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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD vii PREFACE ix ABBREVIATIONS xx iii

PART ONE PRELIMINARY

INTRODUCTION 3

I HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 17

1 Historical Excursus up to 1878 18 2 British Rule 20 2.1 The 1878-1955 Period 20 2.2 The 1955-1959 Period 24 3 The 1960 Constitution 25 3.1 Executive 27 3.2 Legislature 28 3.3 Communal Chambers 28 3.4 Judiciary 29 3.5 Other Provisions 30 4 Constitutional Difficulties 30 5 The 13 Proposals to amend the Constitution and the Intercommunal Conflict that followed 33 6 The Coup and the Invasion 36 Chronological Table of the main Developments of the Cyprus Problem and the Negotiations for its Solution from 1974 to the Present Day 37

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PART TWO ESTABLISHMENT - CRISIS AND CONTINUITY (1960-1974)

II THE CREATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS 49

1 The Emergence of Statehood 49 1.1 Devolution of Sovereignty 51 1.2 Unitary State 53 1.3 "Imposed" Constitution - the Notion of the "People of Cyprus" 58 2 "Succession of States" in International Law. The Provisions in the Treaty of Establishment 62 3 Recognition 65 3.1 "Collective recognition" 65 3.2 The characteristics of Statehood 66 3.3 "Independence" - "Sovereignty" 67 4 "Limitations" to the Independence of Cyprus? 69 4.1 The Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Guarantee 70 4.2 Legal Evaluation of the Treaties 72 4.3 Restrictions as to Amendments of the 1960 Constitution 75 4.4 Military or Territorial Concessions 76 5 The Legal Status of the Sovereign Base Areas 77 5.1 The Treaties Establishing the SBAs 77 5.2 The Status of the SBAs under the Law of the United Kingdom 81 5.3 The Status of the SBAs under the Law of the Republic of Cyprus 83 5.4 The Status of the SBAs under Public International Law 86 5.4.1 Are the SBAs a State or another Related Form? 87 5.4.2 Are the SBAs a "Colony" under International Law? 88 5.4.3 Are the SBAs a "Servitude" under International Law? 88

III CRISIS AND CONTINUITY OF THE REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS (1963- 1964 AND 1974 COUP) 91

1 The 1963-1964 Crisis and International Law 91 2 The Stand taken by the International Community 94 2.1 Great Britain 94 2.2 The Security Council of the United Nations 95 2.3 The United Nations General Assembly 96

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2.4 International Treaties concluded by the Republic of Cyprus 1963-1974 97 2.5 The Position taken by the Turkish side 97 3 Internal Changes not impinging on the Continuity of a State 99 4 The Doctrine of Necessity (salus populi, suprema lex) and the Preservation of the Legal Order 100 4.1 The Attorney General of the Republic v. Mustafa Ibrahim 101 4.2 Method of introduction of the Doctrine and its Legal Rank examined through the Ibrahim Case 101 4.3 Wide Acceptance of the Doctrine of Necessity 105 5 The Coup d'Etat of 1974 110

PART THREE INVASION AND OCCUPATION 1974 AND AFI'ER

IV THE MILITARY INVASION OF 1974 AND THE CONTINUATION OF THE OCCUPATION 117

1 The Armed Attack 117 2 1974 - "Armed Conflict" between Cyprus and Turkey 118 3 The Illegality of the Invasion 121 3.1 The Limits of the Right to use Force 121 3.2 Article II of the Treaty of Guarantee 123 3.3 Article IV of the Treaty of Guarantee 125 3.4 Analysis by R.St. J. MacDonald 127 3.5 The Second Phase of the Invasion - 14th August 1974 129 4 The Argument of "Humanitarian Intervention" 131 4.1 The Criteria for a "Humanitarian Intervention" 135 4.2 Limitations to "Humanitarian Intervention" 137 4.3 The Kosovo Crisis 138 5 Illegal Military Occupation from 1974 to the present day 141 5.1 Has Turkey become a Belligerent Occupant of the northern part of Cyprus? 141 5.2 The Continued Presence of Turkey in Cyprus is Illegal 145 5.3 The Decision of the European Commission of Human Rights in Application No. 8007/77, Cyprus v. Turkey 146 5.4 Decisions - Resolutions of the United Nations 147 5.5 Has the Illegal Occupation ended? 152

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5.6 The Temporary Character of the Occupation and the Continuation of the Sovereignty and the International Personality of a State under Occupation 155 v THE EFFECTS OF THE TURKISH INVASION - "ETHNIC CLEANSING" 159

A Introduction 159

1 "Ethnic Cleansing" - A Novel Term? 159 2 Applicability of the law on Human Rights and the relevant Treaties also in Armed Conflict and in Conditions of Occupation 163 3 Applications of Cyprus against Turkey before the ECHR and the ECourtHR - An Overview 166

