Master of Arts in Sanskrit (MASK)
SK-08 ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE
Block -III Varna and Asrama System
UNIT- 1 VARNA SYSTEM: GENESIS AND GROWTH UNIT-2 ASRAMA SYSTEM
UNIT-3 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS
UNIT-4 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS MASK PROGRAMME EXPERTS COMMITTEE
Prof. Prafulla Kumar Mishra, Former Vice-Chancellor, North Odisha University
Prof. Raghunath Panda , Retd. Prof, Utkal University
Prof. Gopal Krishna Dash, Retd. Prof. , Utkal University
Dr. Madhusudan Mishra, Controller of Exams , Sri Jagannath Sanskrit University, Puri
Dr. Harmohan Mishra , Reader ( Retd.)
Dr. Kadambini Dash , Reader in Sanskrit, SB Women’s College,
Dr. Debabrata Mohapatra , Sr . Lect. In Sanskrit, Emartidevi Women’s College,Cuttack
Dr. Nibedita Pati, Lecturer in Sanskrit , S.B Women’s College
CONVENOR
Dr. Dillip Kumar Nayak , Reader in Odia , Former Officer In Charge, Regional Centre, B.J.B Auto. College Bhubaneswar
COURSE WRITER
Dr. Falguni Mahanandia (Retd.), Associate Professor in Sanskrit, Rajendra Auto. College, Balangir
COURSE EDITOR
Dr. Sareeta Pujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. Sareeta Pujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur
Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Sanskrit , OSOU, Sambalpur
MATERIAL PRODUCTION
Dr. Manas Ranjan Pujari Registrar Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur (CC) OSOU, 2020. Varna and Asrama System is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0 Printed by :
UNIT – I: VARNA SYSTEM: GENESIS AND GROWTH
1.1 Learning objectives 1.2 A general Introduction on Varna System. 1.3 Background of the unit. 1.4 Varna system: Genesis and Growth 1.4.1. – Varnashrama Dharma 1.4.2. – Origin of Varna system 1.4.3. – Historial Development of Varna system 1.4.4. – Duties of Varnas 1.4.5. – Self-check questions 1.5 Abbreviations 1.6 Bibliography and materials recommended for further study. 1.7 Model questions ------1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES.
------After going through the unit, a student will be able to – 1. Define the structure of Varna in the ancient India.
2. Explain the relationship between Varna structure and Ashrama structure.
3. know the position of different Varnas in the social order
------1.2 INTRODUCTION ON VARNA SYSTEM ------In ancient Indian society the fair-skinned Aryan invaders were marked out from their dark skinned rivals (termed as Dasa, Dasyu or Shudra). In the Aryan society men of kingly family (Kshatriya) and the
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 1
descendants of priests (Brahmanas) were clearly distinguished from the common free men, the Vaisya. The four divisions namely – the Brahmana, the Kshatriya, the Vaisya and the Shudra are mentioned in the Purusasukta later on. But in the Hymns of the Rigveda there is little trace of the rigid restriction typical of Varnas. There was no taboo on inter-marriage, change of occupation or communality. People could change their occupation according to their needs or talents. The heredity of profession was not yet a recognized principle. There was no restriction on the taking of food cooked by the Shudras. People dined freely with each other. There is no evidence of impurity communicated by the touch or contact of inferior people, as seen today. ------1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE UNIT ------The Aryans who entered India are known as Indo-Aryans. In contrast to the then inhabitants of India, the Aryans were fair-skinned people with long heads, straight noses, well-developed foreheads and high facial angle. Their migration into India was gradual. They came to India as peaceful emigrants with their cattle, families, household goods and gods. They had conflict with the people living in fortified areas (puras and durgas) under their own kings. The pre- Aryan inhabitants were completely conquered by the Aryans who intermixed with the original people. The Brahmana rishis played an important role in the expansion of Aryan culture. The Kshatriya conquerors followed them. The Aryan rishis mixed with the aboriginal and made them cultured and civilized. The social structure of the Varna system was developed gradually.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 2
1.4 VARNA SYSTEM ------1.4.1 – VARNASHRAMA DHARMA ------In ancient India ‘The Dharma of class and stage of life’ (Varnashrama dharma) was prevalent. It implies that Dharma is not the same for all. There is a common Dharma, a general norm of conduct to be followed by all equally. But there is also a Dharma assigned to each class and to each stage in the life of an individual.
Professor A.L.Basham says – “Men are not the same, and that there is a hierarchy of classes, each with its separate duties and distinctive way of life, is one of the most striking features of ancient Indian sociology.”
Starting from the study of the Rigveda to the present literature the application of the word Varna is different. It is derived from the root (Oeeleg) Je= (JejCes) – to choose with the suffix (Òel³e³e) Ie_ed and the root (Oeeleg) JeCe& (JeCe&ves) – to colour or to describe with the suffix (Òel³e³e) Ie_ed. Applied in the form of noun it indicates colour (jbie), beauty (meewvo³e&), syllable (De#ej), vowel (mJej), fame (³eMe) and praise (ÒeMebmee). In the form of verb it implies to colour or to describe. The word Varna relates to the Aryan and Dasa class or the four Varnas, in the society. Here the Varna system denotes the Brahmana, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya and the Shudra. In ancient India the Varna was based on attribute, personality, actions and family. But in course of time, it became a designation (GHeeefOe) only.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 3
------1.4.2 – ORIGIN OF VARNA SYSTEM ------In India the proof regarding the origin of Varna system is not available. The sociologists put some theories regarding its origin which are based on Puranas, religion or history as mentioned below. Purushasukta Theory: The mention of this theory is available in the latter hymn known as ‘Purushasukta’ of the Rigveda. In a healthy body all limbs are important. Yet some parts are more essential. In the society also there are four orders. These are called Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The society is thought of as Virat Purusha by the Rigvedic sage. It is said that they have emerged from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the Purusha.
ye´eïeCeesçm³ecegKeceemeerod Jeent jepev³e: ke=Àle: ~ Gª leom³e ³eodJewM³e: HeodY³eeb Metêesçpee³ele ~~ (Rigveda X-90) In the Rigveda, the word Varna is never applied to any of these classes.
Literal translation of Vedas and particularly Purushasukta has created a lot of myths, misgivings and misunderstandings. This Sukta is entirely an imaginative piece of writing. It is not to mean that the Brahmana originated from the mouth of the Purusha, the Kshatriya from the arms, the Vaishya from the thighs and Shudras from the feet. The unique characteristic of Vedic language is highly metaphorical and symbolic and capable of multiple interpretation. Purushasukta is an analogy between four limbs of the body and the four Varnas i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra – who as providers of knowledge, protection, wealth and service respectively.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 4
Through mutual co-operation and co-existence, the aim of Vedic social stratifications is to make the entire society happy, complete and perfect.
Guna & Karma Theory: This theory is mentioned in the sacred book Srimad Bhagavad Gita (®eelegJe&C³eb ce³ee me=äb iegCekeÀce&efJeYeeieMe: - 4/13). According to this theory the feminine principle called Prakriti joins with the male matter called Purusha. The union of Prakriti and Purusha forms three basic materials called gunas. These are sattvaguna, rajoguna and tamoguna. The sattvaguna is a white substance, generates goodness and joy and inspires all noble virtues and action. The rajoguna is red, produces egoism, selfishness, violence, jealousy and ambition. The tamoguna is black, engenders stupidity, laziness, fear and all sorts of base behaviour. The sattvaguna may be treated as symbolic of purity while, the tamoguna as symbolic of impurity. The proportion of guna in each Varna is maintained through the life style, diet, marriage pattern.
