ANALYSE Hate speech is a persistent problem in Cyprus and undermines the prospects for peace. DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS This report identifies three main nexuses of public hate PUBLIC DISCOURSES speech in both Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities: intercommunal, inter-alterity OF HATE SPEECH IN and inter-gender. CYPRUS: Both social and traditional media outlets lack effective policies and regulation in Awareness, Policies and Prevention combatting hate speech incidents. Authorities must update the Julie A. Dilmaç, Özker Kocadal and media regulatory framework Orestis Tringides and keep pace with the emerging challenges of the online environment. Joint initiatives involving civil society, authorities and law enforcement agencies are needed. DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS PUBLIC DISCOURSES OF HATE SPEECH IN CYPRUS: Awareness, Policies and Prevention Contents 1 HATE SPEECH DEFINITION AND THE ONLINE CONTEXT . 2 1 .1 What is “Hate Speech”? The EU Context . 2 1 2. Categorization → Stereotypes → Othering . 3 1 3. Othering → Metaphors → (“Soft”) Hate Speech . 3 1 4. Social Networks and Hate Speech . 3 1 5. Hate Speech Regulation on Social Media . 4 1 6. The Current Project . 5 2 HATE SPEECH IN THE GREEK CYPRIOT COMMUNITY . 6 2 .1 Intercommunal Nexus . 6 2 2. Inter-alterity Nexus . 10 2 3. Inter-gender Nexus . 13 3 HATE SPEECH IN THE TURKISH CYPRIOT COMMUNITY . 15 3 .1 Intercommunal Nexus . 15 3 2. Inter-alterity Nexus . 19 3 3. Inter-gender Nexus . 23 4 POLICIES, REGULATIONS AND PREVENTION OF HATE SPEECH IN THE GREEK AND TURKISH CYPRIOT COMMUNITIES . 28 4 .1 Regulations in the Greek Cypriot Community: Data Collection, Under-reporting . 28 4 2. Regulations in the Turkish Cypriot Community: Media Regulation and the Journalism Code of Conduct . 29 4 .3 Joint Initiatives are Needed: Policy Recommendations for Civil Society, Authorities and Law Enforcement Agencies . 31 References . 32 FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG – PUBLIC DISCOURSES OF HATE SPEECH IN CYPRUS 1 HATE SPEECH DEFINITION AND THE ONLINE CONTEXT The development of information and communication tech- Finally, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights nologies and, more specifically, social media have redefined has defined within the Framework Decision on Racism and the boundaries of free speech . On the one hand, the internet Xenophobia the following priorities: made it possible to share ideas with large audiences around the world; on the other hand, it helps some intolerant individ- – the identification of hate crime, uals propagate negative and stereotypical assumptions about – the increasing use of the internet as a tool of hate and some groups . Thus, in the name of freedom of expression, propaganda, some hide behind anonymity and take advantage of the lax – the under-reporting of hate crime, rules of the internet, as well as the visibility it provides, to – the rise of extremist groups and political parties in the convey racist and discriminatory messages . Such prejudiced EU . views and opinions against certain minority groups or against society in general are what we refer to as “hate speech” . Even if there is no definitive and consensual definition, two major definitions should be highlighted here . The first one is 1.1. WHAT IS “HATE SPEECH”? THE EU offered by the Council of Europe, which defines hate speech CONTEXT as covering “all forms of expressions that spread, incite, pro- mote or justify racial hatred, xenophobia, anti-Semitism or Hate speech is a source of social unrest and it damages fun- other forms of hatred based on intolerance” (Council of Eu- damental European and international norms of peace and rope, n .d .) . According to this definition, hate speech is then a unity . The term “hate speech”, particularly in its legal context, broad, extremely negative discourse based on intolerance is a contested one . There is no universally accepted definition expressed in the form of aggressive nationalism and ethno- for hate speech, because “there is no universal consensus on centrism, discrimination and hostility against minorities and what is harmful or unsuitable”, or on what constitutes (pros- immigrants . A much broader definition is proposed by the ecutable) “hate speech” . As hate speech is expressed and United Nations, which argues that hate speech is “any kind perceived in different ways, legislation on its own is not ade- of communication in speech, writing or behaviour, that at- quate to contain it or to clearly define and enforce where free tacks or uses pejorative or discriminatory language with ref- speech ends and where hate speech begins . erence to a person or a group on the basis of who they are, in other words, based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality, Within the