B Violations of personal rights in the occupied territory in Cyprus 171

Displacement of Persons (Refugees) 171 2 Deprivation of Liberty 175 3 Deprivation of Life 176 4 Ill-treatment 177 5 Missing Persons - unaccounted for since 1974 177 6 Persons Enclaved in the Occupied Area 181 c Violations of property rights in the occupied territory in Cyprus 184

1 General Remarks on the Right to Property 184 2 The Current Situation in the Occupied Territory of Cyprus 186 2.1 The European Commission of Human Rights 186 2.2 The European Court of Human Rights - Loizidou v. Turkey 189 2.3 Provisions of the International Law of Armed Conflicts regarding Private Property 192 2.4 Ecclesiastical and Cultural Property 194 2.5 Settlers and the Provisions of the Hague Regulations on Property 197

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D Turkish settlers from mainland Turkey in the occupied part of Cyprus 198

1 Facts and Figures 198 2 Settlers and International law 201 2.1 The Fourth Geneva Convention 202 2.1.1 "Voluntary Settlement" 203 2.1.2 "Displacement of the Indigenous Population" 205 2.1.3 "Obligation to prevent such Settlement" 208 3 The Hague Regulations of 1907 210 4 The General Principles of International Law 210 5 Transfer of Settlers is a "War Crime" 211

VI UNITED NATIONS PEACE KEEPING IN CYPRUS - THE SO-CALLED "BUFFER ZONE" 215

1 The UNFICYP 215 1.1 Resolution 186 of 1964 216 1.2 UNFICYP's Mandate before 1974 218 1.3 Use of Force by UNFICYP 220 1.4 UNFICYP's Mandate after 1974 222 1.5 International Status of UNFICYP 225 2 The "Buffer Zone" 227 2.1 "Borders" or "Boundaries"? Neutral area? 229 2.2 Access to the "Buffer Zone" by Civilians 230

PART FOUR THE PROCLAMATION OF A PUPPET REGIME

VII "UNILATERAL DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE" CONTRARY TO INTERNATIONAL LAW 237

General 237 2 The Stand taken by International Organisations and the International Community in general 240 2.1 The United Nations Organisation 240 2.2 The Council of Europe 242 2.3 The European Community 244 2.4 The Non-Aligned Movement 245

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2.5 The Commonwealth 245 3 Creation of "States" under Conditions of Military Occupation - "Puppet States" 246 3.1 Puppet States 246 3.2 Presumption of Illegality 249 3.3 Developments in International Law in the 20th Century in relation to "Puppet States" - the Stimson Doctrine 251 3.3.1 The Case of Manchukuo 252 3.3.2 Croatia and Slovakia during the Second World War 254 3.3.3 Other Examples from the International Scene 255 3.3.3.1 Rhodesia 255 3.3.3.2 Bantustans 257 3.3.4 The Case of Bangladesh 258 4 The "TRNC" a Puppet State 259 4.1 Creation of the ''TRNC" after an Illegal Military Invasion and Continued Occupation of the northern part of Cyprus 260 4.2 Territory, Population and Legal Order in relation to the "TRNC" 262 4.3 Right of Self-determination 264 4.4 Control by the Occupying Power 272 4.5 Autonomous Communities 275 5 Concluding Remarks 277

VIII DECISIONS OF INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL COURTS IN RELATION TO THE PRESENT SITUATION IN CYPRUS 281

1 Overview 281 2 The Position taken by the ECHR and the ECourtHR as to the Legal Nature of the Occupied Territories of the Republic of Cyprus 283 2.1 In the State Applications 283 2.2 The Final Position taken by the Court in the Loizidou case 287 2.3 The Erroneous Position taken by the Commission in the First Individual Applications (Nos. 15299/89, 15300/89 and 15318/89) 290 2.4 Subsequent Cases 298 3 The "Anastasiou" Case before the Court of Justice of the European Communities (The Queen and the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, ex parte Anastasiou (Pissouri) Ltd. and others 300

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4 The us Court of Appeals; Autocephalous Church of Cyprus v. Goldberg 304 5 The UK Special Commissioners Tribunal - Caglar v. Billingham (Inspector of Taxes) 308 6 Other Decisions of National Courts 311

IX FURTHER RAMIFICATIONS UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW 317

Obligation of Non-recognition of the "TRNC" 317 2 Any Recognition of the "TRNC" is Fictitious and Revocable 324 3 Turkey's Responsibility for all Actions in the Occupied Areas 325 4 Implied Recognition 328 5 Acquisitive Prescription 330