Colour Theory : In the Mahabharat, each Varna is associated with a particular colour – Brahmana with white, Kshatriya with red, Vaishya with yellow, and Shudra with black (
ye´eïeCeeveeb leg efmeleesJeCe&: #eef$e³eeCebe leg ueesefnle: ~
JewM³eeveeb HeerlekeÀes JeCe& MetêeCeeceefmelemleLee ~~-(12/188/5) It was believed that each Varna could maintain its purity and its colour by avoiding marriages between people belonging to different Varnas. The Varna, which was able to retain its purity and colour, gained social prestige.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 5
But Nilakanthi tika on the Mahabharat states clearly that these different colours are inherited due to the three gunas: veeruekeÀCþerìerkeÀe – efmele:mJe®í: meÊJeiegCe: ÒekeÀeMeelcee MeceoceeefomJeYeeJe: ~ ueesefnlees jpeesiegCe: ÒeJe=l³eelcee Meew³e¥ lespeeefomJeYeeJe: ~ HeerlekeÀ: jpemleceesJ³eefceÞe kegÀ<³eeoerefvenervekeÀce&ÒeJeÊe&keÀ: ~ Deefmele: ke=À
Based on intelligence the Brahmanas quoted chapters and verses from the scriptures and in doing so justified the Varna system and consolidated their position in the society. As the Brahmanas were fluent in Sanskrit (the language of the gods), they treated themselves as superior to others. For example Viswamitra, Nabhaga and king Saryati changed their Varnas according to their actions. By birth Indra was Brahmana (the son of Brahma), but by his action he became Kshatriya ‘Fvêes Jew ye´eïeCe: Heg$e: #eef$e³e: keÀce&CeeçYeJeled’ (ceneYeejle – 12-22-11)
Social Need Theory : This theory is explained in Brihadarnyakopanishad. According to this theory Brahma was alone in the beginning. He was Brahmana by form. Due to the social need he created another form as Kshatriya in which the deities Indra, Varuna, Soma, Rudra, Parjanya, Yama, Ishana were included. Being dissatisfied he created the Vaishyas in which Vasu, Rudra, Aditya, Visnudeva and Marut were included. At last he created the deity Pusana in the Shudra form.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 6
For the development of the society four Varnas were created. These Varnas were parallel to each other. From these theories no definite decision is achieved. Only some inferences are made. From the very beginning the human society was meager. The need of the society also was meager. Due to the increase in population the need for division of works began. Then the idea of four Varnas was developed. ------1.4.3 – HISTORIAL DEVELOPMENT OF VARNA SYSTEM ------In course of time the idea of Varna & Varna vyavastha has been changing. A bird’s eye view is given below. o Rigvedic Period: Rigveda is the source of all knowledge. In this period there is no reference to Varna-vyavastha. The words in the Mantras were difficult to understand. However the Purushasukta in the 10th mandala of the Rigveda indicates the Varna-vyavastha. But it is accepted as a later development.
The term ‘Varna’ means colour. The concept of Varna is used for grading people. Rigveda refers to the Arya Varna comprising the Aryan people (who were of light complexion). On the other hand Dasa Varna comprises the non-Aryan people (who were of dark complexion). Yet in the Rigveda ‘Varna’ is never applied to any of the four classes. The word Brahmana used in the Rigveda refers to the priest. The word Kshatriya in the Rigveda refers to the designation of the deities. The word ‘Vis’ is used for congregation.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 7
o Post Rigvedic Period: The other three Vedas namely Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda and their Brahmana texts are included in this period. Shataptha Brahmana describes the four classes as the four Varnas instead of colour.
Varna vyavastha is so strongly accepted in the Brahmana texts that even the deities are divided into different Varnas i.e. Agni and Brihaspati as Brahmana; Indra, Varuna and Yama as Kshatriya; Vasu, Rudra, Visvedeva & Marut as Vaishya; Pusana as Shudra.
The Satapatha Brahmana proclaims that one should not talk with Shudra. The Brahmana & Kshatriya Varnas are more respected than the other two. Although there was hierarchy of Varnas, till then untouchability was not started. Purity in the family was praiseworthy. Even the lower Varnas became Brahmana by attaining purity, such as Kavasa, Vatsa and Satyakama Jabala. The concept of Varna vyavastha was not complex.
o Upanishad and Sutra Period: The date of Upanishad, Srautasutra, Grihyasutra & Dharmasutra is accepted about 600B.C. to 400A.D.
The Upanishad reflects the philosophical thought of the seers (Risis). Brihadaranyakopanishad (1.4.11.5) describes the origin of four Varnas on the basis of development. Chhandogyopanishad (5.10.7) explains the origin of Varna of a person due to actions of previous birth.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 8
During this period Shudra was eligible to receive Brahmajnana. The seer Raikva offered religious knowledge to a Kshatriya king named Janasrut Pautrayana (Ch.4-1). Like this a Kshatriya king named Asvapati Kaikeya offered knowledge about Atma & Brahma to five Brahmanas (Ch. 5-2).
During the Sutra period the concept of Varnavyavastha was very critical and complex. In the society the position of Vaishya and Shudra was degraded. The concept of untouchability was started in this time. In the Dharmasutras the punishment was different for different Varnas for the same crime.
o Mahakavya & Smriti Period: Starting from 400 B.C. to 200 A.D. the Ramayana, the Mahabharat, the Arthashastra of Kautilya and the Smruti shastras developed. During 600 years the concept of Varna system was fully
established (efvecev$e³emJe ye´eïeणाved #eeq$e³eeved, JewM³eeved MetoebM®ewJe menñeMe:- Ramayana-1.13.20). Besides this the critical form of caste system was recognized in the society. The Ramayana describes the four Varnas and their difference to each other.
In the society the position of Brahmana was at high level. When Vashistha entered the palace, king Dasaratha and other people stood up. The position of Kshatriya was honourable, but his duty was very hard. The duty of Vaishya was to earn wealth by business, agriculture and cattle rearing. The position of Shudra was at the lowest level.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 9
------1.4.4 – DUTIES OF THE VARNAS ------1) Brahmana – The Brahmanas were ordained to master the sacred texts and find out the truth through sacred knowledge. In the Purushasukta, Brahmana was said to be the mouth of the Virat Purusha. Here the mouth does nOt indicate the food taking organ. It symbolizes the head of the body, as all the physical activities are performed from it. The Brahmana shows the right way in the society by means of his knowledge, thought & experiences. His foremost duty was self-study (mJeeO³ee³e). Therefore Patanjali says in his Mahabhasya - ye´eïeCesve efve DeO³eeHeveceO³e³eveb ³epeveb ³eepeveb leLee ~ oeveb ÒeefleûenM®ewJe ye´eïeCeeveecekeÀuHe³eled ~~ - 1/88) 2) Kshatriya – The position of Kshatriya comes next to Brahmana in the Varna system. In the Purushasukta it symbolizes the arms of the Virat Purusha. The arms protect the body mostly. Like this Kshatriya was ordained to fight in wars and battles and to protect the people of other Varnas from enemies. He could also perform administrative and military service. According to Manusmruti the duty of a Kshatriya was to protect people to give alms, to make sacrifice, to make study and not to be attached with worldly affairs. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 10 Òepeeveeb j#eCeb oeveefcep³eeO³e³evecesJe ®e ~ efJe 3) Vaishya – In the Purushasukta it symbolizes the thigh of the Virat Purusha. The entire burden of the body is carried out by the thighs. Like this Vaishya was ordained to make a living by engaging in trade and merchandise, cultivation of land and breeding of cattle. According to Manusmriti the duty of Vaishya was rearing cattle, making gift, making sacrifice, doing study, doing trade, receiving interest on loan and agriculture HeMetveeb j#eCeb oeveefcep³eeO³e³evecesJe®e ~ JeefCekedÀHeLeb kegÀmeerob ®e JewM³em³e ke=Àef 4) Shudra – Out of the four Varnas, Shudra was at the lowest level. In the Purushasukta, it symbolizes the feet of the Virat Purusha. The feet are used mostly to move the body as required. But less attention is paid to the feet in comparison to other organs. Like this the position of Shudra is wretched in the societies. Shudra was ordained to serve the people of other Varnas with modesty and humility. Manu says in the Manusmriti – SkeÀcesJe leg Metêm³e ÒeYeg: keÀce& meceeefoMeled ~ Sles Shudras were of two kinds, “pure” or “not excluded” (DeefvejJeefmele) and excluded (efvejJeefmele). The latter were quite outside the pale of Hindu society and later on known as untouchables where as the lived inside the society. Apart from these norms, Manu prescribed activities such as wages, service, rearing cattle, seeking alms and receiving Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 11 interest on money etc. that could be undertaken by people of all Varnas for subsistence in difficulties. Lastly it is to be noted that Varna is different from caste (Jati). The former is spiritual, based on worth of a person and the later is purely social, a post-vedic concept based on birth. Vedas proclaim that all human beings should move forward in unison and there can’t be any distinction on the basis of birth. As per the true Vedic concept, the duty of each Varna is to serve the society and every individual irrespective of his Varna has to discover his soul (self- realization). Society will not obstruct the growth and progress of Shudra to awaken his soul. That is why Manusmriti says: - Metêes ye´eïeCeleecesefle ye´eïeCeM®ewefle Metêleeced ~ #eeq$e³eeppeelecesJeb leg efJeÐeeodJewM³eeÊeLewJe ®e ~~ (10/65). A Shudra can become a Brahmana by acquiring learning, merit, virtuous life etc. and a Brahmana lacking in above traits becomes a Shudra. The above principle of merit, action and personality traits (Guna – Karma – Swabhava) also holds good for Kshatriya and Vaishya for their upward or downward mobility. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 12 ------1.4.5 – SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS ------ (keÀ) JeCee&ÞeceOece&: keÀ:? (Ke) JeCe&Meyom³e J³eglHeefÊeb efueKele ~ (ie) Heg© Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 13 ------1.5 ABBREVIATIONS ------A.G.S. – Asvalayana Grihyasutra A.V. – Atharvaveda B.V. – Brihadaranyaka Upanisad B.D.S – Baudhayana Dharmasutra G.G.S. – Gobhila Grihyasutra M.S. – Manu Smriti P.G.S. – Paraskara Grihyasutra R.V. – Rigveda V.M.S. – Viramitrodaya Samskara Prakasha Y.V. – Yajurveda Yaj. S. – Yajnavalkya – Smriti ------1.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND MATERIALS RECOMMENDED FOR FURTHER STUDY. ------1) Life and culture in Ancient India by B.N. Lunia, Published by Lakshmi Narain Agrawal, Agra, Edition 2012-13 2) The Wonder That Was India by A.L.Basham, Published by Picador, London, Edition – 1967 3) Hindu Samskaras by Rajbali Pandey, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 1993 4) History of Dharmashastra by P.V.Kane, Published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona,1975 5) Manu Smriti, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 2000 6) Yajnavalkya Smtiri, Published by Parimala Publication, Delhi, Edition – 2011 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 14 7) Ramayanam, Published by Chaukhamba Vidya Bhawan, Varanasi, Edition -1982 8) Mahabharata, Published by Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 9) Bharatiya Sanskriti by Dr. Preeti Prabha Goyal, Published by Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, Edition - 2016 10) A Sanskrit English Dictionary by sir M. Monier- Williams, Published by Nataraj Books, 7073 Brook Field Plaza, Spring Field, VA 22150, Printed New Delhi Edition – 2007 11) Sanskrita – Hindi Kosha by Vaman Sivaram Apte, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi Edition – 1977 ------1.7 MODEL QUESTIONS ------ (i) JeCe&J³eJemLee³ee: mJeªHeceeuees®e³ele ~ (ii) JeCe&J³eJemLee³ee GlHeefÊeb efJe®eej³ele ~ (iii) JeCe&J³eJemLee³eeb ®elegCee¥ JeCee&veeb keÀÊe&J³eb efveªHe³ele ~ (iv) Yeejleer³emebmke=Àleew ®elegCee¥ JeCee&veeb mLeeveceeuees®e³ele ~ Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 15 UNIT – II: ASHRAMA SYSTEM 1.1 Learning objectives 1.2 A general Introduction on Ashrama System. 1.3 Background of the unit. 1.4 ASHRAMA SYSTEM 1.4.1– Number of Ashramas 1.4.2 – Observance System of Ashrama 1.4.3 – History of Ashrama System 1.4.4 – Ashrama Dharma 1.5 Bibliography and materials recommended for further study. 1.6 Model questions. ------1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES. ------ After going through the Unit, a student will be able to 1. Define the structure of Ashrama in ancient India. 2. Explain the relationship between Varna structure and Ashrama structure. 3. Know the ancient Indian social system and culture completely. ------1.3 INTRODUCTION ON ASHRAMA SYSTEM (THE FOUR STAGES OF LIFE) ------The Āryan Society was divided into four classes (Varnas) and the life of the individual Āryan was divided into four stages. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 16 The four ends of life of an individual in Hinduism are called Purusarthas i.e. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. By developing moral virtues and their application in performing all duties in a proper way is called Purusartha. It is not easy to fulfil all the ends of life. For this fulfilment specific endeavour is necessary. Every individual should lead his life with this endeavour in every stage. The following verse describes it in a magnificent way. DeeÐes Je³eefme veeOeerleb, efÜleer³es veeefpe&leb Oeveced ~ le=leer³es ve leHemleHleb, ®elegLex efkebÀ keÀefj<³eefle ~~ Through this Ashrama system, the life of an individual becomes complete to achieve Moksha (salvation). Kalidas, the great poet makes the kings of Raghuvamsa great in observing the four stages of life. MewMeJesçY³emleefJeÐeeveeb ³eewJeves efJe 1. The name Ashrama is derived from the root (Oeeleg) Þeced with ‘Dee’ prefix (GHemeie&) and Ie_ed suffix (Òel³e³e) “Dee Þeec³eefvle Deeqmceved Fefle DeeÞece:’’ – meaning a stage of life in which an individual makes hard labour. Some scholars define it in both ways i.e. DeeÞece meaning (i) hard labour (ii) a stage where labour is necessary. It is evident that labour is essential when the duties of the four stages are considered. In Brahmacharyashrama educational achievement, in Grihasthashrama rearing a family burden, in Vanaprashthashrama Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 17 devoting time to religious pursuits and in Sanyasashrama spending time in pursuit of Moksha are all linked with hard labour. 2. In the Mahabharat the Ashrama system is described as a ladder having four pillars by which an individual can reach the place of Brahman (the eternal soul). ®eleg 4. The ahsrama system shows the right direction to lead an ideal life of an individual. The life of a person was expected about 100 years (Melee³egJez Heg© Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 18 understand the Divine Reality and wandered from place to place to explain the path of truth to the people. ------1.4 BACKGROUND OF THE UNIT ------The idea of Ashrama was more artificial than that of class. When a child put on the sacred thread, he became a brahmacharin, leading a celibate and austere life as a student. After studentship he returned to his parental home and was married. He became a householder (gihastha). In the middle age after seeing his children’s children he went to the forest to become a hermit (vanaprastha). By meditation and penance he freed his soul from earthly ties and became a homeless wanderer (sannyasin). This scheme represents the ideal than the real. ------1.5 ASHRAMA SYSTEM ------1.4.1 ANTIQUITY OF THE ASHRAMA: It is very much difficult to find out the origin of Ashrama system. In the ancient Indian literature, Samhitas and Brahmana texts nothing is mentioned regarding this matter. But the word Brahmachari, Grihapati, Vaikhanasa etc. are available in the Samhitas and Brahmana texts. The planning of sound Ashrama system till the Upanishadic period indicates its origin in the age of Rigveda. In the Aitareya Brahmana in one context a verse is available. That means – “what is the benefit by mala (ceue), deer-skin (Deefpeve), beard (MceÞegefCe) Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 19 and penance (leHe). O Brahmana! desire for a son, he is the universe and he is praise worthy.” [ efkebÀ veg ceueb efkeÀceefpeveb efkeÀceg MceÞetefCe efkebÀ leHe: ~ Heg$eye´eïeCe F®íOJeb me Jew ueeskeÀes JeoeJeo: ~~ 33/11] Here the words mala may be taken as grihastha, ajina as brahmacharya, smasruni as vanaprastha and tapa as sannyasa. In the Upanishads the Ashrama system is mentioned frequently as below íevoesi³eesHeefve 1.4.2 NUMBER OF ASHRAMAS: There are different opinions among the modern scholars regarding the number of Ashramas. The number as three is mentioned in Chhandogyopanishad ($e³ees Oece&mkeÀvOee ³e%eesçO³e³eveb oeveefceefle – 2-23-1) and Manusmriti (le SJe $e³e DeeÞecee: - 2-230). Here Brahmacharya, Grihastha and Prabrajya – these three are called Dharmaskandha. Vanaprastha and Sannyasa were not accepted different from each other. So the number of Ashramas was three. But it is clearly mentioned in Jabolopanishad – (4), that, the number was four. In the later Sutra and Smriti texts, it was accepted as four. Due to the various similarities in both the Ashramas it was counted as one. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 20 1.4.3 OBSERVANCE SYSTEM OF ASHRAMAS: Different views are there in the Sutra and Smriti texts regarding the observance system of Ashramas. 1) ASHRAMA SAMUCHAYAVADA – According to this view an individual should observe Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa. Manu was the staunch supporter of this opinion. meJexçefHe Je´ÀceMemlJesles ³eLeeMeem$be efve 2) ASHRAMA VIKALPAVADA – According to this view it is not necessary for an individual to enter into grihasthasrama after brahmacharya. At one’s will one can enter into any Ashrama. This view is propounded in Jabalopanishad. Apastamba, Vashistha and Yajnavalkya support this opinion. 3) ASHRAMA BANDHAVADA – Gautama and Budhyana, the ancient authors of Dharmasutra texts propound a third alternative named Bandha. According to them grihasthashrama is the best of all. (Gautama Dharmasutra – 3/25 – SskeÀeÞec³eb lJee®ee³ee&: Òel³e#eefJeOeeveeod ieen&mLem³e ieen&mLem³e). If one observes the grihasthashrama properly, then one can reach the best place of Prajapati, Brihaspati and Indra. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 21 ÒepeeHeles: meueeskeÀleeb ye=nmHeles: MeleJe´Àlees: ~ Je´peefvle les Hejeb ieefleb ie=nmLeOece&meslegefYe : ~~ (Mahabharat 10/309/60) The Mahabharat describes the importance of grihasthashrama by saying that in this Ashrama all the forefathers, gods and guests are propitiated and one can achieve success for three purusharthas – Dharma, Artha and Kama. efHele=osJeeefleefLeke=Àles meceejcYeesç$e Mem³eles ~ De$ewJe efn cenejepe ef$eJeie&: kesÀJeueb HeÀueced ~~ (Mahabharat 12/12/18) 1.4.4 HISTORY OF ASHRAMA SYSTEM: 1) RIGVEDIC PERIOD – The word Ashrama is not available in the Rigveda. But the word brahmachari is mentioned in the Rigveda. ye´ïe®eejer ®ejefle JesefJe The features of Upanayana Samskara described in the later grihyasutras are available in the Rigveda (Rigveda 3/8/4). Secondly the word grihasthashrama is not available in the Rigveda. But Vivahasukta is mentioned in Rigveda – (10/85). The word grihapati is used frequently. (Rigveda – 1/15/12, 4/43/2, 7/1/1, 10/118/6). It is evident that brahmacharya and grihastha, two important parts of life indicate the situation in the Rigveda. However regarding vanaprastha & sannyasa nothing is available. POST – RIGVEDIC PERIOD: The word Ashrama or Ashrama system is not available in the Samhita texts and Brahmana texts. In the Taittiriya Samhita the words brahmacharya and brahmachari are mentioned. Although the words grihastha and grihastha system are not available, there are some hints regarding the birth of Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 22 children and three debts ($eÝCe). One might be free from rishirina by observing brahmacharya, free from devarina by performing sacrifice and free from pitririna by begetting children. pee³eceeve n Jew ye´eïeCeefm$eefYe$eÝCeJeeB pee³eles ye´ïe®e³es&Ce $eÝef UPANISHAD AND SUTRA PERIOD: During this time, Ashrama system is completely established. In the Chhandogyopanishad (2/23/1) the three skandhas of Dharma refer to the Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Brahmacharya. In the Taittiriyopanishad (2/1) the deep relation between teacher & student at the time of brahmacharya is described. In the Kathopanishad (1/1/7, 8) it is mentioned that, the duty of a householder is to pay hospitality to a guest, otherwise his virtues and prosperity will be perished. In the sutra literature Apastamba, Gautama, Vasistha & Baudhayana have mentioned the four Ashramas and used the word bhikshu or parivrajaka for Sannyasashrama. MAHAKAVYA & SMRITI PERIOD: In the Ramayana, Ashrama system was fully developed. Till Valmiki the number Ashramas Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 23 was counted four. Deviation of the system was condemned. In this epic three types of snatakas are mentioned. 1) Vidya Snataka: The brahmachari who had completed the study, except the vratas and niyamas, was called vidyasnataka. 2) Vrata Snataka: The brahmachari who had completed the vratas & niyamas, except the study, was called vratasnataka. 3) Vidyabrata Snataka: The brahmachari who had completed both the study as well as vratas and niyamas was called vidyavrata snataka. Both Rama and Ravana were vidyavrata snatakas. The Ramayana describes the grihasthashrama as the best of all. The Mahabharata describes the four Ashramas, their seriality, Ashramadharma, the relation between Ashramas and the four ends of life. In the Shantiparva to answer the question of Bharadvaja Rishi, Bhrugu answered the creation of Ashramas and different religious duties. 1.4.5 ASHRAMA DHARMA: The prescribed duties and behaviour of four Ashramas described in the Sutra text, Smriti text etc. are called Ashrama dharma. The Sruti and Smriti are the base of all dharmas. JesoesçefKeuees Oece&cetueb mce=efleMeerues ®eleefÜoeced ~ Dee®eejM®ewJe meeOetveeceelcevemlegefäjsæJe ®e ~~ (M.S. - 2/6) BRAHMACHARYA ASHRAMA: The worldly and spiritual development of an individual begins from brahmacharyashrama. The three main samskaras – Upanayana, Vedarambha and Samavaratana are linked with the Ashrama. After Upanayana Samskara this Ashrama Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 24 begins. The word brahmacharya is derived from brahma (ye´ïe) as upapada and the root (Oeeleg) - ®ejd with Ie_ed suffix meaning the best action of an individual. Its importance is a vow to control the sense organs and study the Veda. In this Ashrama the main purpose of a brahmachari was to acquire knowledge by studying the Vedas and other sacred works. The brahmachari acquires two types of knowledge i.e. knowledge from books and knowledge about applications which are needed for the next Ashramas. The meaning of Upanayana is to bring the child near the teacher. The child was taught Vedas with good behavior at the teacher’s residence. Due to the oral study the position of the teacher was at high level. The student learnt his duty from the teacher and obeyed the order. The brahmachari should think well for the teacher in his mind, body & action. He should take bath every day for the purity of the body. He must give-up desire, anger, attachment, song, dance, dice-play, telling lie, drink & attachment towards women. Jepe&³esled ceOeg ceebmeb ®e ievOeb ceeu³eb jmeevedefñe³e: ~ keÀeceb Je´ÀesOeb ®e ueesYeb ®e vele&veb ieerleJeeoveced ~~ Ðetleb ®e peveJeeob ®e HeefjJeeob leLeeçve=leced ~ m$eerCebe ®e Òes#eCeeuecYecegHeIeeleb Hejm³e ®e~~ (M.S. 2/177-179) After complete study the brahmacharyasrama ends with Samavartana Samskara. GRIHASTHASHRAMA – After brahmacharyashrama, the brahmachari entered grihasthashrama. Here he got married with a suitable bride and became a householder. An educated person might lead personal, family and social life of the grihasthashrama completely. In this stage a person Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 25 could achieve success to get Dharma, Artha and Kama. Here a person could be free from the three debts. Debarina (osJe$eÝCe) : By the grace of divine power a person takes birth in this world and gets pure light, air & water. This debt of the god could be free by performing sacrifices. Pitririna (efHele=$eÝCe) : A child after taking birth from parents becomes a respected citizen of the society with the utmost care and good samskaras from them. The child is indebted to the parents. To be free from this pitririna a person performs sraddha of the parents after death. Further by serving the parents and begetting children he becomes free from pitririna. Risirina ($eÝef FIVE GREAT SACRIFICES: Sacrifice (yajna) had got very much importance in the Indian life. The ancient Indian culture was full of sacrifices. The word Yajna was the symbol of worshipping the eternal soul and the dedication of human beings. Everyday a householder should perform the five great sacrifices. JewJeeefnkesÀçiveew kegÀJeeale ie=nd³eb keÀce& ³eLeeefJeefOe ~ Heb®e³e%eefJeOeeveb ®e HebefÊeÀ ®eevJeeefnkeÀeR ie=ner ~~ (M.S. 3/67) 1) BRAHMYAJNA (ye´ïe³e%e) – The earliest mention of brahmayajna is available in the Satapatha Brahmana (11/5/6/3-8). Everyday study of Veda was called brahmayajna as found in Manusmriti (3/70) Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 26 DeO³eeHeveb ye´ïe³e%e: efHele=³e%emleg leHe&Ceced ~ nesceesowJees yeefueYeezlees ve=³e%eesçefleefLeHetpeveced ~~ In course of time in addition to the study of Vedas, praise of god, murmuring of gayatrimantra and worship of god in three times were included. According to Swami Dayananda Saraswati meditation of god is called brahmayajna. 2) DEVAYAJNA (osJe³e%e) – It means to put oblation in the fire with svaha utterance in favour of the gods such as Sun, Fire, Prajapati, Vayu etc. The man gets divine power through this sacrifice every day. The oblation put in the fire reaches the solar region and due to the sun’s influence it makes rainfall. From the rain the earth produces food grain and the whole world gets life on this. In this way the devayajna performed daily by a householder leads towards social welfare. 3) PITRIYAJNA (efHele=³e%e) – In this sacrifice not only the forefathers are propitiated but also the living parents are satisfied with the balanced diet offered to them with Sraddha (Þe×e). The householder is blessed with long life by both sides. The real meaning of this sacrifice is to serve the parents and the superiors with Sraddha (Þe×e). Therefore the word Sraddha (Þee×) is derived. 4) BHUTAYAJNA (Yetle³e%e) – This sacrifice is also called balivaisvadevayajna (yeefueJewMJeosJe³e%e). At home every day some food is cooked. Out of this a small portion is offered to the cooking fire and a portion is offered to the animals. By this sacrifice a man learns to enjoy with offerings. This sacrifice teaches the human beings to be kind and tolerant towards other beings instead of becoming self centered and selfish. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 27 5) NRIYAJNA / MANUSYAYAJNA – This sacrifice is best of all the great sacrifices. Propitiating the guest is called nriyajna (ve=³e%e). A householder should serve the incoming guest to his home with seat, water, food etc. One shouldn’t take food without feeding the guest. From Vedic period a guest was accepted as the form of god - ``DeefleefLeosJees YeJe''. A great importance is given to serve a guest in Indian culture. The main philosophy behind the nriyajna is to show kindness & sympathy towards human beings. VANAPRASTHASHRAMA – An individual entered the forest in the third part of his life. So it is called Vanaprasthashrama. According to Manu, when the body shrinks, the hairs become white, the son begets a child, then the householder should leave the home for forest with his wife or put his wife with son. There he meditates with the rules and regulations of the Ashrama (M.S. – 6/1-4) ie=nmLemleg ³eoe HeM³esod JeueerHeefueleceelceve: ~ DeHel³em³ewJe ®eeHel³eb leoejC³eb meceeÞe³esled ~~ Deeqivenes$eb meceeoe³e ie=nd³eb ®eeeqiveHeefjíoced ~ ûeeceeojC³eb efve:me=l³e efveJemesefvve³elesefê³e: ~~ Vanaprasthashrama is the way leading towards the union of eternal soul. A vanaprasthi should make sacrifices every day. His hairs, beards and nails should grow and he should put on the bark of the tree or deer-skin. Although in the Valmiki Ramayana a great deal of importance is given to grihasthashrama still then, in the Aranyakanda there is description of vanaprasthashrama. A vanaprasthi should sleep on the ground and live under a tree. Every day he should take bath thrice, maintain purity, control sense organs, think welfare of the societies etc. The basic philosophy of this Ashrama is to detach himself from the wordly affairs. He should quest for the salvation (Moksha). Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 28 SANNYASASHRAMA – This Ashrama is the last part of the life. Vanaprasthashrama leads towards Sannyashrama. The meaning of sannyasa is to leave completely all works except study of Veda. A vanaprasthi performs sacrifices in the fire, but a sannyasi gives up that fire also. A sannyasi wanders from door to door to preach knowledge. After sunset he takes shelter under a tree or a deserted house. Only during rainy season he may take shelter in one place for two to four months. He should live alone being away from happiness and sorrows. A sannyasi has got four duties i.e. meditation, sanctity, alms and living alone. According to Kautilya, a sannyasi should control sense organs, give up any action, maintain detachment, alms, live in forests, maintain purity in mind & body. He should never be afraid of others and also become the cause of fear for others. The main virtue of a sannyasi is to maintain equilibrium.In the Indian religious texts four types of sannyasis are mentioned such as Kutichaka (kegÀìer®ekeÀ), Bahudaka (yentokeÀ), Hansa (nbme) and Paramahansa (Hejcenbme). 1) Kutichaka sannyasi lives in a cottage near the son’s home. 2) Bahudaka sannyasi having orange-colored cloth, three staves tied together (ef$eoC[) and a water jar (keÀceC[ueg) in hand beg alms from seven learned Brahmanas. 3) Hansa sannyasi lives in the forest and moves to the village or city to beg alms. 4) Paramahansa sannyasi remains naked or only put on a small piece of cloth (keÀewHeerve) and maintains equilibrium in all situations. From this Ashrama system it is clear that the system is developed on a scientific basis. By this system an individual grows physically, philosophically, intellectually and mentally. By this system the society becomes enriched. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 29 ------1.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND MATERIALS RECOMMENDED FOR FURTHER STUDY. ------1) Raghuvamsam–Edited by M.R.Kale, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi 2) Life and culture in Ancient India by B.N. Lunia, Published by Lakshmi Narain Agrawal, Agra, Edition 2012-13 3) The Wonder That Was India by A.L.Basham, Published by Picador, London, Edition – 1967 4) Hindu Samskaras by Rajbali Pandey, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 1993 5) History of Dharmashastra by P.V.Kane, Published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1975 6) Manu Smriti, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 2000 7) Yajnavalkya Smtiri, Published by Parimala Publication, Delhi, Edition – 2011 8) Ramayanam, Published by Chaukhamba Vidya Bhawan, Varanasi, Edition -1982 9) Mahabharatam, Published by Gita Press, Gorakhpur 10) Bharatiya Sanskriti by Dr. Preeti Prabha Goyal, Published by Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, Edition - 2016 11) A Sanskrit English Dictionary by SIR M. MONIER-WILLIAMS, Published by Nataraj Books, 7073 Brook Field Plaza, Spring Field, VA 22150, Printed New Delhi, Edition – 2007 12) Sanskrita – Hindi Kosha by Vaman Sivaram Apte, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 1977 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 30 ------1.6 MODEL QUESTIONS ------(i) DeeÞeceJ³eJemLee³ee: mJeªHeb efueKele ~ (ii) DeeÞece: keÀefleefJeOe:? (iii) DeeÞeceMeyom³e J³eglHeefÊeb ÒeoMe&³ele ~ (iv) DeeÞeceJ³eJemLee³ee: HeeueveÒeef¬eÀ³eeb efueKele ~ (v) DeeÞeceJ³eJemLee³ee: HegjeleÊJeb efueKele ~ (vi) DeeÞeceOecee&ved efveªHe³ele ~ Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 31 UNIT – III & IV: SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS 1.1 Learning objectives 1.2 A general Introduction on Sixteen Samskaras. 1.3 Background of the unit. 1.4 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS 1.4.1 – The meaning of Samskara 1.4.2 – The number of Samskaras 1.4.3– The purpose of Samskaras 1.4.4 – The constituents of the Samskaras 1.4.5 – Sixteen Samskaras 1.5 Bibliography and materials recommended for further study. 1.6 Model questions. ------1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES ------After going through the Units, a student will be able to 1. Know the importance of Hindu Samskaras in the ancient Indian life. 2. Know the cultural and religious aspects in the ancient Indian society. 3. Know the rites connected with the Samskaras 4. Know the life style of the ancient Indian people. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 32 ------1.2 A GENERAL INTRODUCTION ON SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS. (SODASHA SAMSKARAS) ------ The Vedas are universally recognized as the primary source of the Hindu Dharma. JesoesçefKeuees Oece&cetueced (M.S.-II.6). The oldest document of the religious literature of the Indo-Aryans is the Rigveda. There are some hymns, in which the rites and ceremonies like the wedding, the funeral and conception are described. The later-day Samskaras such as the Vivaha, the Antyesti and the Garbhadhana were direct result of these hymns. Some hymns are generally linked with the sacramental rituals. The Yajurveda represents an advanced stage in the progress of rituals. The Atharvavdea is rich in popular religion, rites and ceremonies. The Brahmanas are thorough treatioes on the Vedic rituals. In the Upanishads many references are made regarding the Upanayana – Samskara. The Samskaras are described with rules and regulations in the Grihyasutras, the Dharmasutras, the Smritis, the epics and the Puranas. ------1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE UNIT ------Hinduism has marked the course of life of its members with many rites and ceremonies. According to the texts on the subject there were forty ceremonies (Samskaras), which covered the whole life of a man from his conception to death. Some of these were of great Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 33 importance and were performed by all the respectable members of the Aryan community. Out of these Samskaras only sixteen were of great importance. So in these units these are described in a nutshell. ------1.4 SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS (SODASHA SAMSKARAS) ------ 1.4.1 THE MEANING OF SAMSKARA: The word Samskara is derived from the Sanskrit root (Oeeleg) ke=À with prefix (GHemeie&) meced and suffix (Òel³e³e) Ie_ed. It is used in a variety of ways. As pointed out by Prof. Rajbali Pandey, in his work, Hindu Samskaras, the word Samskrita is used frequently in the Vedic literature instead of Samskara. The Rigveda (V.76.2) uses the word Samskrita in the sense of purified. In the classical Sanskrit literature, the word Samskara is used in a very wide sense: - in the sense of education, cultivation, training, refinement, perfection, purificatory rite, a sacred rite or ceremony etc. keÀe³e&: MejerjmebmkeÀej: HeeJeve: Òesl³e ®esn ®e ~ M.S.-II.26) So the Samskara means religious purificatory rites and ceremonies for sanctifying the body, mind and intellect of an individual. 1.4.2 THE NUMBER OF THE SAMSKARAS: Regarding the number of the Samskaras the Grihyasutras differ as mentioned below. Asvalayana Grihyasutra–11, Paraskara Grihyasutra–13, Baudhayana Grihyasutra–13, Varaha Grihyasutra –13, Vaikhanasa Grihyasutra 18. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 34 The Gautama Dharmasutra gives a list of forty Samskaras. During the period of the Smritis, Manu describes the smarta samskaras as thirteen from conception to death. The Yajnavalkya Smriti describes the same Samskaras except the Keshanta. The list of Angira mentions twenty five Samskaras. The later Smritis enumerates the list of sixteen Samskaras. According to Vyasa–Smriti, the number of Samskaras was thirteen. Jatukarnya gives a list of sixteen Samskaras. THE SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS: At present there are sixteen popular Samskaras. The Samskaravidhi (mebmkeÀejefJeefOe) of Swami Dayananda Sarasvati and sodasasamskaravidhi ( 1.4.3 THE PURPOSE OF THE SAMSAKARAS: It is broadly divided into two classes i.e. (1) popular and superstitious, (2) priestly and cultural. THE POPULAR PURPOSE: The ancient Hindus had strong beliefs that superhuman influences are responsible for their good or evil consequences in life. So many items of the Samskaras developed out of these beliefs. (i) The Removal of Hostile influences : To remove the hostile influences, the Hindus applied some means in their Samskaras. During the pregnancy of a woman, at the birth of a child, during childhood etc. a householder had to offer payer, oblations and food to the demons and evil spirits, so that they might return without causing injury to the family. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 35 Sometimes deception method is used instead of propitiation. At the time of tonsure, the severed hair was mixed with cow-dung and thrown into a river, so that none could play magic upon it. If the evil spirits don’t return, then they were threatened and directly attacked. (ii) Attraction of Favourable Influences : It was believed that man’s life was presided over by a deity. So to get boons and blessings that deity was invoked. At the time of the Garbhadhana (conception) Visnu was worshipped, at Vivaha Prajapati and at Upanayana Brihaspati and Soon. Sometimes touch was accepted to bring fertility. At the time of the Simantonnayana ceremony a branch of the fig tree was tied to the neck of the wife. (DeewogcyejsCeef$eJe=leceeJeOveeefle– Gobhila Grihyasutra – II – 7.1) In the Upanayana and Vivaha ceremony mounting a stone brought about firmness. (iii) The Material Aim of the Samskaras : The material aims of the Samskaras were the gain of cattle, progeny, long life, wealth, prosperity, strength and intellect. The people had to pray and appeal the deities to have the material possession. Even today the priests bless the common people for their prosperity in their lives. (iv) Samskaras as self expression : The householder manifested his gladness in the shape of decoration, music, feast and presents, during marriage ceremony. At the time of sorrows the funeral ceremonies were observed. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 36 The Cultural Purpose : According to Manu the seminal and uterine impurities are washed away by the performance of the Samskaras conception, birth rites, tonsure and Upanayana. ieeYeZ ne&scewpee&lekeÀce& ®eew[ceew¡eerefveyevOevew: ~ yewefpekebÀieeefYe&kebÀ ®ewveesefÂpeeveeceHece=p³eles ~~ (M.S. – II.27) The bodily Samskaras of the twice-born sanctify this life as well as the other. Yajnavalkya supports the same view. Manu says that the body is made Brahmi by studies, observing vows, offering oblations, performing sacrifices, procreating children and undergoing the Panca-Mahayajnas. JewefokewÀ: keÀce&efYe: HegC³ewefve& The formation & development of personality: The Samskaras cover the full span of life. The Samskaras were a guide to direct the life of an individual according to his growth. Through Samskaras the Hindu sages tried to mould the character of individuals. The development of personality was the main focus in individual life. Spiritual Significance: Spiritualism is an important factor in Hinduisms. The Samskaras are transformed into spiritual sadhana. The Samskaras were a living religious experience. These were a Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 37 gradual training in spiritualism. Through the rites and ceremonies the Hindus became free from physical bondage and crossed the ocean of death. efJeÐeeáeeefJeÐeeáe ³emleÜsoesYe³eb men ~ DeefJeÐe³ee ce=l³egb leerlJee& efJeÐe³eeçce=leceMvegles ~~ (Isopanishad – II) 1.4.4 THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE SAMSKARAS: According to the Hindus, man requires protection, consecration and refinement. There is a mixture of religious and secular factors in the Samskaras. (i) Fire : The most important constituent of the Samskaras was Agni (fire) which was lighted in the beginning of every Samskara. It is called the ‘houselord’ in the Rigveda. It became the chief domestic deity and was a source of help in secular and sacred life of the householder. Agni was believed to be a renowned protector against illness, demons and other hostile spirits. It was also the high priest and mediator and messenger between gods and men. DeeqiveceeruesHegjesefnleb ³e%em³e osJece=eqlJepeced ~ nesleejb jlveOeelececed (RV. 1.1.1) The Hindus regard Agni as the director of rites and guardian of morality. (ii) Prayers, Appeals and Blessings : Prayer was applied to domestic ceremonies in the early stage of culture. Prayers were made for the protection and prosperity of family members. At the time of marriage ceremony the husband while taking with his Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 38 wife the great “seven steps” (saptapadi) prayed to Lord Visnu. In the Upanayana ceremony prayers were made for intellectual stimulation, purity, Brahmacharya etc. During the performance of the Samskaras blessings were also desired. The father at the time of birth rite of the child blessed, “Be a stone, be an axe, be imperishable gold.” DeMceeYeJe HejMegYe&Je efnjC³ecem$egleb YeJe (Paraskara Grihyasutra – I.16.14) (iii) Sacrifice : Men believed that like men, god also liked and accepted presents and gifts. The sacrifices were offered through the course of a Samskara. They were invited and feasted. (iv) Lustration : It consisted of bath, sipping water and sprinkling water over person and things. The ancient people thought the water as living being because of its motion, sound and power. The purifying effects of water were known to men. Many springs, lakes, wells and rivers had miraculous healing property. Ceremonial purification was a universal feature in all the Samskaras. An individual was purified by water from his conception up to death. (v) Orientation : It was another element of Samskaras. It was believed that the eastern direction was concerned with light and warmth, life and happiness, the west with darkness and chill. South the direction of Yama, the god of death, regarded as inauspicious. In all the auspicious Samskaras the individual faced the east to get life and light. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 39 (vi) Symbolism : It was a material object to convey mental and spiritual significance. Stone was a symbol of firmness. Sesamum and rice were symbols of fertility. Anointment was symbolic of love and affection etc. (vii) Taboos : Taboo is a Polynesian word meaning “what is prohibited”. There were many taboos linked with the conception of life. There were taboos linked with lucky and unlucky days, months and years. Such beliefs had the origin in remote past. But some prohibitions were based on rational facts. During natural calamity, death of a person, monthly course of a woman etc. the Samskaras were postponed. (viii) Magic : Magical elements are also seen in the Samskaras. The early men recognized the supernatural forces. Sometimes they wanted to control these forces. As a result magic originated from this. It is a directive and coercive procedure different from religion. In the Hindu Samskaras religion was more important than magic. (ix) Divination : Divination is the science that seeks to discover the will of supernatural powers. Every care was taken that a Samskara should be performed under an auspicious planet. 1.4.5 THE SIXTEEN SAMSKARAS: 1- GARBHADHANA (CONCEPTION) : The rite through which a man put his seed in a woman was called Garbhadhana. This Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 40 Samskara presupposed a well established home, a regular marriage and a desire for begetting children. Different periods are considered for its performance. (i) Vedic Period: The theory of Three Debts was in the process of evaluation in the Vedic Period. A son was called Rinachyuta (one who removes debts). There are many similes and references in the Vedic hymns regarding the procedure to approach a woman for conception. MeceerceMJelLeceeªæ{mle$e HegbmeJeveb ke=Àleced ~ leÜw Heg$em³e Jesoveb leled ðeer The Garbhadhana ceremonies are systematically dealt with in the Grihyasutras. After marriage the husband approached the wife in every month after her monthly course. Before the conception, the wife had to observe various vows to have different types of sons. (iii) Dharmasutras, the Smriti and subsequent periods : The Dharmasutras and the Smritis lay down rules regarding the performance, e.g. when the conception should take place; recommended & prohibited rights; astrological consideration etc. The Prayogas and the Paddhatis introduce the worship of puranic gods and prescribe Sankalpa, Matripuja and Nandishraddha etc. in the beginning of it. (iv) Time of Performance : According to the Dhramsutras, the proper time for conception was from the fourth to the sixteenth night after monthly course of the wife. Only nights were prescribed for conception and day time was prohibited. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 41 According to Baudhayana one should approach his wife from the fourth to the sixteenth night, specially the later ones. Apastamba and others accepted the view of Baudhayana. Children conceived on later nights were regarded more lucky and meritorious. The study of Garbhadhana Samskara is very interesting from the cultural point of view. 2- PUMSAVANA (QUICKENING A MALE CHILD): Pumsavana is that rite through which a male child was produced. Hegceeved Òemet³eles ³esve keÀce&Cee lelHegbmeJeveceerefjleced (Saunaka quoted in V.M.S. Vol-I) Different periods are mentioned for this also. (i) Vedic Period : In the Atharvaveda and the Samaveda – Mantra – Brahmana prayers for male children are mentioned. Some medicinal herb was also given to the pregnant woman with the verse, ‘The plants of which heaven has been the father, earth the mother, ocean the root, let those herbs of the gods favour thee, in order to acquire a son’ (AV.111.23.6). The rules regarding the Samskaras are not found in the Vedas. (ii) Sutra Period: During this period the Pumsavana Samskara was performed in the third or the fourth month of pregnancy or even later. (iii) The Proper Time: According to Manu and Yajnavalkya Pumsavana Samskara should be performed before the foetus begins to move in the womb. According to Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 42 Jatukarnya and Saunaka it should be performed in the third month of pregnancy. According to Saunaka this rite should be repeated in every conception. The significance of the Samskara consisted in its main features. Inserting the juice of the banyan tree was a device for preventing abortion and ensuring the birth of a male child. 3- SIMANTONNAYANA (HAIR – PARTING) : In the Simantonnayana ceremony the hairs of a pregnant woman were parted meercevle: Gvveer³eles ³eeqmcevkeÀce&efCe lelmeercevleesvve³eveefceefle keÀce&veeceOes³eced (V.M.S. – Vol-I). (i) Purpose : People believed that a woman in her pregnancy was attacked by evil spirits. So some rites should be performed to make them away. The Asvalayana-Smriti supported this belief. The religious purpose of the Samskaras was to bring prosperity to the mother and long life to the would-be child. Another purpose was to keep the pregnant woman in good cheer. (ii) Early History: There is some reference to this ceremony in the Mantra-Brahmana. In the Grihyasutras a detailed description is given. (iii) Time of Performance : According to the Grihyasutras the proper time for this is the fourth or fifth month of pregnancy. The Smritis and the astrological books prescribe the time upto eighth month or till the birth of the child. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 43 According to Sushruta a pregnant woman should avoid coition, over- exertion, sleeping in the day, keeping awake in the night, mounting a carriage, fear, sitting like a cock etc. 4- JATAKARMA (BIRTH CEREMONIES) : The birth ceremonies had a natural basis in the physical conditions of child birth. The word ‘Janman’ or ‘birth’ occurs thrice in the Rigveda in the sense of relations. In the Atharvaveda there is a hymn having prayers and spells for easy and safe delivery. (i) Time of Performance : The Jatakarma ceremony was performed before the severing of the naval lord. Òee*dveeefYeJeOe&veelHegbmeespeelekeÀce& efJeOeer³eles ~ ceb$ele: ÒeeMeveb ®eem³e efnjC³eceOegmeefHe& (ii) The Ceremonies : In the Jatakarma ceremonies, the first was the Medhajanana or production of intelligence. The father with his fourth finger and an instrument of gold gave to the child honey and ghee with the utterance of the Vyahritis and the great Gayatrimantra. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 44 The next item of the Jatakarma Ceremonies was the Ayusya or the rite for ensuring a long life for the child. The earth, where the child was born, was instrumental in the safe delivery of the child. So it was reverenced. When the ceremonies were over, presents were offered to the Brahmanas and gifts and alms were distributed. 5- NAMAKARANA (NAME GIVING) : The Hindus very early realized the importance of naming persons and it became a religious ceremony. The child is named after a god who seems to be its protector or it is named after a saint whose blessings are sought. Different periods are mentioned for it. (i) Vedic Period : The word ‘Naman’ or name is found in the Rigveda. Names of objects and persons are found in the Vedic literature. The secret name given in the Sutras is not mentioned in the Vedic literature. An individual could be named after a remote ancestor. (ii) Sutra & Later Periods : The Namakarana was more a custom than a ceremony in the beginning. But due to its social importance it was included in the Samskaras later on. (iii) Composition of the Name : According to the Paraskara Grihyasutra, the name should be of two syllables or of four syllables, beginning with a sonant. There should be Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 45 a semivowel in it with the visarga at its end, with a krit suffix, not with a taddhita. The naming of a girl should contain an uneven number of syllables, ending in aa (Dee) and should have a taddhita. The composition of the name might be after status of the person, Nakshatra, Month-deity, family-deity, popular & repulsive. (iv) Ceremonies : According to the general rule of the Grihyasutras Namakarana ceremony was performed on the tenth or the twelfth day after the birth of the child. According to one authority, the naming ceremony should be performed on the tenth, twelfth, hundredth or at the expiry of the first year. This wide option was due to the convenience of the family and health of the mother and the child. 6- NISHKRAMANA (FIRST OUTING) : In course of time the movements of the child’s limbs required wider scope to satisfy themselves. So it was thought proper to introduce the child to the outer world. But life outside house was not free from natural and supernatural dangers. Therefore, for the protection of the child gods were worshipped. Time of Performance: The time for performing the Nishkramana Samskara varied from the twelfth day after the birth to the fourth month (M.S. – II-134). According to the Grihyasutras and the Smritis, this Samskara should be either in the third or in the fourth month after the birth. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 46 As per the Grihyasutras, the father and the mother performed the ceremony. But the Puranas and the astrological works extend this privilege to others also. The significance of the ceremony is in the physical necessity of the child. The Samskara implied that after a certain period, the child must be taken out in the fresh air. 7- ANNAPRASHANA (FIRST FEEDING) : After six or seven months the child’s body developed and required greater amount of food for the physical need of the child. This system of feeding the child for the first time assumed a religious form. Food was life giving substance. Praises of food are found in the Vedas and the Upanishads. The Sutra texts prescribe the time of performance, the types of food and the verses to be recited. (i) Time of Performance: According to the Grihyasutras the ceremony was performed in the sixth month after the birth of the child. The Smritis of Manu and Yajnavalkya support this view (M.S.–II.34). But Laugakshi gives the option that it should be performed after the teeth come out. (ii) Types of Food: Food of all kinds should be mixed together and given to the child to eat. Some prescribe a mixture of curd, honey and ghee. The Grihyasutras also recommend meat and flesh. According to Sushruta, one should feed the child in the sixth month with light and suitable food. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 47 The significance of the Annaprashana Samskara was to wean away the child from their mothers at proper time. It was for the benefit of both the child and the mother. 8- CHUDAKARANA (TONSURE) : The primitive people realized the necessity of keeping short hair for health and beauty. But they were afraid of cutting the hair with an iron instrument due to injury by it. So it gave rise to the Chudakarana ceremony. The purpose of the Samskara: Regarding the purpose of the Samskara, the scripture prescribed long life by tonsure ceremony. According to Charaka, cutting and dressing of hair, beard & nails give strength, vigour, life, purity & beauty. The Chudakarana was a religious ceremony in the Vedic Period. This ceremony got a systematic form in the Sutra Period. Age: According to the Grihyasutras the Chudakarana ceremony took place at the end of the first year or before the expiry of the third year. Manusmriti prescribes the same. The later scriptures extend the age up to the fifth and the seventh year. 9- KARNAVEDHA (BORING THE EARS) : According to Sushruta, ears of a child should be bored for protection (from disease) and decoration. It is meant for preventing hydrocele and hernia. All the Grihyasutras do not mention about Karnavedha Samskara. So it is of a late origin. Age and Time of Performance: According to Brihaspati this ceremony was performed on the tenth, the twelfth or the sixteenth day after the Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 48 birth of the child. Garga prescribes the sixth, the seventh, the eighth or the twelfth month as suitable periods. According to Sushruta, the sixth or the seventh month is preferable due to physical facility. When the Karnavedha ceremony got a religious importance, its performance became compulsory. The later writers on the Samskara introduced more religious elements. 10- VIDYARAMBHA (LEARNING OF ALPHABETS) : When the mind of the child was ready to receive education, the Vidyarambha Samskara was performed and alphabets were taught. Different writers named it variously, such as Vidyarambha, Akshrarambha, Aksharasvikarana and Aksharalekhana. According to Visvamitra, the Vidyarambha Samskara was performed in the fifth year of the child. The proper time of performance was from the month of Margashira to Jyestha. The months from Ashadha to Kartika were prohibited for this Samskara. During the Sutra and Pre- Sutra periods, the educational session began during the rainy season. But according to the above authority this very season was avoided. 