Masaryk University Faculty of Social Studies

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MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL STUDIES

Department of Sociology

Homemade Tattoo: Simplification of Body Modification as Search for Authenticity

Master’s Thesis

Georgiy Chernyavsky

Supervisor: Dr. Werner Binder

UČO: 417764

Study Field: Cultural Sociology

Year of Enrollment: 2013 Brno, 2015

I hereby declare that this thesis I submit for assessment is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others save to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work.

Date: Signature

Acknowledgements

I would like to express special thankfulness to my supervisor Dr. Werner Binder and to my family who supported me.

I. Introduction ...... 1 II. History of tattoing ...... 3 1. Bronze Age tattoos ...... 3 2. Tattooing in Middle Kingdom ...... 3 3. Usage of tattoo in Pazyryk culture ...... 4 4. Historical use of tattoo as stigmatizing practice ...... 4 5. Tattoo of the natives of Pacific ...... 5 a. Samoan pe’a ...... 5 b. Maori moko ...... 5 c. Tattoo in Borneo ...... 6 6. Reinvention of European tattoo tradition ...... 7 7. Tattoo development in America ...... 8 a. Exoticism of tattoo ...... 8 b. First professional tattooer in the US ...... 9 c. History of a tattoo machine ...... 9 d. Sailor Jerry ...... 12 e. Ed Hardy ...... 13 8. Contemporary tattoo ...... 14 III. Homemade tattoo ...... 15 1. Liminality ...... 15 2. Peculiarities of homemade tattoo ...... 16 a. Tool and style ...... 16 b. Location ...... 17 3. Symbolical capacity of a homemade tattoo ...... 18 4. Homemade tattoo at macro level ...... 18 5. Langue and parole ...... 19 6. Initiation and expulsion ...... 20 7. Lightweight tattoos ...... 21 8. Stigma and recodification ...... 21 9. Personalities behind homemade tattoos. Pursue of authenticity ...... 23 IV. Homemade tattoo discourse ...... 27 1. Youtube show “Homemade Tattoo” ...... 27 a. Interview 1. Andrey Volkov ...... 28 b. Interview 2. Mikhail Kravchenko ...... 28 c. Interview 3. Alisa Sakhar ...... 29 d. Interview 4. Jura Gritskikh ...... 30 e. Interview 5. Edgar Maksimjuk ...... 32 f. Interview 6. Lesha Ermolaev ...... 32 g. Interview 7. Denis Shkilya ...... 33 h. Interview 8. Dima Romashkin ...... 33 2. Online community “Homemade Tattoo” ...... 34 V. Conclusion ...... 41 Epilogue ...... 46 Appendices ...... 49 Bibliography ...... 65

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I. Introduction

The saying tells not to judge the book by its cover. However, today it is difficult to imagine a platonically pure way of perceiving individuals of the surrounding staging, where moral would be strictly detached from visual and values and attitudes would be formed while avoiding premature judging. Indeed, in day-to-day situations human interaction tends to be built in a way of certain data exchange, which will include of not only verbal messages, but also visual appearances, behavior, habits etc.

Among these kinds of attributes, there is one that becomes controversial even on the stage of classification, these are body modifications, and particularly tattoos. If, for example, we can easily define facial features as natural and difficult to change attribute, and clothes as acquired and that can be easily changed, tattoos hovers somewhere in the middle. Being an acquired thing and in the same time quite durable, a tattoo is starting to pose questions with its only existence, what serves as a reason for people who are getting tattoos? Is this body modification a direct instruction of fashion, or rather a personalized ritual of initiation? Is it a communicational channel or a status sign-system? Of course, the answer could lie in the combination of functions listed above and many others as well, however main ambiguity of the phenomenon can be derived here - the indirect nature of its communicational function that still serves as an important characteristic and attribute of the individual as perceived by others on one hand, and personalized nature of tattoos as a sign that has a deeply intimate value on another. One might object, that with the tattoo industry we have today it becomes truly difficult to speak about intimate value and sacredness of a tattoo. Indeed, as in any other form of art, in tattoing there can be observed trends and fashions, style changes and rise-and-falls of certain motives‘ popularity. At more instrumental level there can be seen a lush plentitude of techniques, which in turn result in different approaches and attitudes toward tattoing. With all this plethora and diverseness of meanings, these days tattoo culture becomes a subculture that consists of subcultures, a Pandora‘s box into which this paper is aimed to deepen in, digging down to the prehistoric marks that existed centuries ago and looping back to the style that at the first blush has more in common with tattoo of the ancients - homemade tattoo.

Emerged relatively recently as an established branch and being stylistically simplistic the style of homemade tattoo can offer more than it might look like, starting with the very basic question it poses – what makes a tattoo a homemade one? This question, in turn, should be seen as more than just a potential guide to the style, beyond it, homemade tattoo possesses its own cultural background and attitudes, totems and taboos, defining features and excluded practices. Logically continuing the set of questions, the core one will be set as well – what meanings do homemade tattoos bear and how do these meanings differ from ones of parlour-made tattoos? 1

This thesis begins with a historical research which will provide a sufficient perspective on the meanings and functions of tattoing in different cultures, paths of its development and succession patterns. The second part will deal with homemade tattoing from the point of view of both artists and tattoo culture consumers, with their definitions of homemade tattoing and attitudes towards it. For this purpose the data from social media networks, where main discrources around homemade tattooing are located, is considered.

II. History of tattoing

The word tattoo comes from tahitian „tatau“ – to mark (Arp 2012). The basic technique of tattoing had been known for humanity for at least 5000 years, and till now its main principle changed a little – a color pigment is being inserted under the skin to create a certain symbol. The possible way of discovery of this technique is accidental – ancient human might have rubbed a scratch or wound on his skin with something similar to ash, in a way that after it healed ash stayed under the skin leaving a permanent mark. Whether this surmise is correct or not, the fact is that tattooing had been practiced as early as bronze age. A number of archeological findings provide a more or less accurate mapping of emergence and spreading of tattooing around the globe.

1. Bronze Age tattoos

In Septenber 1991 a mummy of a man of bronze age was found in Otzal Alps on the border of Austria and Italy (Hewitt 1997). This became a major finding that could provide a description of the life of bronze age people – the mummy of a man that lived approximately 3300 B.C. was in perfect condition and apart from the body itself there were found numerous tools and equipment. Moreover, the body of Otzi the Iceman, as he was named after the place of discovery, was covered with 57 simple tattoos. The tattoos were in shape of dots and lines up to the length of 15 centimeters and were located on right ankle, behind left knee and on the lower spine. And though there may be made only distant assumptions about social function of these marks, their location corresponds to skin acupuncture lines, that beofre this finding were believed to originate in Asia only in 1000 B.C., which, in turn, can serve as a basis for a medical explanation of the function of Otzi’s tattoos – they could have been made to treat arthritis or other locomotor diseases (Dorfer 1999).

2. Tattooing in Middle Kingdom

However, the social function of tattoo can be traced back to at least 2000 B.C. – the usage of tattooing for ritual purpose could have possibly started in the Middle Kingdom (DeMello 2007). Though it is difficult to distinguish a systematic tattooing tradition in that time because of the lack of the data – even if mummified bodies carry tattoos, they (tattoos) are often covered by bandages – single examples confirming the origin of tattooing can still be found during excavations. Several tattooed mummies of women that date back to 2000 B.C. were found at Deir el-Bahari (Vandenbeusch 2014). The tattoos they carry are mainly dots and dashes, that group into geometrical patterns and are located on the chest, the abdomen, arms or legs. One of the mummies 3

found is believed to be a priestess of the patron goddess of dancers and music – Hathor, while the other women mummies carry a tattoo of a sign of god Bes on their thighs, who is also associated with music and dance (Arp 2012). Apart from that, the images of dancers with a tattoo of god Bes was also found on in many Egyptian paintings, which only confirms ritualistic use of tattooing. Ancient Egyptian tattoo practice was restricted to women only, some body marks and scarifications, apart from religious purpose had a general symbolic meaning of fertility and sexuality.

3. Usage of tattoo in Pazyryk culture

The practice of tattooing can be also found Pazyryk culture. In 1948 Russian archeologist Sergey Ivanovich Rudenko during his expedition in high Altai mountains on the border of Russia and China excavated a number of tombs, or kurgans, that were similar to kurgans of Skifs found on the territory of present Ukraine (Rudenko 1949). These tombs are dated approximately 500 B.C. and served as a burial places for chiefs and high-rank members of the tribes of Pazyryk culture of the Iron Age. The most significant finding was the tomb of a chief of the tribe that contained a body of a man that was covered with tattoos. The chief was decorated with numerous tattoos that represented a variety of real and fantastic animals. Among others, the body had two beasts resembling griffins decorating its chest, a donkey, two deer and image of argali on the right arm, fish on the right leg and a tattoo of some monster on the left (Rudenko 1949). Some of these tattoos are believed to have magical meaning, while others are considered to be of a purely decorative purpose, however all together they seem to identify the status of the bearer. Moreover, chief’s back was tattooed with a set of small circles along the spine, which are believed to be of medical purpose, some contemporary tribes of Siberia still use tattooing for treating back pain (Rudenko 1949).

4. Historical use of tattoo as stigmatizing practice

Ancient Greeks are believed to borrow the practice of tattooing from the Persians, and Romans, in turn, borrowed the technique from the Greeks. Throughout classic Greek period, tattoos mainly served as identifiers for persons ritually polluted, they were used to mark slaves and criminals, the term used for these marks was stigma (Goffman 1963). Gladiators and soldiers are also believed to carry tattoos on their faces that were rather of decorative purpose. However, with the beginning of the rule of Constantine and his abrogation of Christianity prohibition tattoos were

under ban as well. Following the very basic Christian postulates, Constantine believed that tattoos, and especially facial ones pollute the natural human look that represents god (DeMello 2007).

