestedtominimize spring ofthefirstyeargrowth.Secondisstill Harvest techniques: Part harvested: Collection 126 Medicinal,asanexpectorant,mild Leavesandflowers. Leavesinsummer, MaytoAugust Medicinal,rootswornasnecklaceby Bestproductwhenharvestedin Biennialplantwillnot Pacific Northweststates. generally notinvasiveandconsiderednoxiousin important forslopestabilization.Althoughnonnative,is areas. Harvestwithcautioninareaswhereitmaybe May beusedforrestorationpurposesinharshdegraded Comments andAreasofConcern 1998), Young andYoung (1986) (1997), ThomasandSchumann(1993),Tilford (1993, Ody (1993),PojarandMacKinnon(1994),Rice (1998), MunzandKeck(1959),Moerman(1998b), (1990), Hickman(1993),HortusWest (1998),Mizerak ill etal.(1996),Craighead(1991),Hartmann Abrams andFerris(1960),BrillDean(1994),Burr- References health care. Types ofmarkets: eardrops, andeyewash. Common products: Domestic.Medicinal,herbal,and Tea, tincture,oil,coughsyrup, Moderately shadetolerant. cies, butrarelybloomsunder adenseforestcanopy. or resproutswellafterfire. Persistent, long-livedspe- species andhighlytolerantofdisturbance;regenerates Successional stage: based soils. well onserpentinesoils,butdoesnottoleratelimestone- tains. Cangrowwellonshalloworrockysoils.Grows forested talusslopes;serpentinesoilsinSiskiyouMoun- ridges, coniferousforests,well-drainedsoils,andnon- Habitat: rhododendron, whortleberry, bearberry, andsedges. hemlock, subalpinefir, noblefir;blackhuckleberry, in westernspruce-firforests;Douglas-fir, mountain zones. Also,understorydominantoncoolupperslopes Associations: story), butnotcommon. certain areas(driersubalpinemeadowsandunder- sea leveltosubalpine.Inpatches,canbeabundantin primarily inhigherelevations.InWashington, fromnear to RockyMountains;nearsealevelover2600m, Range anddistribution: lobed capsules;seeds4mm. dense, conical,terminalcluster;fruits5-7mmthree- below; manywhiteflowers,5-10mmonlongstalkina shorter fartherupthestem,greenonupper, palegray edged, tough,andwiryinlargeclumps;stemleaves leaves 30-100cmlong,2-6mmwide,grasslike,rough cm thickwoodyrhizome;stem15cm-1.5m;basal Description: Ecology XETE Melanthiaceae Beargrass, Indianbasketgrass Xerophyllum tenax Openwoods,clearings,meadows,slopes, Native. Perennialherb;growsfrom1-2 Western hemlockandPacificsilverfir Earlytolatesuccessional;pioneer British ColumbiatoCalifornia (Pursh) Nutt. germination rateshavebeen obtained. Seed: conditions. multiple-year cycles,possiblybasedonenvironmental nonflowering forseveralyears.Tends tobloomin of whiteflowersbloominmidsummer;perennial, Flowering andfruiting: Biology intensity fires. near thesoilsurfacesoplantmaybekilledbyhigh- the fire.Meristematicregionofrhizome,however, is that ispresentbeforeafireandregrowsinplaceafter zomes followingfire.Beargrassisasurvivorspecies adaptation ofbeargrassisitsabilitytosproutfromrhi- control isprovidedfromtheroots.Theprimaryfire for smallmammals.Long-termrevegetationanderosion food forthemountaingoatincoldweather. Faircover year-around; theleavesremainoverwinter, providing pocket gophers;elkanddeereatthemoretenderleaves stock isfoodforbearsinspring,aswellmiceand Ecological relations: Needscoldstratificationfor germination.Good Thefleshyleafbasesorroot- FromMaytoAugust;stalks Xerophyllum tenax 127
Plants Plants and Europe. and freshfloral,crafts; exportprimarilytoJapan Types ofmarkets: and preserved;basketweavingmaterials. Common products: roots usedtostopbleeding. poultice ofchewedrootsappliedtowounds;grated Indigenous uses: weaving; freshflowerarrangements. Common uses: Uses andProducts rhizome tocollectleavesisdetrimentaltheplant. son ifrhizomeleftintact.Cuttingintoortearingout Regeneration afterharvest: Harvest season: bunches. mercially harvestedarecollectedintoabout½-lb be freeofdirtandbrowntipsremoved.Leavescom- gently arepulledorcutatbaseofplant.Allstemsmust Harvest techniques: Part harvested: Collection rhizal; mayneedappropriatesoiltogrow. well. Seedlingcanbetransplanted.Stronglymycor- Transplant viability: cially available. lumbia BotanicalGarden.Plantsandseedsarecommer- successfully cultivatedattheUniversityofBritishCo- Cultivation: more frequentlythanflowering. Vegetative reproduction: 128 Can becultivated,butdifficult.Hasbeen Fillerinfloralarrangements;basket Leavesandflowers. Latefallandwinter. Baskets;garments;fordecoration; Internationalanddomestic.Dried Floralgreens,fresh,dried,dyed, Leavesofcurrentyear’s growth Matureplantsdonottransplant Will sproutfromrhizomes Good,aftergrowingsea- Whitney (1997) Forest Service(1988),Vance andThomas(1997), Minore (1977),ThomasandSchumann(1993),USDA non (1994),RossandChambers(1988),Smart quist (1978),HortusWest (1998),PojarandMacKin- Dyrness (1973),Hickman(1993),HitchcockandCron- Craighead etal.(1991),Crane(1990b),Franklinand References habitat. elevation sites,thereisconcernfordegradationof cause ofhighlevelharvesttakingplaceonhigh- size andnumber;declinesundercanopyclosure.Be- a disturbancethatopenscanopy, beargrass increasesin beargrass (Montana)orincreasedensity(Oregon).After Clearcutting andsoilscarificationmayseverelyreduce Comments andAreasofConcern Continued