EU, according to the Council Framework Decision race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factor” (Unit- 2008/913/JHA of 2008, hate speech is “all conduct publicly ed Nations, 2019) . Accordingly, LGBTI community members, inciting to violence or hatred directed against a group of per- migrants, disabled people, women and individuals belonging sons or a member of such a group defined by reference to to a certain social class or a specific religion can be subject to race, colour, religion, descent or national or ethnic origin” – such attacks . In the context of this project, the latter defini- where dimensions such as gender and sexual orientation are tion will be applied, as it covers much more various aspects of not included in the Framework’s definition . hate speech . Due to variations and incoherencies amongst and within EU The existence of such discourses creates problems as they member states’ legal systems on what constitutes prosecut- constitute a threat to social harmony and human rights: hate able “hate speech”, the European Parliament put forth a mo- speech divides and categorizes individuals, exacerbating dif- tion in 2017 for a resolution on establishing a common legal ferences . Most of the time it is based on wrong assumptions definition of hate speech in the EU . and stereotypes . Through hate speech, perpetrators draw a distinction between a “We” (considered as the standard) and a “They”, the discriminated alterity, who is seen as un- derdeveloped, abnormal, outdated and sometimes incompe- tent . Moreover, hate speech is a threat to democratic values, social stability and peace . The problem is exacerbated when 2 Hate Speech definition and the online context such discourses are shared and amplified on social media, ty towards the outgroup and persuade the public to plan to giving to the hateful rhetoric an added resonance . Moreover, take (violent) action . For example, historical documents that hate speech causes a feeling of insecurity in people targeted, labelled people as animals not only dehumanized them in as hate speech constitutes a direct incitement to violence and this way, but also helped to desensitize others (Kohl, 2011; intimidation . In some cases, hate speech could even lead to Musolff, 2008) . For example, Nazis referred to Jews as “par- hate crimes, as shown in OSCE’s 2012 report (OSCE, 2013 asites,” “vermin”, “lice,” or “demons” during the Holocaust, November 15) . Not only are individuals or groups the ones (Nagengast, 2002: 339) . Hutus referred to Tutsis as “cock- which are targeted but also symbolic places, such as religious roaches” during the 1994 Rwandan genocide, “thus dehu- institutions or other places of worship and meeting places of manizing them and justifying their extermination” (Twagili- LGBTI community members or human rights activists, can mana, 2015: 115) . also be subject to vandalism as an expression of hate . Metaphors in discourses (as well as in online discourses) 1.2. CATEGORIZATION → STEREOTYPES → desensitize the audience and the perpetrators (Baider & OTHERING Kopytowska, 2017), and the use of metaphors (in the form of (“soft”) hate speech) gains relevance in times of crisis Social categorization divides individuals into social groups and conflict . In the example of the refugee crisis in the EU, (Allport, 1979) typically on the basis of common and shared such simplifications of “us-good” and “them-evil” create characteristics of a group (Cohen and Claire Lefebvre, 2005) perceived confrontations among host country citizens and (e g. nationality, skin colour or religion) . They are thus refugees . In the same example of the refugee crisis, the viewed more as uniform members of a specified social “others” (refugee and migrants) are conceptualized as a group rather than as individuals . Categorization can lead to “threat” in both physical and symbolic senses (Baider & constructing stereotypes and then prejudices (Mazzara, Kopytowska, 2017) . 1997: 72; Russo & Tempesta, 2017), which constitutes per- sonal opinions (sometimes negative and hostile) . This per- The choices of metaphors and their frequency of usage are sonal contrasting and perceived incompatibility based on likely to influence the salience of issues among the public, personal worldviews tends to put together all people with activate certain moral evaluations and generate fear, thereby similar characteristics in one single group, where all mem- creating grounds for verbal and physical aggression targeted bers share (negative) attributes . It is a process known as at the other . “othering” (Gabriel, 2008: 213) . Othering can lead to hate manifestations (verbal or physical) towards the defined so- Metaphors and dehumanization serve as a springboard for cial groups, invoking basic defence instincts and defence both individual acts of prejudice, as well