With the religious-caused tattoo decay in the West, eastern cultures, mainly of China and Japan have practiced this kind of body modification for centuries. In ancient China tattoos were used to identify prisoners and in general this practice was considered to be an undesirable and in a way polluting body modification. In the same time in Japan, mainly starting with Yayoi period tattoos were used for body decoration, though eventually tattooing became a stigmatizing practice with a purely negative connotation. These body marks were given criminals as a punishment, and this use remained practiced until the Edo period, when the tattoo culture, influenced by woodblock prints, literature and art started to establish itself (DeMello 2007).

5. Tattoo of the natives of Pacific

Considering decadence of tattooing in Christian Europe, it might be rightfully noted that the tradition (or at least its prevalence) was reimported with the colonization period and the time of the first great expeditions. Many explorers like James Cook, Jacob Roggeveen and others reported about heavily tattooed aborigines of Samoa, New Zealand, Borneo and other regions.

a. Samoan pe’a

In Samoa tattoos of males were called pe’a, they were usually covering the lower body of men from waist to knee, women tattoos, in turn, were called malu and covered the area from the upper thigh to behind the knee (Mallon 2002). As for design, there existed certain main rules to follow, however each artist had own individual style. Pe’a and malu are often connected with ritualistic ideas of protecting the body, and in the same time making it more beautiful. Those Samoans who carried no tattoos were often referred as telefua, which literally means naked. Tattooing pe’a served as an act of transition of young men into competent members of the society, and those who could not withstand the pain of the tattooing were labeled as pe’a mutu, which means that they are carrying mark of shame (Tepapa 2014). Successful passing of this initiation procedure gave young men right to serve chiefs of the tribe, and in general both pe’a and malu served as embodiments of manhood and womanhood respectively (DeMello 2007). Moreover, combined with initiative function, pe’a provided a sense of respect to the bearer from the community and family members.

b. Maori moko

In New Zealand indigenous people Maori had their own way of permanent skin marking which was called moko (Robley 2003). The technique of moko differed from tattooing in the 5

traditional understanding, instead of needles that insert color pigment under the skin Maori used uhi (chisels) that carved the skin. The procedure was extremely painful – first deep cuts were made on the skin, then a chisel with a pigment on it was repeatedly introduced into the cuts, creating lines and shapes. Often the process of tattooing was accompanied by dances and music that helped to relieve the pain, however the person getting moko could not cry out in pain, this was considered a sign of weakness, which impugned the initiative meaning of moko (Sanders 1989). Moreover, the whole process was considered a sacred ritual, and persons receiving tattoos could be rightfully called “threshold people” (Turner 1969), as during the whole time of tattooing they were not allowed to communicate with anyone not receiving a tattoo, neither were they allowed to eat with their hands. Moreover, tribe members receiving tattoos were restricted from intimate relations (Zealand Tattoo 2009). As for gender division – Maori tattoos were equally given to men and women, however men usually had full facial tattoos, while women had tattooed lips and chins. In general, moko was a status symbol, not all people were allowed to have it, more than that, only a person of high social ranking could afford moko (Robley 2003). Full facial tattoos served not only as a status symbol – it had a complex communicational function. In a way, male facial moko served as an identification document that could tell about owner’s social position, marital status, tribe rank, occupation etc. For this reason face was symbolically separated into 8 zones, each of them had to carry certain information, if, for example person had no rank in the tribe, the area responsible for that was left blank (Zealand Tattoo 2009).

c. Tattoo in Borneo

In Borneo there existed numerous tribes, commonly known as Dayak, all of them share long history of tattooing practice that pervades different aspects of their lives (Levin 2009). One of the largest native tribes is called Iban, for its members tattooing has always been a sacred activity that connected people with the spiritual world. In general, beliefs of the indigenous people of Borneo tend to be based on the idea of spirituality of the surrounding world that includes nature, animals and human beings, so mainly natural motives are seen in Dayak tattoo designs. Apart from status and prestige purpose, Bornean tattoos have a religious meaning as well. For example, among Dayak there is a belief that after death a completely tattooed woman will be allowed to bathe in the mystical river Teland Julan, while women with unfinished tattoos will only be allowed to stand on the bank and those carrying no tattoos at all will not be let to approach the river at all (Levin 2009). Among males, tattooing is often connected with headhunting at both aspects of protection and status (Atkinson 2003). As protective measures there were used signs on the throat to prevent enemies take over the head of the bearer of the tattoo, and if the warrior in the battle was able to hunt a head of an enemy he was granted to make certain tattoos (Gilbert 2000).

Interestingly, in Dayak culture tattooing have always remained an occupation of women, while men were allowed only to carve woodblocks with tattoo designs that would then be dipped into ink and applied on skin as a stencil to follow for tattooer. For women, tattoos were partly of a decorative purpose and partly served as proofs for their talents of singing, dancing or weaving (Guynup 2004). The complete tattooing of Dayak woman was a long process, sometimes taking up to four years. The tattooing started at approximately age of 10 with fingers and feet, proceeding in a next few years up to the point when the whole body is tattooed; this design should have been finished by woman’s pregnancy as it was considered an undesirable practice to be tattooed after giving birth to child.

6. Reinvention of European tattoo tradition

European tradition of tattooing, or rather its rebirth is often associated with sea voyages of explorers to South Pacific areas, like those of Captain James Cook. During the expeditions of white European colonizers to the regions of Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia sailors encountered Tahitians, Samoans, Maori and other ethnicities who have been practicing tattooing for centuries. However there exist evidences of earlier acquaintance of European explorers with tattooing practice. For instance, reports of Columbus contain a certain amount of information about indigenous peoples he encountered whose skin was covered with permanent marks. Anyhow, this was Captain Cook who first systematically approached the documentation of the phenomenon and brought into operation the term tattoo. The designs of the tribal tattoos were carefully documented by Cook and his assistants, which made it possible to familiarize European world with the culture of tattooing among the discovered peoples (Dunlop 2012). However the peak of European interest in the phenomenon appeared with the transporting to Europe living evidences – captives who actually carried tattoos (DeMello 2000).

Supposedly the explorer Martin Frobisher was the one who gave push for this fashion’s development in early sixteenth century, but only those brought to the Old World in late 1700s resulted in public resonance. The exoticness of the tribesmen put for public observation in major European cities was the reason for European so-to-call self-esteem renaissance, when the clear opposition of “progressive” European culture and “primitive” tribal one was established and emphasized (Atkinson 2003). In the same way, the cultural shock experienced by the elites and the fact that sailors were often receiving tattoos during their sea voyages to the Pacific reaffirmed the cultural gaps among classes and differences in relation to cultural code obedience. On the other hand, the cultural exchange that accompanied economic one between the newly established

colonizers and the tattoo-practicing natives was taking place. Tattoo traditions was one of the aspect of life of the natives that suffered change in the result of this interaction. Several decades after Europeans brought “fruits of civilization” in form of guns, ships and clothes to indigenous peoples of South Pacific, tattoo motives started to change accordingly and constantly contained the designs of guns, European flags and other objects sailors made available to the tribesmen. Of course, the fact that the sailors themselves were getting tattoos from the natives also contributed to the changes in frequently used tattoo designs. Simultaneously, the magical purpose of tattoo among the indigenous decreased, leaving the decoration function alone as the only purpose for body modification. Among the magical functions tattoos carried was abovementioned one of protection, especially when it came to intertribal physical confrontation, as in case of Borneo headhunting practice. Interestingly, the procedure was reestablished in Maori-European relations, caused by the interest of the latter in moko, which led to trading Maori heads decorated with moko for firearms and other goods colonizers brought for trade. These heads, consequentially, were then imported to Europe, where there existed a high demand for such exotic object among collectors. This in many respects inhumanistic practice existed until its prohibition 1831, however even after many Maoris kept the fear of tattoo as something that one can be killed for and it took decades before moko became practiced again (DeMello 2000).

7. Tattoo development in America a. Exoticism of tattoo

Anyhow, the fact remains that the tradition of tattooing was brought to the western culture and remained there as an embodiment of exoticism, orientalism and an object of mass interest in general. No need to remind that an important part of the development of any human society is one of the economic relations, so the profit side of the demonstration of exotic tattooed people soon became spotted by the most ready-witted, and with the small push of first tattooed aborigines from the overseas carefully transported and demonstrated in big cities, tattoo soon strengthened its presence in the sphere of entertainment (Atkinson 2003). Expectedly, tattoos found their use in circuses that were probably the only providers of “unusual” experiences and shows. The demonstration of men and women wearing full body “suits” became a popular attraction, which, in turn, served as a catalyst for general public interest in tattoos, even though in circuses and on carnivals it was generally perceived as a social deviance.

b. First professional tattooer in the US

The United States historically became the cradle of modern tattooing in many respects. Major styles arose in big cities like New York, many artists were operating there and the process of technological improvement of the process of tattooing also started in the States. It is indeed difficult now from a historical point of view to name first professional tattooer, however most probably it was Martin Hildebrandt, who started tattooing as early as 1846 as a sailor (Atkinson 2003). He started to provide the services officially starting from the year of 1859, when he opened a tattoo parlor in the Oak Street in New York City, where he was tattooing using a method today called stick-n-poke, a direct descendant of tribal tattoo techniques of South Pacific tribesmen (Inkflesh 2011). In this method basically a cluster of needles attached to the stick and dipped into ink was introduced into the skin repeatedly. The method was still painful and required long years of learning of the peculiarities of the process. During the Civil War Hildebrandt served in the Army of Potomac, where he carried out an intense tattooing activity (Kakoulas 2015). Evidence of this can be found in New York Times from January 16th 1876, where Hildebrandt is quoted:

During war times I never had a moment's idle time. I must have marked thousands of sailors and soldiers [...] I put the names of hundreds of soldiers on their arms or breasts, and many were recognized by these marks after being killed or wounded. (The New York Times: January 16, 1876, in Kakoulas 2015)

Beginning from 1875, after the war Hildebrandt continued professional tattooing in the new studio on 77 James Street in Manhattan. In 1882 Hildebrandt tattooed a woman who was later displayed in Bunnell’s dime museum on the Bowery. Woman was referred as Nora Hildebrandt, however there exist certain concerns about her kinship with Martin. More likely she took his last name during the process of cooperation, as in some sources it was stated that she was born in England. According to Nora’s fictional biography that she used during her work on carnivals and shows, she carried 365 tattoos that she was forcefully given by Indians as a torture while being tied to the tree for one year (DeMello 2007, Pednaud 2014). Similar stories were used by other “freaks” who performed in circuses and carnivals in different times after Nora’s career was finished. Soon the interest in this exoticism noticeably faded which was caused by the development of tattooing and slight transformation of social perception of it.

