١ Topics: Sources of Variation
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Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Topics: • Control Charts for Variables • Some Special Difficulties of Estimating Indirect Costs in Economy Studies • Did it Pay to Use Statistical Quality Control? • Costs and Product Liability • SQC Techniques in Relation to certain Economic Aspects of Product liability • Control Charts for Variables Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Sources of Variation • Variation exists in all processes. • Variation can be categorized as either; – Common or Random causes of variation, or • Random causes that we cannot identify • Unavoidable • e.g. slight differences in process variables like diameter, weight, service time, temperature Assignable causes of variation • Causes can be identified and eliminated • e.g. poor employee training, worn tool, machine needing repair ١ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control charts identify variation • Chance causes - “common cause” – inherent to the process or random and not controllable – if only common cause present, the process is considered stable or “in control” • Assignable causes - “special cause” – variation due to outside influences – if present, the process is “out of control” Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for x and R Notation and values • Ri = range of the values in the ith sample Ri = xmax - xmin • R = average range for all m samples • is the true process mean • is the true process standard deviation ٢ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Xbar and R Statistical Basis of the Charts • Assume the quality characteristic of interest is normally distributed with mean , and standard deviation, . • If x1, x2, …, xn is a sample of size n, then he average of this sample is x x x x x 1 2 n • n • is normally distributed with mean, , and standard deviation, x / n Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Xbar and R Statistical Basis of the Charts • The probability is 1 - that any sample mean will fall between Z Z 2/ x 2/ n and Z Z 2/ x 2/ n • The above can be used as upper and lower control limits on a control chart for sample means, if the process parameters are known. ٣ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Xbar and R Control Limits for the xbar chart UCL x A 2R Center Line x LCL x A 2R • A2 is found in Appendix VI for various values of n. Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Xbar and R Control Limits for the R chart UCL D4 R Center Line R LCL DR3 • D3 and D4 are found in Appendix VI for various values of n. ٤ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Xbar and R Estimating the Process Standard Deviation • The process standard deviation can be estimated using a function of the sample average range. R d2 • This is an unbiased estimator of Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables • To create the centerline of the chart: m Xi X i 1 m ٥ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables • To find the average range: m R i R i 1 m Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables • Control limits for the R chart: UCLR D4 R LCLR D3R ٦ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables • Centerline and Control limits for X-bar and S chart (if n 10): m m Xi si i 1 X s i 1 m m UCL B s UCLX X A3 s s 4 LCLs B3 s LCLX X A3 s Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Distribution of Data • Normal distributions • Skewed distribution ٧ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Trial Control Limits • The control limits should be treated as trial control limits. • If this process is in control for the m samples collected, then the system was in control in the past. • If all points plot inside the control limits and no systematic behavior is identified, then the process was in control in the past, and the trial control limits are suitable for controlling current or future production. Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Trial control limits and the out-of-control process • If points plot out of control, then the control limits must be revised. • Before revising, identify out of control points and look for assignable causes. – If assignable causes can be found, then discard the point(s) and recalculate the control limits. – If no assignable causes can be found then 1) either discard the point(s) as if an assignable cause had been found or 2) retain the point(s) considering the trial control limits as appropriate for current control. ٨ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Control Limits, Specification Limits, and Natural Tolerance Limits • Control limits are functions of the natural variability of the process • Natural tolerance limits represent the natural variability of the process (usually set at 3-sigma from the mean) • Specification limits are determined by developers/designers. Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Control Limits, Specification Limits, and Natural Tolerance Limits • There is no mathematical relationship between control limits and specification limits. • Do not plot specification limits on the charts – Causes confusion between control and capability – If individual observations are plotted, then specification limits may be plotted on the chart. ٩ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Rational subgroup from homogeneous lot - Rational subgroup from homogeneous lot : same machine, same operator - Decisions on size of sample empirical judgment + relates to costs • choose n = 4 or 5 use R-chart • when n 10 use s-chart - frequency of taking subgroups often enough to detect process changes - Guideline of sample sizes/frequency using • Say, 4000 parts/day 75 samples • if n = 4 19 subgroups • or n = 5 15 subgroups Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Rational Subgroups • X bar chart monitors the between sample variability • R chart monitors the within sample variability. ١٠ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Guidelines for the Design of the Control Chart • Specify sample size, control limit width, and frequency of sampling • if the main purpose of the x-bar chart is to detect moderate to large process shifts, then small sample sizes are sufficient (n = 4, 5, or 6) • if the main purpose of the x-bar chart is to detect small process shifts, larger sample sizes are needed (as much as 15 to 25)…which is often impractical…alternative types of control charts are available for this situation… Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Sample Std. Deviation Chart (x - s control chart ) • Both R and s measure dispersion of data • R chart - simple, only use XH (highest) and XL(lowest) • s chart - more calculation - use ALL UCL X A s xi’s more accurate, need x 3 LCL X A s calculate sub-group sample standard x 3 deviation UCLs B4s • When n < 10 R chart LCLs B3s s chart so s • n 10 - s chart better , R not o C4 C4 accurate any more ١١ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Guidelines for the Design of the Control Chart • If increasing the sample size is not an option, then sensitizing procedures (such as warning limits) can be used to detect small shifts…but this can result in increased false alarms. • R chart is insensitive to shifts in process standard deviation.(the range method becomes less effective as the sample size increases) may want to use S or S2 chart. • The OC curve can be helpful in determining an appropriate sample size. Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Charts for Variables Guidelines for the Design of the Control Chart Allocating Sampling Effort • Choose a larger sample size and sample less frequently? or, Choose a smaller sample size and sample more frequently? • The method to use will depend on the situation. In general, small frequent samples are more desirable. ١٢ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Statistical Control • Statistical Process Control: Statistical evaluation of the output of a process during production • Quality of Conformance: A product or service conforms to specifications Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Chart • Control Chart – Purpose: to monitor process output to see if it is random – A time ordered plot representative sample statistics obtained from an on going process (e.g. sample means) – Upper and lower control limits define the range of acceptable variation ١٣ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Statistical Control Abnormal variation Out of due to assignable sources control UCL Mean Normal variation due to chance LCL Abnormal variation due to assignable sources 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sample number Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Statistical Process Control • The essence of statistical process control is to assure that the output of a process is random so that future output will be random. ١٤ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Statistical Process Control • The Control Process – Define – Measure – Compare – Evaluate – Correct – Monitor results Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Statistical Control • Variations and Control – Random variation: Natural variations in the output of a process, created by countless minor factors – Assignable variation: A variation whose source can be identified ١٥ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Sampling Distribution Sampling distribution Process distribution Mean Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Normal Distribution Standard deviation Mean 95.44% 99.74% ١٦ Islamic University, Gaza - Palestine Control Limits Sampling