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Writing the Rules for Europe Experts, Cartels, and International Organizations Writing the Rules for Europe 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd i 10/10/2014 12:47:46 PM Making Europe: Technology and Transformations, 1850–2000 Series editors: Johan Schot (SPRU – Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, United Kingdom) and Phil Scranton (Rutgers University, USA) Book series overview: Consumers, Tinkerers, Rebels: The People Who Shaped Europe by Ruth Oldenziel (Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands) and Mikael Hård (Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany) Building Europe on Expertise: Innovators, Organizers, Networkers by Martin Kohlrausch (KU Leuven, Belgium) and Helmuth Trischler (Deutsches Museum, Germany) Europe’s Infrastructure Transition: Economy, War, Nature by Per Høgselius (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden), Arne Kaijser (Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden) and Erik van der Vleuten (Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands) Writing the Rules for Europe: Experts, Cartels, and International Organizations by Wolfram Kaiser (University of Portsmouth, United Kingdom) and Johan Schot (SPRU – Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, United Kingdom) Communicating Europe: Technologies, Information, Events by Andreas Fickers (University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg) and Pascal Griset (Paris-Sorbonne University, France) Europeans Globalizing: Mapping, Exploiting, Exchanging by Maria Paula Diogo (New University of Lisbon, Portugal) and Dirk van Laak (University of Giessen, Germany) Initiator: Foundation for the History of Technology (Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands) The Foundation for the History of Technology (SHT) seeks to develop and communicate knowledge that increases our understanding of the critical role that technology plays in the history of the modern world. Established in 1988 in the Netherlands, SHT initiates and supports scholarly research in the history of technology. This includes large-scale national and interna- tional research programs, as well as numerous individual projects, many of which are in collaboration with Eindhoven University of Technology. SHT also coordinates Tensions of Europe (TOE), an international research network of more than 250 scholars from across Europe and beyond who are studying the role of technology as an agent of change in European history. For more information visit www.histech.nl. 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd ii 10/10/2014 12:47:47 PM Writing the Rules for Europe Experts, Cartels, and International Organizations Wolfram Kaiser and Johan Schot 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd iii 10/10/2014 12:47:47 PM © Wolfram Kaiser, Johan Schot and Foundation for the History of Technology 2014 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identifi ed as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN: 978–0–230–30807–7 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd iv 10/10/2014 12:47:47 PM Contents Making Europe: An Introduction to the Series ix Acknowledgements xvii Introduction 1 1 Origins of Technocratic Internationalism 21 Trading Goods for Prosperity & Peace 23 Reshaping Relations through Communication 27 Transforming the World through Association 31 Regulating Europe through Organization 37 Fragility of the International Machinery 44 2 The Power & Fragility of Experts 49 Reconciling the Worlds of Diplomats & Experts 50 Towards Postwar Reconstruction 58 Commissariat or Foreign Offi ce Domination? 62 Transit: Model for the League? 67 Technocratic Methods for Totalitarian Dictatorships 74 3 From Divided Europe to “Core Europe” 79 Myrdal’s Postwar pan-Europe 81 From Marshall Plan to OEEC 88 v 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd v 10/10/2014 12:47:48 PM vi Contents Planning in Eastern Europe 93 Talking Supranational in Western Europe 103 Shaping a Legal Community 108 4 Europe of the Standard Gauge 113 Local Lines & European Choices 115 Mediating Tensions 121 Standardizing Technological Zones 128 Transnational Collaboration under Pressure 135 5 Tensions in Railway Europe 141 Transnational Organizations Competing 144 Returning Railway Wagons 151 Overcoming Old Divisions 158 Collaborating in East-Central Europe 161 Working Together in the West 165 Building Global Connections 173 6 Cannons & Cartels 179 Travel, Technology, Transfers 180 From National to Transnational Cartels 189 Cartels, Reconciliation, Peace 191 World Economic Conference & Beyond 196 Anti-Trust Law & Cartel Culture 204 Continuities in “Core Europe” Organization 212 7 Technology Cooperation in Steel Europe 219 Rebuilding East–West Trade Links 220 Expanding International Organization 223 Negotiating Investment Plans 225 Diffusing Technological Innovation 232 International Organizations, Technology, Transfers 243 Collaborating in Research 247 Competition and Cooperation 252 8 Towards European Union Hegemony 259 Hothouse for Supranationalism? 262 Deepening & Widening the Community 268 Market Integration in a Customs Union 275 Towards One Technological Zone 278 Regulating the Internal Market 284 Forward to the Past 287 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd vi 10/10/2014 12:47:48 PM Contents vii Conclusion 293 Institutions & Experts 295 Zones & Notions of Europe 300 Forward to the Past 304 Technocracy & Democracy 308 Endnotes 315 List of Archives 345 Bibliography 347 List of Abbreviations 373 Illustration Credits 377 Making Europe: Series Acknowledgements 383 Index 385 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd vii 10/10/2014 12:47:48 PM 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd viii 10/10/2014 12:47:48 PM Making Europe: An Introduction to the Series In a typical conversation about twentieth-century European history, the subject of war will almost certainly arise—whether it is the Great War, the Second World War, or the Cold War. Similarly, histo- rians who write about contemporary European history often view war as the twentieth century’s iconic event. In fact, many scholars rely on Europe’s political history, rife as it is with military confl ict, to set the timeframe for their work. The infl uential historian Eric Hobsbawn, for example, defi ned the twentieth century as begin- ning with the First World War and ending with the collapse of the Soviet Union; Hobsbawn named this period—1914 to 1991—The Short Twentieth Century. Indeed, the topic of war and rupture has dominated the discourse on Europe in the twentieth century—and understandably so. We, the editors and authors of the Making Europe series, however, have taken an alternative approach to our subject. We offer a Euro- pean history viewed through the lens of technology rather than war. We believe that a European history with technology at its core can help to understand the continuities that have endured despite the rupture of wars. Making Europe places continuities—from the rise of institutions like CERN to the evolution of hacker networks—in a longer-term perspective. The Making Europe narrative suggests ix 9780230308077_01_prexx.indd ix 10/10/2014 12:47:49 PM x Making Europe: An Introduction to the Series that recent European history is as much about building connections across national borders as it is about playing out confl icts between nation states. This view of technology from a transnational perspec- tive has proven to be felicitous. As a phenomenon, technology has always been particularly mobile; this mobility has allowed new technologies to help shape international relations between coun- tries, companies, organizations, and people. To understand the role of technology in this history, we required ourselves to rethink the very meaning of technology: referencing far more than machines alone, technology also embraces people and values; ideas, skills, and knowledge. Technological change, in our view, is a deeply human process. Technology was—and still is—central to the creation of Europe. And given its centrality, technology has been hotly contested—politically, economically, and culturally—in the making of Europe. Technology’s role in shaping Europe coalesced around 1850, when a new era began, an era from 1850 to 2000 that we refer to as The Long Twentieth Century.
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