c. History of a tattoo machine

The origin of the tattoo machine is closely connected with the invention of electric motor. Electric motor was a revolutionary breakthrough not only in electrical engineering, it promised a variety of domestic applications that had to improve and make the mode of life easier and more 9

convenient. As for the first electrical tattooing device, its destiny was determined with the invention of Autographic printing pen by Tomas Alva Edison in 1876 (U.S. Patent No. 196747, 1877). The device was designed to provide easier printing and copying and consisted of an electric motor that moved a steel thick needle up and down which aim was to puncture holes in the stencil that will be then pressed with a certain amount of ink on it onto a sheet of paper. The construction was revolutionary in many respects, however due to its size and weight made continuous operation impossible. Next version of the device was based on two electromagnetic coils, springs and contact bars, which tangibly contributed to the weight decrease. In the following years Edison worked out a several concepts of the device where he reviewed the source of power in search of even greater weight decrease and ease of operation, among them were similar machines powered by external battery, driven by physical effort of the operator similarly as pedal sewing machines and even pneumatic-based models. However, it was the electromagnetic coil based Edison’s Perforating Pen that inspired tattooers to create the tool for their needs.

It is commonly believed that the person responsible for the invention of the tattoo machine based on Edison’s Perforating Pen was Samuel O’Reilly, however this fact remains disputable by virtue of the deliberatively maintained archives of New York City that can shed a light on the issue. First, would be required to notice that O’Reilly himself was a tattoo artist, running tattoo cabinet by the address of Chatham Square,5 as listed in 1898 Trow Business Directory (Roe 2014). But to track the story of the most important invention in the history of tattooing – the machine – it will be required to investigate deeper O’Reilly’s personal biography. First of all, it is quite probable that even the very idea of using Edison’s perforating pen for tattooing was not quite O’Reilly’s. In the year 1876 in Brooklyn Eagle there appeared an article about unusual use of Edison’s copying invention that in the article was referred as “teletattoograph” (Roe 2014). Two months after the article is published Samuel O’Reilly travels to Connecticut, where his two brothers lived, and one of them, Tomas, was a brass mill worker. Soon after arrival to Connecticut Samuel O’Reilly is put in jail for a robbery for 5 years, which he might have spent tattooing other convicts. After his release in 1884 he reappeared in official listings of New York, but now together with his brothers, as in 1886 service list they appear as “operator” (Samuel), “polisher” (John) and third brother Thomas with no specialization living at 65 Bond Street in Brooklyn. This is the last time Samuel O’Reilly was listed in the Directory before his abovementioned appear Trow Business Directory in 1898 (Roe 2014). However for the years of being not-listed in the Directory evidences of O’Reilly’s obsession about electric tattooing device can be found.

A newspaper article dated by 1890 shows O’Reilly demonstrating a modified dental drill to the reporter as the most modern instrument for tattooing and in this way proving the dominance

of America in this craft. This article was published in the same year when O’Reilly himself gave the first tattoo with the help of electricity, however the patent for O’Reilly’s electric tattoo machine was filed only the following year, so it might be the modified drill to serve as the first electric tattoo tool. However bright O’Reilly’s expectations about patenting first Tattoo Machine were, his application was rejected after three months of reviewing. The reason served another patent for Carey’s Autographic Printing device of 1884 which was recognized to be the same as of O’Reilly. This decision of the commission was soon disputed by O’Reilly’s lawyer, however second attempt was also unsuccessful – the invention was recognized to be the same with Edison’s Engraving Pen of 1876. And only after O’Reilly introduced a number of significant changes into machine’s design the patent commission was satisfied and the patent was granted to the inventor on the 8th of December 1891. Since this invention became official, the craft of tattooing started to evolve rapidly. Electric motor and electric magnet coils provided an opportunity to create devices that improved the daily life of ordinary people and could speed up routine tasks.

One of the first uses of induction magnetic coils was a doorbell. In fact, many of first tattoo machines in Europe were based on the doorbell mechanisms, and first of them was patented in 1891 in London by Tom Riley, only 20 days after O’Reilly received his patent in New York. Another important milestone in tattoo machine development history was the improvement made by George Burchett, who took Riley’s machine and added a switch, which made it possible to stop it when the color pigments had to be changed. First two coiled tattoo machine was created in London as well by Alfred Charles South, who was granted a patent for it in 1899. His tattoo machine, as ones of his predecessor colleagues was based on a doorbell in a steel frame, but had two coils, which made it possible to improve the power of the machine, however increased the weight to such an extent that sometimes South’s machine was operated with a spring attached by one side to the machine and by the other to the ceiling of the studio to remove the load from artist’s hand. First two coiled tattoo machine appeared in America only in 1904 and was patented by Charles Wagner in New York (U.S. Patent No. 768413, 1904). The difference between the “traditional” twin coiled machine and Wagner’s was that in Wagner’s the coils were placed on the both sides of the frame, like in telegraph, which could in fact be seen as another case of adaptation of Edison’s invention (Tattoo Archive 1997).

Taking into account only abovementioned tattoo machine development contributors it can be seen that the industry of the tattooing service first truly entered the realm of manufacturing by the early 1900s. As any other inventors, O’Reilly, Riley, South, Wagner and others sought to utilize their intellectual products and successfully market them, and so tattoo machines, accompanied with inks, designs and manuals were sold as bundles not only to professionals but to

the general public as well. This capitalizing hype somewhat ended by 1920s, when the question about the primary goals a tattoo machine has to fulfill was both set and answered by Percy Waters, who designed the first modern tattoo machine on which almost every machine manufactured today is based (Tattoo Archive 2002). Waters’ machine was completely opposite to bulky, heavy, uncomfortable and, what is main, non-configurable devices from 1900s. Water’s machine was designed by professional and for professionals and in fact determined the development of tattoo equipment since present day (DeMello 2007). A great feature that made tattoo artists rethink the concept and use of the machine was the moving contact screw that made it possible to tune the amplitude and speed of the needle and thus vary skin penetration. Another difference of Waters’ machine was the fact that it could have been easily disassembled for cleaning and disinfection. Probably this fact also made it possible for great artists of that time as Owen Jenson, Milton Zeis, and of course Norman Collins to tune and redesign Waters’ machines.

d. Sailor Jerry

Today it is difficult to imagine contemporary tattoo without the influence of Norman Collins, better known as Sailor Jerry, the artist who by his professional activity separated the whole tattoo world into two different ages often referred as BSJ (before Sailor Jerry) and ASJ (after Sailor Jerry) (Patrick 2009). Born in 1911, Norman Collins started to tattoo as a teenager and as all other artist of the time used handpoke method. However with the spread of tattoo machines that were sold and advertised through all major newspapers only a few artists remained using handpoke style, following the trends. Same did Collins, who in late 1920s obtained practical knowledge of tattoo machine usage from a Chicago artist Tatt Thomas, already famous within the US. As soon as 1930s Sailor Jerry opened his first tattoo studio in Hawaii. During World War II Collins served as a marine and apart from tattooing in different ports in the Far East also started to develop his interest in oriental tattoos. In the following years he pursued the goal of development of tattoo as separate art form, focusing on a creative value of the designs, part of this pursue was a severe criticizing of contemporary American tattoo artists whom Collins considered to lack talent and copy works of others. On the other hand, Sailor Jerry started to shape the tattoo community by establishing correspondence with some tattoo artists to exchange experience and ideas and who felt sympathy for his aim of establishing tattoo as a form of art.

In 1960 Collins opened his last tattoo parlor in Honolulu, his works made there became the most famous pieces of tattoo art of the time. Following his interest in eastern tattoo tradition he started business relations with important Japanese and Honk Cong artists, trading American machines and equipment for eastern knowledge in the aspects of color use and shading. In the same time, according to some sources, Sailor Jerry still followed his patriotic feelings and by close 12

relations with Japanese tattooers and learning their technique he was trying to “beat them at their own game”, as Collins himself could not forgive the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor (DeMello 2007). Notwithstanding these rumors, the fact remains that Sailor Jerry contributed to the development of what will be called later American or oldschool style, which he actually worked out borrowing the aesthetic of Japanese tattooing. The use of background as unified part of the tattoo became so innovative in America that the number of followers throwing down their arms in front of Oriental influence was quite modest, however those individuals following Collins became highly influential in world of tattoo. Among them was Don Ed Hardy, who in the following decades set the new bar for tattoo artists and intensively popularized the art.

e. Ed Hardy

Besides the influence of Sailor Jerry, Ed Hardy also was schooled by another important figure in American tattooing – Phil Sparrow. Sequentially, Ed Hardy’s contact with Collins resulted in strong interest of the former in oriental tattoo and this is why in 1969 after moving to San Diego he opens a studio which specializes in Japanese tattoos only (DeMello 2007). In the following years, also with help of Sailor Jerry Hardy became acquainted with several Japanese tattoo artists and consequently spent a year of 1975 working in Japan. After his return, Don Ed Hardy opened in San Francisco first in the US tattoo parlor that accepted clients only by appointment and provided only custom one-off tattoo services. Indeed this fact can be tied to Sailor Jerry’s enmity towards the copying-attitude of tattooers that influenced Hardy. The studio, called Realistic Tattoo became a level each tattoo artist within USA was trying to reach, it became a prototype for all modern tattoo parlors. Another Hardy’s accomplishment that heavily influenced the world of tattoo was his magazine TattooTime, that became Hardy’s major source of fashion navigating, bringing to general consideration such styles as tribal or chicano that before appearance on the pages of TattooTime were nearly stigmatized embodiments of distaste and deviant social group belonging. Even though TattooTime was not first tattoo magazines it pioneered in target audience determination, it was aimed on middle class and apart from information published for tattoo community insiders it contained articles of tattoo-educating purpose (DeMello 2007). This allowed to inform and interest new customers from previously detached parts of the population, and promotion of tattoo styles as Japanese or tribal served a counterweight to oldschool sailor- style tattoos that were a mainstream across the US.