11- UPANAYANA (INITIATION) : The object of the Upanayana ceremonies is to prepare the young men for entering into the active duties of citizenship. The ceremony arose out of the civil needs of the community. But in course of time it received a religious colouring. The word Brahmacharya is mentioned in the Rigveda in the sense of the life of a religious student. Some reference is made about Upanayana Samskara. The initiation was regarded as the second birth of the Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 49 student. During the Brahmana period, the Upanayana assumed a ceremonial form. In the Upanishadic period the four Ashramas have been established. The Upanayana Samskara became fully established in the time of Grihyasutras. Meaning of Upanayana: In the Atharvaveda the word ‘Upanayana’ is used in the sense of ‘taking charge of a student’. It meant the initiation of the child by a teacher into sacred love. By many writers the Samskara itself is called ‘The Teaching of Savitri’ (Savitripradanam). Through the Upanayana Samskara rite, the child was taken to the teacher. Purpose of the Samskaras: Originally education was the main purpose and ritual was the secondary item. According to Apastamba and Bharadvaja, the Upanayana was meant for learning. But in course of time the performance of the ritual and the Vratadesha became the chief object; the education a secondary one. According to Manu the ritual purifies this life as well as other (M.S.-II.26). Age: According to the Grihyasutras and later authorities, the Upanayana ceremony of a Brahmana boy should be performed in the eighth year, that of a Kshatriya in the eleventh and of a Vaisya in the twelfth. 12- VEDARAMBHA (THE BEGINNING OF THE VEDIC STUDY) : In the beginning the Upanayana and the study of the Vedas began together. The former was a real going of the child to the house of the Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 50 teacher and was immediately followed by studentship. The Vedic study began with the sacred Gayatrimantra. The Samskara is first mentioned in Vyasa Smriti. It makes difference between the Upanayana and the Vedarambha Samskara. The real study began in the later one. After the Upanayana, an auspicious day was fixed for Vedarambha Samskara. In the beginning, the Matripuja, the Abhyudayika Sraddha and other preliminary ceremonies were performed. With proper sacrifice the study of Vedas began by the teacher. 13- KESHANTA OR GODANA (THE SHAVING OF BEARD) : The Keshanta or the first shaving of beard was one of the four Vedic Vratas. It was called Godana also, because a cow was gifted to the teacher. This Samskara was performed at the age of sixteen and marked the arrival of youth of the student. He required a greater watchfulness over his youthful impulses. After shaving the beard and moustaches he was required to take the vow of Brahmacharya and to live the life of austere discipline. 14- SAMAVARTANA OR SNANA (END OF STUDENTSHIP) : The Samskara was performed at the close of the Brahmacharya period. It indicates the termination of the student life. Samavartana means, “Returning home from the house of the Guru”. It was called Snana also because bathing formed the most important item of the Samskara. The close of one’s student career was a very momentous period in one’s life. One had to choose the two paths of life. One of them was to get oneself married and another was to lead a life of detachment. The student choosing the first path was called Upakurvana and the other one was called Naisthika. The first category became householder. The second category lived with the teacher in quest of Supreme knowledge. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 51 The Samavartana was a ceremony corresponding to modern convocation function. According to the Grihyasutras there were three types of Snatakas. The first type was called Vidyasnatakas who had completed their entire course of studies, but not the full term of Brahmacharya. The second type consisted of Vratasnatakas, who had observed all the vows and spent the full period of Brahmacharya at the teacher’s house but had not completed the full course of studies. The third type was called Ubhaya-Snatakas, who had completed their full course of studies and observed all the vows. 15- VIVAHA (MARRIAGE CEREMONIES): The Vivaha is the most important of all the Hindu Samskaras. The Grihyasutras generally begin with this Samskara. Marriage received great importance in early times. Marriage was not only a social necessity but became a religious duty for every individual. Marriage was considered as a sacrifice. Marriage had got greater importance and sanctity to pay off one’s ancestral debt by producing children. Forms of Marriage: The Smritis have recognized eight methods through which marriage was done. These are Brahma, Daiva, Arsa, Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa and Paishacha. ye´eïeesowJemleLee Dee (i) Brahma :In it the girl was given by the father, with such ornaments as he could afford, to a man of character and learning, whom he invited voluntarily (M.S. III.27). It is the most honourable type of marriage. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 52 (ii) Daiva: In this form the decorated girl was given away by the father to a priest, who officiated at a sacrifice commenced by him. It was called Daiva, because in it the gift was made on the occasion of a Daiva sacrifice (M.S. III.28). (iii) Arsa: According to this method, the father of the bride received the price of the bride from the bridegroom in the form of a pair of kine or two for the uses prescribed by law, e.g. the performance of some sacrifice (M.S. III.29). (iv) Prajapatya: According to it the father gave away his daughter to a suitor on the distinct understanding that they should both perform their civic and religious duties together. (M.S. III.30). (v) Asura: Where the husband, after having paid money to the relations of the bride and the bride herself, accepts her out of free will, it is called the Asura type of marriage (M.S. III.31). (vi) Gandharva: “Where the bride and the bridegroom meet each other of their own accord and the meeting is consummated in copulation born of passion, that form is called Gandharva (M.S. III.32). (vii) Rakshasa: According to Manu “Capture of a girl by force while she is crying and weeping, having killed, scattered and injured her relatives is called Rakshasa Vivaha” (M.S. III.33). Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 53 (viii) Paishacha: Manu defines: “When a man cohabits with a girl in loneliness when she is sleepy, mad or intoxicated, it is called the Paishacha method” (M.S. III.34). It was condemned by all. The first four methods were regarded praiseworthy and approved (Prasasta). But the last four were disapproved (Aprasasta). At present the only two forms, Brahma and Asura are recognized. 16- ANTYESTI SAMSKARA (THE FUNERAL CEREMONIES) : The last sacrament in the life of a Hindu is the Antyesti or the funeral. While living, a Hindu consecrates his worldly life by performing various rites and ceremonies. But, after death, his survivors consecrate the funeral. According to Baudhayana, through the Samskaras after the birth, one conquers, this earth; through the Samskaras after the death the heaven. “peelemebmkeÀejsCesceb ueeskeÀceefYepe³eefle ce=lemebmkeÀejsCeecegb ueeskeÀced” (Baudhayana Pitrimedha Sutra III.I.4). Here the sixteen Samskaras are described in a nutshell. ------1.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND MATERIALS RECOMMENDED FOR FURTHER STUDY. ------ 1) Raghuvamsam – Edited by M.R.Kale, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi 2) Life and culture in Ancient India by B.N. Lunia Published by Lakshmi Narain Agrawal, Agra, Edition 2012-13 3) The Wonder That Was India by A.L.Basham Published by Picador, London, Edition – 1967 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 54 4) Hindu Samskaras by Rajbali Pandey, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 1993 5) History of Dharmashastra by P.V.Kane, Published by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1975 6) Manu Smriti, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 2000 7) Yajnavalkya Smtiri, Published by Parimala Publication, Delhi, Edition – 2011 8) Ramayanam, Published by Chaukhamba Vidya Bhawan, Varanasi, Edition -1982 9) Mahabharatam, Published by Gita Press, Gorakhpur 10) Bharatiya Sanskriti by Dr. Preeti Prabha Goyal, Published by Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, Edition - 2016 11) A Sanskrit English Dictionary by SIR M. MONIER-WILLIAMS Published by Nataraj Books, 7073 Brook Field Plaza, Spring Field, VA 22150, Printed New Delhi Edition – 2007 12) Sanskrita – Hindi Kosha by Vaman Sivaram Apte, Published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Edition – 1977 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 55 ------1.6 MODEL QUESTIONS. ------ (i) mebmkeÀejm³e DeLe¥ ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~ (ii) mebmkeÀejeCeeb mebK³eeefJe Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 56