PART FIVE FEDERALISATION AND EFFORTS FOR A SOLUTION x THE FED ERA TING PROCESS AND INTERNATIONAL LAW 335

General 335 2 The Meaning of "Federation" 338 3 The Meaning of "Confederation" 342 4 Sovereignty of Federal States and Specific Examples 345 4.1 Federal Republic of Germany 347 4.2 Switzerland 348 4.3 United States of America 348 4.4 Ermacora's Views 349 5 The Federating Process 350 5.1 Adoption of a Federal Constitution 352 5.2 The United Arab Republic 354 5.3 The German Empire 356 5.4 Italy and Yugoslavia 356 5.5 The Contemporary History of Yugoslavia - Extinction of a federal state 359 5.5.1 The Dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 359 5.5.2 Developments in Bosnia - Herzegovina 363

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XI THE LONG PROCESS OF NEGOTIATIONS, THE POSITIONS OF THE TWO SIDES AND THE UNITED NATIONS' INVOLVEMENT 371

1 The Deadlock - Beginning 1998 371 2 Proposals of the Greek-Cypriot Side of 30 January, 1989 375 2.1 Guarantees 376 2.2 Territorial Aspect 377 2.3 Constitutional Suggestions 377 2.4 "Equality of the Federated States" 379 3 Positions of the Turkish-Cypriot Side in November 1988 and January - February 1989 381 3.1 Some of the "Six Papers" 381 3.2 The "Replies" to the Greek Cypriot Proposals of 1989 383 4 Assessment of the Existing Differences 385 4.1 The Galo Plaza report 385 4.2 Positions between 1968 and 1974 387 4.3 Post 1974 390 5 The Efforts of the Secretary General and the UN Security Council 391 5.1 "De Cuellar's Ideas" - The Document of July 1989 394 5.2 New York talks of 26 February - 2 March, 1990 398 5.3 Resolutions 649 (1990) and 716 (1991) and the Intervening Efforts 401 6 Butros Ghali's Set of Ideas 405

XII AN EVALUATION OF THE SET OF IDEAS ON AN OVERALL FRAMEWORK AGREEMENT ON CYPRUS 409

1 The "Basic Principles" and the Specific Aspects 409 2 The Question of Sovereignty and International Personality 412 2.1 The Specific Provisions on Sovereignty 413 2.2 The International Personality of the Republic of Cyprus in the Set of Ideas 417 3 The Legal Basis and Method of Forming the Proposed Federal State 419 4 Will the Federation be a New State? 422 5 Would a Federated State have the Right to Secede? 428 6 The Proposed Restructuring of the Treaties of Guarantee and Alliance 430 6.1 Renegotiation of the Treaty of Guarantee; a New Treaty? 431

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6.2 Right of Intervention 433 7 The Legal Position of the Turkish Settlers in the Set of Ideas 434 7.1 "Citizens" of the Federal Republic 435 7.2 Succession of States and Citizenship 437

PART SIX THE EUROPEAN UNION AND CYPRUS

XIII ACCESSION OF CYPRUS TO THE EUROPEAN UNION 443

The Existing Relations 443 2 Right of Accession to the EU? 446 2.1 The Treaty Provisions 446 2.2 The Limits of the Discretionary Powers of the EU 447 2.3 Claim to Membership derived from Treaties? 449 3 Conditions of Accession 452 4 The Opinion of the Commission regarding the Application of the Republic of Cyprus for Membership 454 4.1 The Basic Accession Conditions in the Opinion 454 4.1.1 The "European Vocation" and the Statehood of Cyprus 454 4.1.2 Democracy, Human Rights, and the Acquis Communautaire 458 4.2 Additional Political Conditions 460 5 The Accession of Cyprus under Conditions of Forced Territorial Division 463 5.1 Accession of Cyprus as a European State comprising a Single Territory 464 5.2 Accession without the Occupied Territories? 466 5.3 Subsequent Extension of the Acquis Communautaire to the Occupied Territories after Accession of Cyprus to the EU and after a Solution to the Cyprus Problem is achieved 468 6 The Present Stand of the Accession Negotiations 469 7 Mendelson v. Crawford, Hafner and Pellet 471 7.1 The Treaty of Guarantee 472 7.2 The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus 475 8 Conclusion 476

EPILOGUE 479 POSTSCRIPT 495

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ANNEXES 507

I Extracts from the 1960 Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus 509 II Turkish Document of 1963 515 III Geneva Declaration of 1974 521 IV Map of the Invasion in 1974 523 V Treaty of Alliance 1960 525 VI Treaty of Guarantee 1960 527 VII Resolutions of the S.C. and the G.A. of the United Nations 529 VIII High Level Agreement 1977 (Makarios-Denktash 12.2.1977) 559 IX High Level Agreement 1979 (Kyprianou-Denktash 19.5.1979) 561 X Outline Proposals for the Establishment of a Federal Republic and for the Solution of the Cyprus Problem (Greek Cypriot Proposals) 563 XI De Cuellar's Ideas (July 1989) 575 XII Ghali's Set of Ideas and Map (1992) 585

BIBLIOGRAPHY 605 INDEX 621

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