8. Contemporary tattoo

General trends of mainstream tattooing transformation into contemporary tattoo as we know it today were developing exactly in the same time when Don Ed Hardy was introducing his revolutionary innovations. Hardy’s focus on educational work among the new clientele gave its fruits and as more and more people started to wear tattoos openly, more and more people began to consider the craft of tattooing as worth practicing. Basically age-class change of the clientele caused age-class change of service providers, newly born tattooists were coming into the profession from completely different fields as of fine arts. Before 1980s tattooers were mainly approaching the craft with schooling of older colleagues that was supporting certain continuity in methods, techniques and designs, however after this “paradigm shift” young artists were practicing professional development based on the experience of their own trial and error method. This completely new approach forced tattooers to find new sources of inspiration; they became the tribal tattoo motives of indigenous peoples of Pacific (Maori, Borneo etc.) which apart from popularizing tribal style of the tattoo provided the influence of destigmatizing of tattoo (DeMello 2007). This was explained by the fact that these new styles were inspired by ancient cultures where tattoo has never had negative connotation and always performed purely positive function and meaning. Surprisingly this approach worked well and supported by the development of social movements of the 70s, that all needed a common symbolic ground to stand on and were saturated with rebel spirit, burst out with the variety of styles and design trends. In this period of reformation tattoo design underwent serious changes. Probably inspired by Don Ed Hardy’s one-off designs that were designed for each client on custom basis, tattooers of the new age who had training in arts and possessed a high level of creativity abandoned the oldschool procedure when each client could walk into the shop and choose his design from those that were on the wall and mainly were standardized “in loving memory of” pieces. Instead of that, they applied personalized approach to each client with scrupulous tattoo design development and usage of different artistic techniques and often encouragement of the client to contribute into the process of design creation. Since the 1980s tattoo culture have suffered a rapid thus painful splash of styles like oldschool or traditional, newschool, Japanese, biomechanical, thrash-polka, punk and others, that though made their contribution in spreading of tattoo into different social and aesthetic consumption layers, however in a way created a gap between these consumers, once consisted of sailors exclusively. Interestingly, the tattoo stage of 2015 can be fairly called traditional tattoo dominated. The number of tattoo artists working in oldschool style rises exponentially. The only and indeed important difference between olschool tattoo artist of 1915 and 2015 is one established in 1975 – the approach prescribing custom attitude to each work.

III. Homemade tattoo

The latest tattoo genre resulting from the liberation of creativity in the 1980s that was more or less officially accepted by the tattoo community is the homemade tattoo. In many respects homemade tattoo can be called a bridge into the tribal past of the craft in both design simplicity and magical function. As it may be clear from the name, homemade tattoo is a DIY embranchment of tattoo culture, which is practiced by non-professionals within homely staging and often with no specialized equipment. However, there exist another layer of values on this tattoo style, apart from classic representational and informational-exchange function of the tattoo.

1. Liminality

It can be said that homemade tattooing is the manifestation of connecting of a tattooer and person getting tattoo, the symbolic ritual that results in a concrete material sign, and the whole process became the embodiment of the eternal bonds that are being created. In a mainstream tattoo culture similar event can be also spotted – the case here would be matching (or pair) tattoos. Pair tattoos are tattoos of similar designs that complete each other (two halves of a heart etc.) and are made by two people to emphasize personal feelings towards something or somebody, or, more often, each other. Though the connection function in this case beyond doubt is present, the way of its production and its result differs from homemade tattoos. In the same time matching tattoos and homemade tattoos have certain common characteristics – in both cases two people are present, the connections are being established and the process results in (or rather manifests in) body modification. However, if the paired tattoo offers to the participants the possibility to share identity, homemade tattooing would rather be a trade-off. One of the possible perspectives on it can be achieved with the help of Victor Turner’s Ritual process: Structure and Anti-structure (1969), where Turner describes liminality as a conversion process, that sets individual (so called "threshold people"), to put it simple, in a transition process between positions of the socium in various particular cases. However, in the case of homemade tattoo the point of view on the transition process has to be shifted and the object has to be changed from the individual (with attributes as position and state) to the pair, where both parties primarily possess different, or even inverse, positions and intentions. As in Turner, the process of tattooing here can be best described with three stages: first stage would be the stage of connection – when the potential tattooer and person who is getting tattoo establish trust and certain connection, that has to be strong enough to proceed to the next stage – the process of tattooing. Here, the actors are being separated by the 15

roles they fulfill during the whole process, the role of the tattooer – one who gives the sign, and the role of the tattooed – one who receives. Last, after tattooing is done, both participants, likewise during tribal initiations, reunite to share new connection that they have created.

2. Peculiarities of homemade tattoo

a. Tool and style

The style of homemade tattoo can be rightfully called simplifying, as basic components of homemade tattoo on both sides of the needle are required to be as primitive as possible. Of course, this will not be the necessary requirement for the tattoo to be called “homemade”, it rather is conditional and depends on the available supplies. However an ideal example of this kind of body modification is made with a hand built tattoo machine (Fisher 2014). The attitude towards the tool among homemade tattoo enthusiasts is quite earnest, there exist hundreds of videos and articles on the Internet about how to build homemade tattoo machine. Sometimes it is referred as a “prison tattoo machine” or “prison tattoo gun”, which is partly true, though tattooing had been practiced in criminal sphere for centuries, and that is why no surprise that the reinvention of a tattoo machine happened in prison. To be able to tattoo behind bars, “ink slingers” (prison slang for tattooist) (A Prisoner's Dictionary 2003) had to evade the prohibition of tattooing and design machines from the materials available at hand. In most cases they used electric motor from a cassette player as a drive for future machine, pen as a needle tube and sharpened string as a needle itself. This design was successful enough to start to spread beyond institutions of confinement and first being tested by street gang members of a different kind found itself in hands of young people passionate about tattooing and ignorant in theory of how to do it.

In fact, the lack of experience is something that is welcomed in contemporary homemade tattoo (Anziperova 2012), for this point there might exist several parallel models of explanation. First, the search of authenticity might be the case, as people willing to practice this form of body modification and accepting the spontaneous character of it in terms of equipment and design, which can be seen as a question “what if…?” and the fact that the tattooer will possess little experience only makes this question more vivid and the process more “primordial”. The second way of seeing this unscripted homemade tattoo requirement is the role-play the participants agree upon tacitly, without which discussed above liminal vision of the phenomenon will be impossible. The practice of tattooing has to be something extraordinary for both participants to ensure the presence of the excitement and mystification. Hence, homemade tattoo given to a heavily tattooed

person by a professional tattoo artist will have little symbolic value as compared to the case when homemade tattoo will be given to a person as first tattoo ever by someone who doesn’t even possess sufficient drawing skill. In other words, if the roles the participants will have to take in the process will be same or similar to those they perform on everyday basis, the liminal component of the process as well as connection’s establishing will be questionable. From this point springs up another very important side of homemade tattoo concept – the design. The design of homemade tattoo is usually simple, basic cartoonish shapes, linework and letterings are usually most popular ones (Anziperova 2012). Most of the times just one color is used, and gradients are shades can be rarely seen in home-made tattoos. The fact of design simplification is ambiguously caused by both strive for primordial originality and the limitations that equipment and finite skills of the tattooer impose.

b. Location

Another important aspect of homemade tattooing is the location in which the process takes place. Pursuing the logical layout of thought, it can be concluded that homemade tattoos have to be made at home, however, on practice this statement gets a little blurry. First of all, many active artists of the genre are tattooing at their homes, then why don’t their home become studios, though unofficial, but still institutionalized by repetitive practice that takes place? And if so, then do homemade enthusiasts who tattoo friends exclusively and free of charge fall into this category? Indeed, in most cases it can be said that the setting in which homemade tattoos are made has to be informal or even unconstrained place. The setting where tattooing takes place can be really important, no matter if it is someone’s improvised home-studio or a rooftop, the idea of tattooing in the places that are not actually designed for that is pretty common among homemade tattoo enthusiasts (Goh 2013). On one hand, this can be seen as an opposition of the movement to the mainstream one and emphasis on the “realness” of homemade tattoo. This dichotomy (real/fake), though is rarely seen within tattoo discourse (at least when referred to the location of the tattooing) can be perfectly applied here. This can be based on the motives of the artistic essence of homemade tattoo (practiced in unappropriated place for the sake of art not money due to the lack of official control) as opposed to the parlor one (which here appears a part of business, a service being provided in a standardized way with prescribed procedures). On the other hand, choosing an exotic place for tattooing can be caused by the intimacy and magical-ness participants are trying to reach. Indeed, if the process of homemade tattooing is seen as an extremely intimate symbolic act, similarly to shamanism, the setting plays an important role of spiritual atmosphere builder. Third, more pragmatic explanation that deals with exotic places chosen for tattooing that are sometimes 17

publicized by media is the aim of self-promoting, so to say, marketing of the counter-marketing movement, however this side of homemade tattoo will be considered in more detail in later sections.

3. Symbolical capacity of a homemade tattoo

To operate de facto impossible to measure ability of different kinds of tattoo to serve an emotional connector between actors I propose to use a term of symbolical capacity. The term similarly to symbolic capital but of a non-human object will help to indicate the level of emotional involvement the object may provide and make it possible to a certain extent to compare tattoo practices. For this comparison we might need to fall back upon the examples of paired tattoo and homemade tattoo. First, paired tattoo provides following levels of symbolic involvement of the participants: the tattoo is shared between the participants, which creates a shared identity feeling; the tattoos are in most cases made by participants together, which can be seen as simultaneous initiation procedure passing. In the case of homemade tattoo participants pass through slightly greater number of levels of connection: the process has to begin with the establishment of mutual benefit admittance, that can be also described as trust; the physical side of the process becomes symbolic in terms of own intimacy; the tattoo symbol itself maintains the connection as a reminder not only of the first order (e.g. heart reminds about love) but as one of the second order referring to the process of tattooing that took place in past; homemade tattooing also possesses identity- shaping power, the role-changing itself becomes an identity from the time of the performance (e.g. referring as “one who tattooed (me)” or “one whom (I) tattooed”). Considering this brief analysis, it might be concluded that on micro level homemade tattoos have greater symbolic capacity than formal parlour ones.

