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Thyroid Hormone THYROID HORMONE Edited by Neeraj Kumar Agrawal Thyroid Hormone http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/2964 Edited by Neeraj Kumar Agrawal Contributors Pradip K. Sarkar, Asano Ishikawa, Jun Kitano, José María Fernández-Santos, Jesús Morillo- Bernal, Rocío García-Marín, José Carmelo Utrilla, Inés Martín-Lacave, Irmgard D. Dietzel, Sivaraj Mohanasundaram, Vanessa Niederkinkhaus, Gerd Hoffmann, Jens W. Meyer, Christoph Reiners, Christiana Blasl, Katharina Bohr, R.G. Ahmed, N.K. Agrawal, Ved Prakash, Manuj Sharma, Giuseppe Pasqualetti, Angela Dardano, Sara Tognini, Antonio Polini, Fabio Monzani, Renata de Azevedo Melo Luvizotto, Sandro José Conde, Miriane de Oliveira, Maria Teresa De Sibio, Keize Nagamati Jr, Célia Regina Nogueira, Eva Feigerlova, Marc Klein, Anna Angelousi, Lelia Groza, Bruno Leheup, Georges Weryha, Einav Yehuda-Shnaidman, Bella Kalderon, Jacob Bar-Tana, Emina Kasumagic-Halilovic, Begler Begovic, Francesco Torino, Agnese Barnabei, Roberto Baldelli, Marialuisa Appetecchia, Clara Spinel, Magnolia Herrera Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Tanja Skorupan Typesetting InTech Prepress, Novi Sad Cover InTech Design Team First published July, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from [email protected] Thyroid Hormone, Edited by Neeraj Kumar Agrawal p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0678-4 Contents Preface IX Section 1 Thyroid Hormone Physiology 1 Chapter 1 “Quo Vadis?” Deciphering the Code of Nongenomic Action of Thyroid Hormones in Mature Mammalian Brain 3 Pradip K. Sarkar Chapter 2 Ecological Genetics of Thyroid Hormone Physiology in Humans and Wild Animals 37 Asano Ishikawa and Jun Kitano Chapter 3 Paracrine Regulation of Thyroid-Hormone Synthesis by C Cells 51 José María Fernández-Santos, Jesús Morillo-Bernal, Rocío García-Marín, José Carmelo Utrilla and Inés Martín-Lacave Chapter 4 Thyroid Hormone Effects on Sensory Perception, Mental Speed, Neuronal Excitability and Ion Channel Regulation 85 Irmgard D. Dietzel, Sivaraj Mohanasundaram, Vanessa Niederkinkhaus, Gerd Hoffmann, Jens W. Meyer, Christoph Reiners, Christiana Blasl and Katharina Bohr Section 2 Developmental Physiology 123 Chapter 5 Maternal-Fetal Thyroid Interactions 125 R.G. Ahmed Section 3 Thyroid Hormone Excess 157 Chapter 6 Thyroid Hormone Excess: Graves’ Disease 159 N.K. Agrawal, Ved Prakash and Manuj Sharma VI Contents Section 4 Thyroid Hormone Deficiency 181 Chapter 7 Mild Thyroid Deficiency in the Elderly 183 Giuseppe Pasqualetti, Angela Dardano, Sara Tognini, Antonio Polini and Fabio Monzani Section 5 Thyroid Hormone in Special Situations 211 Chapter 8 Obesity and Weight Loss: The Influence of Thyroid Hormone on Adipokines 213 Renata de Azevedo Melo Luvizotto, Sandro José Conde, Miriane de Oliveira, Maria Teresa De Sibio, Keize Nagamati Jr and Célia Regina Nogueira Chapter 9 Thyroid Disorders and Bone Mineral Homeostasis 251 Eva Feigerlova, Marc Klein, Anna Angelousi, Lelia Groza, Bruno Leheup and Georges Weryha Chapter 10 Thyroid Hormone and Energy Expenditure 277 Einav Yehuda-Shnaidman, Bella Kalderon and Jacob Bar-Tana Chapter 11 Thyroid Autoimmunity in Patients with Skin Disorders 297 Emina Kasumagic-Halilovic and Begler Begovic Chapter 12 Thyroid Function Abnormalities in Patients Receiving Anticancer Agents 311 Francesco Torino, Agnese Barnabei, Roberto Baldelli and Marialuisa Appetecchia Section 6 Experimental Advances 343 Chapter 13 Thyroid Culture from Monolayer to Closed Follicles 345 Clara Spinel and Magnolia Herrera Preface Thyroid hormone is important for controlling metabolism and many other body functions. Changes in thyroid hormone physiology, its regulation and diseases thereof have been a concern for the mankind. Understanding of thyroid hormone(s) has been continuously updated and revised. The contributions from different authors have been incorporated in this book for this purpose. The original work of these contributors will be especially useful in furthering the knowledge on thyroid and help in creating new