4. Homemade tattoo at macro level

What about macro level, the situation cannot be that simply circumscribed in this case. First, to pass to macro level it is required to define a value of homemade tattoo that will bring us to it. Clearly, this has to be something easily universalized, like the design. In this case then, there have to be found particular designs that will be practiced in homemade tattooing more often than the others, which considering the macro level we are focused on will bring us to the subcultures deeply involved in DIY ideology. Such subculture is hardcore punk, and more specifically, part of it called Straight Edge, or sXe. Straight Edge was a movement inside hardcore scene, which started

in 1980s as a counterweight to punk (Sutherland 2006). The basic postulates of sXe was life without alcohol, drugs or any kind of intoxicants, in general a drug-free life. There existed also trends of veganism and animal right defense inside Straight Edge. Taking its roots in hardcore punk, the name of the movement was also taken from a song “Straight Edge” by the band Minor Threat from Washington D.C. (Wood 2012). Another band that contributed into the movement was Teen Idles, who are responsible for the symbol that became associated with sXe – the X that is usually worn as a tattoo on the back sides of both palms, however can be seen on other parts of the body as well. In 1980 Teen Idles during their tour were denied entry to the club where they had to perform because of their age that was under legal drinking age. As a result they were allowed to perform, but they were drawn large X symbols with a marker on back sides of both palms to indicate their age and warn bartenders about it. After the band returned home to Washington D.C. they first proposed this model to local club owners and then incorporated the photo of two crossed hands with X symbols on back of the palms on the cover of their album, associating the X with Straight Edge and showing an example of use of symbol to the followers (Azerrad 2002). Mainly after their album Minor Disturbance which had described above photo on the cover, the symbol started to gain popularity within straightedgers as a tattoo design. And mentioned before sympathy towards DIY movement naturally resulted in Straight Edge homemade X tattoos, given to each other by fellow sXe involved individuals. This tattoo also appears to have several layers of meaning, but compared to “paired” homemade tattoo has wider range of effect. First, X tattoo for the movement served as an identifier, helping to differentiate drug-free like-minded persons from “regular people”. Then, being worn on one of the most visible spots, the tattoo in a way was making a protest statement, capturing attention of the people around, but, of course, without knowledge of the code required to access information codified in the sign, this attention results in questions or indignation only. Speaking about code, from sXe example it can be seen that tattoo can serve as a sign-system, and thinking of “paired” homemade tattoo practice it can be concluded that this system can be of completely different scales. As the concept of analyzed system can be used as a language, linguistic terms of langue and parole coined by de Saussure (1959) can be perfectly applied here.

5. Langue and parole

Langue is used to identify the system of rules for any kind of information exchange that is independent of the user, and in turn, parole consists of specific meanings made of langue in the process of using of the latter (Saussure 1959). To develop the use of these concepts closely another example from the tattoo sphere will be applied – Russian criminal tattoo, the style that is, to a 19

certain extent, a living classic of homemade tattooing. The complex system of signs the tattooing of Russian prisoners developed into had several layers of functioning and meaning. First, one served as an hierarchy identifier, helping to carry out the subordination procedures that were strictly prescribed by the codex of the criminals. On the other hand, tattoos were also used to forcefully „stigmatize“ the representatives of the lower casts of the prison community (Baldaev 2006). Another function of Russian criminal tattoo is the communicational. The designs of the tattoos constitute a complex language consisting of symbols that can carry great amount of information. The symbolism of this language is based upon personal characteristics relevant in criminal world such as „specialization“ of the convict, the type of the crime one was sentenced to, how many years convict spent in prisons, one‘s drug dependency, loyalty/unloyalty etc (Lambert 2000). In this way, the tattoos of the criminal constitute a CV of one, making all his life achievements visible to his fellow-convicts. All the symbols used to identify abovelisted functions refer to langue, they constitute a set of agreed upon symbols that are specifically designed to carry specific information. In the same time separate cases of decoding of the information both by those capable of by possessing certain knowledge or incapable and thus misinterpreting is parole. For example, a random person on the street may think of tattoo lover as of a former convict, while a real former convict who knows how prison tattoos look like will never make such a mistake.

6. Initiation and expulsion

In both examples of Straight Edge X tattoo and Russian prison tattoo it can be seen that body modification creates strong linkage, up to physical, between the carrier of the tattoo and the group into which one is initiated. To a certain extent this linkage can be seen as marriage to the associated group, and the marriage seems to be based on real love – the interests, lifestyles and even music tastes match perfectly. However, like in any marriage, there might come time to end all relations, how does the divorce with the group that left its mark on the body is performed? Generally speaking, at the material level this question can be asked about any kind of tattoos, even with no group affiliation meaning at all, and though some of them would differ in procedures, the core meaning of the procedure of tattoo removal/permanent concealing would be the same – abandoning former beliefs and never returning to them again. It quite unlikely for one to be “not really Nazi”, by removing swastika from one’s chest one performs conscious betrayal, in other words “burns all bridges”. As for the procedures, the expulsions in some groups might be quite savage, for instance in prisons of former USSR if a convict wears an unauthorized tattoo it might be removed with the help of a soldering-iron or simply cut off with the skin with subsequent murder of the defaulter (Baldaev 2006). As for sXe tattoos, their laser removal still leaves slight 20

scars on the palms, which don’t let the person to break the bonds totally. Sometimes these scars are covered up with other tattoos of no ideological origin. This method of permanent unwanted tattoos concealing is often used to get rid of defective homemade tattoos, or even parlor tattoos, not actual anymore for the person. Coverups are usually bold tattoos that have big areas of plain black color, which are applied to the unwanted tattoos. Another method of old tattoo concealment is blastover – the method when new black tattoo is made above the old one so that the old one is still visible in the blank parts of the new.

7. Lightweight tattoos

However, not all group-affiliating tattoos carry such serious consequences of expected behavior and way of life or extremely painful removal or even death. These tattoos will be referred hereafter as lightweight, not performing strong identity shaping function. Some of them express certain interest of the group, into this category fall tattoos with band names and logos, motto- tattoos (e.g. Skate and Destroy, Live Fast Die Young, Forever Young etc.), car logos, replicas of tattoos of celebrities etc. In each of these cases the connection is being established on one side, the phone is ringing but no one is picking the phone. In other words, the case is often that group belonging is not the driving force for an individual to obtain a certain lightweight tattoo, it is personal attitude and affection towards the object of commemoration that the tattoo is addressed on. This can be the band itself, not the fan club; beloved BMW, not local BMW-club; idea of looking great with fashionable Forever Young, not living own life with enjoyment.

8. Stigma and recodification

An interesting perspective on homemade tattoo is reachable with the use of set of ideas considering stigma and human self-presenting in general authored by Erving Goffman (1959). Only little shift is required to fully justify the use of Goffman in our case – the whole train of thought has to be moved into tattoo realm and consider interaction only tattooed actors aware of and involved in tattoo culture. Goffman claims that within normal procedures of interaction “when an individual enters the presence of others, they commonly seek to acquire information about him or to bring into play information about him already possessed“ (Goffman, E., 1959, The presentation of self in everyday life) and this vital search of attributes serves as interaction catalyst. According to Goffman, these attributes can be called „sign-vehicles“ and include clothes, behaves, gestures etc. In our case these sign vehicles would be body modifications, particularly tattoos.

Some of these sign-vehicles result in goodwill and interaction continuation, while others are perceived as polluted or sometimes stigmatizing.

Today the use of word stigma refers to a kind of mark or difference in human appearance or behavior that can be hardly changed and results in the feeling of shame and complexity in interaction with “normal” society (Goffman 1963). And though mostly such physical disabilities as blindness and deafness are considered by Goffman, in our case it might be graceless looking homemade tattoo. Indeed, a remark has to be made here to see the full picture of use of tattoo as stigma. First, tattoos are in most cases taken voluntarily, which puts the consequences they carry into another level of perception as of those inborn or unwillingly/accidentally acquired disabilities. The change in interaction procedures, brought by this type of stigma should be viewed with a consideration of the fact that the status of the “victim” of the stigmatized individual cannot be applied anymore. In this way, the perception of poorly made homemade tattoo by the owner of professional tattoos of high quality is performed with consideration of the fact that homemade tattoo was made at will. Second important point of the nature of the tattoo as stigma comes from the primary will that according to Goffman any stigma provides – the attempt to hide it in order to be able to function competently in the given society. Here can be applied another point of Goffman (1963) – the separation of stigma into two mutually exclusive levels or states – discreditable stigma and discredited stigma. Discreditable stigma is the one not directly observable by the surrounding, either not visible (e.g. mental disease) or successfully hidden (e.g. tattoo coverup), while discredited is one in the direct vision that is either impossible to hide or already discovered. From here on emerges the importance of the code that the “normal” society member have to possess to be able to discover the stigma and discredit stigmatized person. Here, according to Goffman, the development of two scenarios can be observed – in the case when the opposite party with whom the stigmatized individual attempts to interact does not possess the knowledge of the code the stigmatized might pass, or in other words succeed in the integration into “normal” society as if one is not stigmatized. If the interacting normal appears to be, to use Goffman’s vocabulary, wise, or either having an experience of same stigmatization or simply possessing the knowledge about it, - the identity of stigmatized one becomes uncovered and the integration attempt leaves the field. In the case of homemade tattoo, the situation is quite opposite. In the case when a “normal” representative of the society possesses the knowledge to identify homemade tattoo he recognizes the genre and can apply his attitude towards the ideas the genre is based upon and thus stigmatized one passes. In the case when the knowledge of the code is absent, homemade tattoo has a certain chance to be taken for a low quality (on both sides of execution and design) tattoo that a person with little background in tattooing made and thus stigma-like value is being attached.

The interesting aspect of stigma based on a sign is that any sign can recodified by the society in which it operates. This can be observed in the field of east-European post-traditional tattoo, which adopts the motives of classic Russian prison tattoos and rediscovers them in an ordinary practice of tattooing. Bypassing the nostalgic aspect of this phenomenon, the recodification is something that creates new meanings and shapes the development of the style of modern tattooing. For the members of the legitimate or “normal” society that don’t take part in the recodification however still possess the knowledge of the old code the communication patterns don’t really change – for example the bearer of prison-style tattoos would be seen as a criminal despite the real grounds of one’s tattooing.

9. Personalities behind homemade tattoos. Pursue of authenticity

Talking of homemade tattoo as a stylistic embranchment, it has to be said that as in any other style, it has its own iconic figures that contributed into the development and popularization of the worldview that homemade tattoo follows. Probably the most notable figure in this case is FUZI UV TPK, a veteran graffiti artist from Paris, who in past few years changed his occupation to a professional tattoo-artist. Today he is known as one of the main ideologists of his own style known as “ignorant style” which he is trying to bring to wide public consideration through different mediums as graffiti, painting, clothing and tattoo (Schonberger 2012). Back in 1990s he revolutionized graffiti scene of Paris with ignorant style that soon became famous worldwide. FUZI’s graffiti style was based on graffiti of New York of the 1970s, stylistically reminding the drawings of a child hardly knowing how to draw. This style emerged as a reaction to standardization of graffiti, as a counter movement aimed on producing authentic and primitive art. Using his ignorant style FUZI was depicting post-apocalyptic settings that were, as he himself recognized, influenced by movies as Mad Max that then were reborn in his tattooing activity (Mackay 2014).

There can be distinguished several vectors that in a certain way FUZI’s tattoos follow on their way to perfect homemade tattoo style, whether willingly or not. First of which is the uniqueness of each piece he is carefully promoting:

When you get a tattoo with me you have two options: choose one of my pre-drawn designs or let me make the tattoo for you on the spot. No matter which option you choose, it will be unique. If you choose one of the drawings I have already made, it will never be used again. I only tattoo in my style. I don’t draw mermaids… well, if I did it would be a Fuzi-style mermaid! (Mackay 2014) 23

This scrupulosity in grounding of the uniqueness of tattoo work is particularly explained by following of one-of-a-kind doctrine that dates back to Ed Hardy’s parlor Realistic Tattoo. On the other hand this passion about uniqueness is circumstanced by FUZI’s interest in near- expressionism art of different epochs, which also includes self-taught art (part of which FUZI himself is) and other styles that pursue the goal to achieve authenticity by approaching art with minimum background in the field (Baritaux 2013). Next determining feature is the fact that FUZI pays special attention to choosing of the place for tattooing (e.g. Goh 2013), he sees the location as important as the tattoo itself because it also produces certain feelings throughout the process, he says:

I’m not a traditional tattoo artist and I don’t want to make tattoos in traditional locations. I consider each tattoo unique, like a piece of art, and I like the experience to be unique also. I want to leave a mark on the memory, in addition to the skin. (Schonberger 2012)

This also contributes to the continuity of authentic character but not in terms of design only but also on the level of experience the process provides at the whole, certain performance-like essence of it as an artistic mean is being established here. Big amount of attention is also devoted to self-expression in FUZI’s ignorant style, he considers himself to be an artist that is using tattoo as one mean of self-expression rather than a tattoo artist.

When I stopped painting graffiti as much as I used to, I had to find another creative outlet to express myself. When I started tattooing, I tried to make tattoos in the same way as I painted graffiti—instinctual and without rules. My tattoos are rough, like me, and I’m not interested in being precise or becoming a master of technique. My goal is to convey a feeling of freedom, which is far more important than being perfect. (Schonberger 2012)

However, there exists the side of FUZI’s tattooing activity that clearly questions basic postulates of homemade tattoo per se. This provocative side mainly refers to his business-oriented approach, which appears in the fact that he charges his clients, which means he became professional tattoo artist. His frequent appearance in the media, self-advertising and marketing acts, among which you will find tattooing celebrities as Justice, Kavinsky and Scarlett Johansen, establishing clothing lines etc. becomes a point that contradicts self-positioning of FUZI as an artist who provides authentic experience to his clients (Baritaux 2013). Of course, this example of deviation in homemade tattoo culture can be seen from different sides, but in fact, it is difficult to discuss the level to which FUZI’s works belong to homemade tattooing due to the fact that homemade tattooing itself lacks strict definition. However, everything in his works is still following homemade style – designs are simple and tattoos are made in unique settings, which

seem to cover his marketing talent in public opinion, which will be the focus of the following chapter.

Returning back to the outstanding personalities who contribute into development of homemade tattoo and values they are attaching to it, it would be necessary to mention several more who associate themselves, in contrary to FUZI, directly. One of them would be Thomas Jeppe who is considered to be the father of homemade tattoo as a genre and specific stylistic branch. Thomas is an artist from Australia and he is deeply convinced that homemade tattooing is the separate culture. He was the first one who managed to classify the phenomenon as a separate branch of tattooing, and his ideological research resulted in a manifesto-book Home-made Tattoo Rule (Jeppe n.d.). The book contains photos of homemade tattoos that come together with short descriptions, which in no way can be seen as a standardization of the style, as it was designed to illustrate examples and spread the “spirit” of homemade tattoos, not for classification purpose. Thomas himself is tattooing only for several years and sees his every work in a very positive way, he says:

I screwed up many of my tattoos, but I like them all. The mistakes make me love them even more. (Anziperova 2012)

This particular representative of the promoters of the culture with this piece of interview confirms the unscripted homemade-tattoo motto – this is not about the quality, this is about attitude. In other words, tattoo becomes a kind of status symbol, but the status is the attitude. At the smaller scale this concept of status/attitude can be deconstructed to all previously mentioned important features that determine homemade tattoo – the design, technique and location, and the inclusiveness of the actor into the movement can be granted only by adopting these values and attitude towards them which becomes shared.

Next supporter of the movement is Fergus Purcell, mostly famous as a designer, also serves both homemade tattoo ideology promoter and living museum of homemade tattoos.

I got my first tattoo when I was 21, in the following few years I got several, and all of them were made by professionals. Then one of my friends asked me why I don’t have homemade tattoos (and I didn’t have) and something clicked in my head. The same night I made one on my wrist, and I got completely drawn in. When I started to make my own tattoos I realized how they should look like. (Anziperova 2012)

This piece of interview refers to another important characteristic of homemade tattoo that is responsible for attraction new adepts to the culture - the easiness to become an actor. If in case

of FUZI authenticity is something that is provided by an artist to the client through “naïve” means of art production, in Purcell’s worldview, homemade tattooing is attractive because it can be practiced anywhere and by anybody. Being a clothing designer, Fergus Purcell through his collaboration with world famous brands as Mark Jacobs and Alexander McQueen is moving his “wild” style of clothing, mainly inspired by metal and pop cultures, and same attitude is continued in his tattoo activity.

IV. Homemade tattoo discourse

If we imagine homemade tattooing as an electric circuit, the roles would be redistributed as follows: homemade tattoo enthusiasts and promoters like Thomas Jeppe and others would be considered to be power supplies, making it possible for the whole system to operate and giving off electricity in form of tattooing ideas, publications and media popularization work. Then, considering current position of homemade tattoo as a counter-culture, mainstream tattoo values and patterns of perception would serve as resistors, providing a notion of mistrust to homemade tattoo ideology. And finally, the recipients of electric power, who can be considered as electric devices in our case, would be people interested in homemade tattoos, who will consume the informational message of the most active actors. Then the question is how do these consumers detect and acquire electric signal? For this purpose in any electric circuit there exist a network of wires that deliver electrons to the place where they can be applied. In the case of homemade tattoo movement wiring’s function is fulfilled mainly by social media, where all major discourses take place. Of course, the abovementioned book by Jeppe, or interviews with FUZI that can be found on the web also influence the ideological development of homemade tattoo culture, however these channels, unfortunately, don’t provide the information up-to-date. Most of the articles on homemade tattooing seem to be a still historical monument, commemorating the state of the culture at a certain period, while the real dynamic information exchange that in most of the cases becomes determining for people’s understanding of and attitude towards homemade tattooing takes place online. The investigation of public discourse of the phenomenon will be based on the project called Domashnyaya Tatuirovka, or Homemade Tattoo that is carried out in Runet (the name often used for Russian-speaking segment of internet users and websites) and consists of a Youtube show and a topical public fan page in Russian social network Vkontakte (or VK).

1. Youtube show “Homemade Tattoo”

In the first part of the following analysis, the focus will be made on several episodes of the Youtube show “Homemade Tattoo” (Appendix 6). Each episode has a similar structure – hosts of the show meet with a homemade tattoo artist, receive a tattoo from him and then in a follow up interview discuss homemade tattoo, artist’s personal attitude towards the style and in some cases artist’s thoughts about “mainstream” parlour tattooing. Interviews from selected episodes were translated into English and can provide an interesting perspective on the phenomenon from the side of the artists. These interviews are presented as dialogues between the interviewer (Q), and artist (A), and for the best visualization will be analyzed one by another in a form of subchapters.