vistas of research. The book incorporates physiology of thyroid hormone in maternal-fetal axis, and regulation of thyroid hormone synthesis in health and disease. The controversy in the cut-off for delineating normal from abnormal thyroid function has also been dealt with. Thyroid hormone deficiency and excess states have been highlighted through elaborate review to encompass the present understanding and management of such problems. A separate section on thyroid hormone changes in special situation has been incorporated. Dr Neeraj Kumar Agrawal Associate Professor and Head of Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Section 1 Thyroid Hormone Physiology Chapter 1 “Quo Vadis?” Deciphering the Code of Nongenomic Action of Thyroid Hormones in Mature Mammalian Brain Pradip K. Sarkar Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/46206 1. Introduction Thyroid hormones (TH) have major well-known actions on the growth and development of the maturing tissues including mammalian brain via activation of specific nuclear receptors leading to gene expression and subsequent target protein synthesis. Deficiency of THs has serious issues on the development on all types of tissues including brain leading to severe thyroid disorders and as a result imposes overall metabolic malfunctioning of all system organs. Endemic goiter was probably first described with cretinism by Paracelsus (1493 -1541) and by other physicians of the Alps and Central Europe. However, the relationship between cretinism and involvement of thyroid gland was lacking over centuries. Thyroid gland was literally described by Wharton in 1656. Since then the progress of research on thyroid gland gained attention particularly for its most observed pleiotypic action in number of species from aquatic animals to humans. Developments of new scientific technologies and the progress in the area of molecular biology from time to time are continually changing our concepts of the regulation of the functions of THs at the subcellular level [1,2]. Immunocytochemical localization studies revealed that TH receptors (TR) in adult vertebrates are highly concentrated within choroids plexus, dentate gyrus, hippocampus, amygdaloid complex, pyriform cortex, granular layer of cerebellum, mammillary bodies and medial geniculate bodies. Although specific nuclear receptors for THs in adult brain have been identified, their functions are unclear about target gene expression. Imunohistochemical mapping further documented that locus coeruleus norepinephrine stimulates active conversion of L-tetraiodothyronine (L-T4) to L-triiodothyronine (L-T3). A morphologic linking between central thyronergic and noradrenergic systems has been established. This changes in TH ontogeny gradually started drawing attention that possible © 2012 Sarkar, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 4 Thyroid Hormone TH action in mature brain switches its role which may be different from its classical action mediated through nuclear receptors. As the brain approaches adulthood, nuclear levels of iodothyronines decline gradually reaching a plateau and maintain it, and the TH levels increase within nerve terminals of adult vertebrates [1]. In particular, it showed decrease in nuclear L-T3 receptor binding in adult brain compared to developing brain. These switching differences in TH ontogeny between developing and adult vertebrate brain has gradually interested investigators to search for new functional role and mechanism of action of TH. Nevertheless, the action of THs remained limitedly judged in mature mammalian central nervous system (CNS) [3,4]. Recent research highlights about the nonconventional nongenomic action of THs and its metabolites. Adult mammalian CNS is of specific interest. Clinical observations specifically have shown that the adult-onset thyroid disorders lead to several neuropsychological diseases including but not limited to anxiety, depression, mood disorders etc. in humans. These complications can be improved with appropriate adjustment of circulatory
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