a. Interview 1. Andrey Volkov. Interview with tattoo artist Andrey Volkov. Q: You have your own stylistic, your entourage, these are homemade tattoos, completely different atmosphere. Why do you follow this style? A: Well because it is a different atmosphere. It has own pithiness, own clique, guys. And about my works I don’t know, I like this kind of demons and devils. Q: If you would be offered position in a very good studio and they would tell you that you will never work at home again, only in aseptic studio and only using flashes that they will approve, what would you answer? A: I would say “no”. I will never change the warm atmosphere that I have now. Presented above dialogue is good for opening the topic of magic-ness that homemade tattoo enthusiasts are trying to reach that was mentioned in the sections above. Interviewee, as his main point in the defense of homemade tattooing uses the word “atmosphere”, even twice, for answering two different questions. This rather clear statement can be seen on one hand as the affirmation of the ritualistic meaning of tattoo. Indeed, if the location matters so much for the given artist, then it can be assumed that this affection towards the “atmosphere” can evidence the approach towards tattooing as “sacred”. And we can also evidence the attitude towards the location which is different to that of Fuzi, who sees location as part of the performance. Here location serves as a certain kind of “protective” aura, an atmosphere which elaborates the emergence of “magic”. But what is the function of this “atmosphere”? If we recall the perspective of liminality that was applied before, it can be seen that this “warm atmosphere” the artist is talking about is used as a mean to reach mutual trust, the first step in the role-exchange game both parties are about to start. In other words, creating a setting of comfort is aimed not only on client’s convenience, but also as a method for an artist to enter the level of emotional exchange with his client, which will be higher than in common parlour tattooing that here becomes something similar to dead-hearted transaction of sale and purchase. On the other hand, the dichotomization of the phenomena with comparing it with parlour tattooing elaborates the authentic-inauthentic binary, around which, as we will see in the following data pieces, the discourse is often centered.

b. Interview 2. Mikhail Kravchenko Interview with tattoo artist Mikhail Kravchenko, Brno, Czech Republic Q: Why are you doing homemade tattoos? Why you didn’t open a studio here, why you are not yet a European tattoo drugdealer? A: Because of the lack of documents and useful in this respect acquaintanceships. Q: And how is it working at home? 28

A: I really enjoy it, but still would rather work in the studio. This would be more interesting for me. Q: But you will be giving half of the income as taxes, right? A: Maybe, but still, studio means more action. Q: You mean it is ok with you to work at home but you would not refuse to work in the studio, right? A: Yes, for now working from home is enough for me, but my goal is studio, and specifically my own studio Q: Some advice for beginner tattooers? A: First thing is not to be scared. Don’t be afraid to read forums. Q: Do your hands shake often when you tattoo? A: Yes, if I didn’t tattoo for some time. And if I have a hangover. Q: And what can be done with it? A: Prepare yourself from the inside. This piece is interesting in terms of the defending of parlour tattooing by an artist who currently practices homemade tattoo. Mikhail, being an immigrant in Czech Republic notices that his own tattoo studio is his current goal. Of course, the case may be purely the matter of legal business operation on the territory of the foreign state, strive to secure own residence and rightfully participate in the labor market. This institutionalization of personal occupation can be perceived here as a will to be considered an “equal” with the natives of the current country of residence, a will to possess importance and officiality that tattoo studio might offer. In the same time the notion of lack of documents and means to establish this business evidences artist’s disinterestedness in homemade tattooing, making his current relation to it rather current inconvenience one has to live through. In this way participation in the culture is seen as sometimes non-voluntary. Apart from these purely material details, the interviewee seems to express little sympathy to the “spiritual” side of homemade tattooing, he is neither interested in “warmth” of home-studio, nor in comfort of the atmosphere. Instead, his last phrase “prepare yourself from the inside” is addressed to tattoo artists, which still evidences a certain level of care for “spiritual” realm of body modification, but rather from the side of an artist exclusively.

c. Interview 3. Alisa Sakhar Interview with tattoo artist Alisa Sakhar. Q: Why at all are you doing this not really girlish thing?

A: I used to be a designer, and designer’s clients are usually not most pleasant people, and my best friend was tattooing. And once we wend after Kubana (music festival – translator’s remark) to Krasnodar, we were simply travelling across Russia and went to Krasnodar. And there I had three days to decide if I want to tattoo or not, because he had a tattoo machine and he was living in another city. I understood that either I start to tattoo right now or I don’t know when I will have next chance to hold a tattoo machine, here… Q: And now honestly. In that very second, in that precious second, that determined your life for a certain period of time, you were drunk? A: No. Q: Where from is you style motivated, not actually traditional, not very common and rather downbeat? A: Well I wouldn’t say it is downbeat. Actually black tattoos they can be either comic or gloomy. Which means if you’re doing funny blackwork, it probably has something from oldschool or homemade, and if you’re doing something more serious, more painstaking, trying to depict everything realistically and in detail then it looks kind of catty because of black color. Q: And why at home and not in tattoo studio? Because you tattoo fast and carefully, not painful, everything’s clean, you could be working in studio. A: Well I’m thinking about it, but now I don’t really feel like. I’ve had offers from studios, but I’m thinking, maybe yes, maybe no. Q: How long are you doing this? A: So I did my first tat year ago in the end of August, but then I wasn’t tattooing for half a year. I mean I bought a machine and then my power supply died and so I had no equipment and only in the beginning of February I starter to do it again. It means from February there were tats that are in my vk (Russian equivalent of Facebook – translator’s remark) profile page. Q: Which means a bit more than a year. How are you ready to progress? What are you going to do in future? A: I think I will be doing works that will be detailed, but of a bigger scale. They will be not small tattoos that can be made in one session but something really cool and detailed in the style of Durer’s engravings. This piece of interview raises the issue of joining homemade tattooing. Together with mentioned in the historical chapter shift that followed after 1980s, when young artists with no experience in tattooing educated in different fields started to practice this kind of body modification service, this interview confirms an important aspect of homemade tattooing – easiness to become an actor. Indeed in this case we see that the skill and experience of the artist takes second place, while stylistic character of the works and artist’s enthusiasm to participate in the movement is appreciated. If in the classic period of tattooing it took long years to become an artist capable to master the methods and techniques, today the equipment together with the creativeness provide the right to be considered a tattoo artist.

d. Interview 4. Jura Gritskikh Interview with tattoo artist Jura Gritskikh. Q: Jura, why in hell are you doing homemade tattoos? A: Because I like to do what many don’t do, and my beginning was homemade tattoo, everything from my beginning… Q: No, I mean, you draw well, why not in a studio? Why at home? Why at the bar, on the knees, in basements? Why not in a studio? A: Because homemade tattoo can be everywhere. And in studio means when a person chooses time of appointment, comes to the studio and receives a tattoo. And I can easily come, or they can come to my place, I make and he likes and I like. This is just cool, simply cool. Q: All your designs are rather black and dark. Why they can’t be colorful? A: Tattoos have to be black and white. Because I like graphic style. Q: Why when you’re coming to a tattoo parlor and ask for oldschool they will give you oldschool, and when you come home they all are tattooing with black only. Why black and not blue, green or red? Why black designs and stick-n-poke technique, why all this dirt? A: Because there is a lot of dirt in our world. And you can leave some marks one the body. And the marks are black. That is why tattoo has to be black. Q: Your works are not standard. This is not usual oldschool, this is something of a new fashion. How is it called? A: Here it suits best that when a person wants to create he does this in his own way. Q: Why like this and not in the studio for money? A: Because everybody is used to that it has to be properly and goodly and you do it how you want it, that’s it. The dialogue above to a certain extent strikes with its poetry. The very beginning of it takes us to the reaffirmation of the connection of homemade tattoo with early tribal tattooing, evaluation of homemade tattoo as something that artist practiced “at the beginning” and remains true to it. The basic message of the location part of the interview is still seen as parlour-home comparison, where the artist sees tattooing in unconstrained places as “more free”, not limiting and not prescribing the actions and conditions the process has to obey. The connection component of homemade tattoo can be discovered here as well, though with certain effort. “I make and he likes and I like” – these words, in my opinion, represent the bonds that homemade tattoo create between the artist and the “client”, this ability to connect is pointed out here as a feeling of mutual satisfaction with the result, where both parties actually enjoy it as well as the process itself. What is more, the line of authenticity is clear in the statements, supported with such phrases as “my way”, “I like to do what many don’t do” and “you do it how you want”. From here on, the vision 31

of unconstrained location as emancipation from the regulated working order of the studio tightly intertwines with freedom in the design component, and reinforced with the opposition to “everybody” makes it clear from which points the authenticity is reached by homemade tattoo enthusiasts.

e. Interview 5. Edgar Maksimjuk Interview with tattoo artist Edgar Maksimjuk. Q: Why homemade and not in the studio? A: Still didn’t reached the level of studios. Q: How long are you doing this? A: Half year. Q: Why do you like this blackwork and not realism? A: I’m seeking myself so far. However not in all cases, as for example with Mikhail Kravchenko, homemade tattooers perceive what they do as “authentic” and “real”, some of them still stand on the side of parlours as only possibilities to deliver legitimate tattoos to the clients. The presented above interview though is comparatively short, but provides a comprehensive viewpoint on the phenomenon. Homemade tattooing is simply seen one level lower than tattooing in a studio. Nevertheless, these “levels” that the interviewee is mentioning, what do they refer to? To the quality of work, to the procedures, or to the attitude of the artist? For Edgar probably, his self-positioning serves as an indicator of non- legitimacy that he carries, being a young artist with no sufficient experience, however willing to establish himself as a rightful tattooer.

f. Interview 6. Lesha Ermolaev Interview with tattoo artist Lesha Ermolaev. Q: Why are you tattooing at home and not in the studio? A: Because at home I feel comfortable, and in studio… I don’t know. The interview with Lesha Ermolaev will be the shortest interview in the sample. However, it will bring up an interesting component, that other interviews to a certain extent also contain – the uncertainty of the artists about the reasons of their opposition to “prominent” tattooing. First, indeed, the “comfort”, mentioned in this dialogue is something that refers to the connection aspect and to spirituality homemade tattoos carry as well. This connection here can be seen with another role distribution (Lesha is tattooing in his home exclusively) - seeing artists as “hosts”, and their 32

clients as “guests”. Indeed, this trend can be affirmed with numerous advertisements that can be found in Homemade Tattoo community page, where artists usually include something similar to “I will not only tattoo you but also offer a cup of tea or coffee and homemade cookies in comfortable atmosphere”. These host-guest relations are not clearly emphasized throughout the discourse; however, the emphasis on “comfort of being at home” does the job.

g. Interview 7. Denis Shkilya Interview with tattoo artists Denis Shkilya. Q: Why are you tattooing homemade tattoo, why not working in the studio? Why so dirty designs? A: Because I still didn’t reach the level to work in studio. And about black – I like it, I like graphics. Q: Why you don’t have tattoos? A: On legs. Q: By yourself? A: By myself and by another artists as well. Q: Tell a message to other people, why they should make tattoos at home or somewhere on the road, why is it so cool? A: Because it is warm and cozy at home. This interview is in a way repeats and affirms the assumptions made above, however it was included in the list of interviews for another interesting detail – tattoos on artist’s legs. After Denis replies that he has tattoos on his legs he is immediately asked if he was the one who made them. The reason for that is that usually you can see many tattooers with bad quality tattoos on their legs, the reason for that is simple – they practice on themselves and legs appear to be most easily reachable part of their own bodies. This is why sometimes let and thigh tattoos worn by artists themselves can tell the others about the practice they have and professional level they possess.

h. Interview 8. Dima Romashkin Interview with tattoo artist Dima Romashkin. Q: Why are you doing homemade tattoo? A: It is a cool style, me and my friends were always getting tats for fun. Q: Are you taking money for that at all? A: Not from friends, only if they’re strangers, then yes. Q: Why did you pick this style? A: For now I simply like it, I didn’t even think about studios at all 33

Q: And what are you going to do next? A: We shall see Last interview that will be considered here brings the idea of uncertainty back in play. Being unsure of his future career, Dima evidences the evanescence nature of tattooing, however ironic this may sound, when considering rather lasting nature of tattoos themselves. This indeterminacy of the artist is also supported with “I simply like it”, which both combined may point to the attitude towards homemade tattoo as a matter of fashion, which might fade, leaving the stage for new styles and approaches.

2. Online community “Homemade Tattoo”

Second type of the data, as was mentioned above is taken from the online community based in Russian-speaking social media network vk.com. The community is called “Domashnyaya Tatuirovka”, which is literally translated as “home tattoo”. First posts in the community were created as early as December, 2013. Today it consist of more than 8000 posts, photo albums of the community have thousands of pictures of tattoos, flashes, homemade tattoo machines and thematic art. The number of subscribers has recently reached a mark of 100 000 people. This, in all respects influential source of information and base for public discussions will supply us the data taken from the comments that users leave under posts of the community, where major discussions take place. The screenshots of the selected posts and their translation and included in the appendices. Again, their step-by-step analysis will be carried out in this subchapter for better visibility.

First extract (Appendix 1) that is presented consists of the photo of Scarlett Johansen who is showing her fresh tattoo by Fuzi. The comments that the subscribers of “Homemade Tattoo” leave under the post are quite ambiguous. First, it is not quite the case when people involved in discussion form “two camps”, here it is rather the matter of personal attitude towards the style and own competency and knowledge of the style of homemade tattoo. The difference between those who possess the knowledge of “the code” and those who do not is clearly visible. If first group tend to use statements in defense of this tattoo (“this is the style”, “these tattoos are sometimes not less expensive than those made with a machine” etc.), the non-possessors of the “parole” leave their notices of disgust and dissatisfaction with the tattoo (“as a designer I can’t understand that”, “What a horror!!!”, “Totally nothing” etc.). This dissatisfaction is sometimes so deep that might take form of insult, aimed on the subject, with no real expression of point of view on the tattoo itself. This behavior, on the contrary can be interpreted as another manifestation of the strive for authenticity - the fact that homemade tattoos are becoming popular even among celebrities can be

perceived as recession of the “underground-ness” of the movement and an attempt to institutionalize it.

An interesting comparison can be found in this comment section as well – “these [tattoos] are like lowered Dzhigas, when you have no opportunity to buy a normal car and first you tell yourself that this is normal car and then you’re trying to persuade the others” (Appendix 1, emphasis added). Dzhigas here means car brand Zhiguli, which is often modified by their owners to make them appear more “sportive”, various kinds of spoilers and stickers are used to make them look similar to cars from the movies about street racing. In the same time these “low budget cosmetic tuning” became a cliché, often their owners are preliminary judged as people of low level of culture. These cars also became a symbol of will of people with limited financial abilities to gain quite opposite perception by the means of modification of visual appearance. This comparison of homemade tattoos with this type of vehicles questions the nature of homemade tattoo’s target audience. The commenter assumes that homemade tattoos serve as a replacement of “normal” tattoos which can be acquired for a moderate price but in the same time evidences distaste. The answer to this comment turns out to be no less elegant parry, which first of all defends the homemade style with the notion of the price equality with parlour made tattoos. This financial component seem to be a significant issue capable of justifying and profaning tattoos with no real reference to the style of the quality. For example later in the comments for the same post (Appendix 1) there can be found an interesting insult that questions the legitimacy of homemade tattooers per se: “there is a guy who lives in my house his name is Vovan and he’s homemade tattoo artist”( Appendix 1). This irony is aimed to deliver a message that this easiness to become an actor in homemade tattooing may cause mentioned above individuals of “low cultural background” come into play, who don’t possess not only knowledge about homemade tattoo culture, but about tattoo in general. This remark serves as an identifier for the suspiciousness, that parlour tattoo enthusiasts feel towards homemade tattoo. And the answer to this comment (“[Vovan is] tattooing for a bottle of beer?”) brings the price issue back into the center of the discussion, in a way equalizing price and value. This wariness comes from the main postulate of professional parlour tattooing, which says that good tattoos can’t be cheap and one should not try to save money when it comes to one’s body. Of course, this doctrine is abandoned in the case of homemade tattoo style, resulting in massive resentment of people interested in “normal” tattoo. This perception of low-priced tattoos as “deviant” is an interesting trend, which only reaffirms homemade tattoo enthusiasts of them practicing “more free” tattooing. Acceptance of the idea that one can tattoo anything anywhere for any price with any equipment becomes a Litmus test to identify those who fall under the category of homemade tattoo enthusiasts.

Deriving the definition above in the most clear way and moving on to the next piece of social media activity (Appendix 2) we encounter an unexpected contradiction. The question of originality is the main focus of the comments under the post that shows tattoos made with the designs borrowed from FUZI. And if the very first comment is in a way difficult to interpret further than simply identification (“Fuzi”), the second one (“Dammit, stealing designs from Fuzi. Weirdos”) already shows the displeasure for the fact of tattoo designs borrowing. However, the first explanation of the negative attitude towards design copying comes with the notion of ethics, not with style uniqueness. The short dialogue takes place between two commenters:

“1: Alina, is it bad to steal or what?

2: Alexander, this is a matter of ethics. Yes, bad.

1: Alina, ok thanks))” (Appendix 2)

This tiny question-answer interaction indeed contains no cue of importance of originality, rather it centers on ethic. I have to point out that further investigation had shown that Alina, who mentioned ethics, is a professional tattooer, which means she charges her clients on a regular basis and works according to certain regulations. This in a certain way may have caused prioritizing ethics before originality. In the following comments she confirms this, by saying that “[when I tattoo] there are two variants: 1-flash is designed by client and I always state that it is not mine but client’s, 2-flash is bought/ordered from another artist (e.g. with flash by Andrey Svetov) and I tattoo with his permit and of course state. But these are rather exceptions, more often I tattoo with my own flashes” (Appendix 2). In this case we can see clear support of the style itself, with no clear sympathy towards the ideology of homemade tattoo. The strive for originality doesn’t matter much for Alina, her main concern in the relation to the design is the indication the design has to have, in other words authorship rights. The continuation of the discussion only reconfirms this. When later she was accused of copying the design of another artist she answered that she “had an order to rework and combine these flashes” (Appendix 2), which in her own opinion provided enough legality for the work to be considered of her authorship. In general this tiny discourse sheds light on the situation with originality of the designs not only in homemade tattooing but in tattooing in general. As it was numerously stated before, traditional or oldschool tattoos usually repeat same motifs again and again, and artists are trying to rework certain traditional settings (e.g. rock of ages, swallows and daggers) using their personal style. In current (Appendix 2) comment section situation is somehow similar, which indicates that homemade tattooing with all its ideology of originality and freedom still might accept design reworking. “You could have stylized them [tattoo

flashes] a bit, not simply copy” says one of the commenters, which clearly states that he would accept stylized or reworked designs as having an enough level of authenticity.

Extract number 3 (Appendix 3) is showing the tattoo made by FUZI, which from the beginning gains disfavor from the subscribers of “Homemade Tattoo”. Mainly negative reaction seems to be based on the quality of work itself, however the design calls up ambiguous comments as well. On one hand, some of the reactions are strictly inimical (“What the crap”, “It is fashion, the worse the more fashionable”, “Fuzi is a hole” etc.) which are again can be seen as a counter- shock phenomenon, occurring on the basis of non-familiarization with the style. On the other, the key moment of the discussion comes with the comment that contains detailed interpretation of the design and exposure of the ignorance of the previous commenters. After this point laconic and insulting comments were not made anymore, and only this key comment found support from the administrators of the public page. This exposure of the lack of knowledge in the field that some of the discussants have shown is an interesting way of the division of “them” and “us”, but now transposed to the solid field. The status symbol that consists of the attitude I mentioned in sections above is here complemented with knowledge of the field and the ability to detect the “langue”. In the same time, the abovementioned topic of “levels” comes back on stage in this example. The exposer in the following comment says that “required associations are not formed yet, when they’ll be 35-40 they’ll solve these rebuses easily” which is nothing more than a humiliation, aimed at “ignorant” people, whom author is trying to put on the “lower” level by referring to the age they have to reach to understand this kind of works. This impressionistic vision of art, where the content is much more important than the shape, is something Fuzi himself insisted on repeatedly. And by this reference and art philosophy, I suppose, homemade tattoo enthusiasts are trying to exalt homemade tattoo, to put it on the next step of the development of tattoo as a form of art in general.

Another section of comments under the posting (Appendix 4) contains mainly desperate and often undefended criticism and insults. The piece of art presented in the posting, accompanied with the statement “Designs for very low prices for most desperate beggars!” caused a wave of discontent, mainly rooted in the quality and style of the design. Stylistic resemblance with works of Fuzi might have caused the reaction like “Well this is total shit, why are you killing the culture, scums, enough” and similar. Indeed Fuzi and his followers are sometimes accused for “killing the culture” by the “ignorant” approach they promote. In the same time Fuzi himself often stated that he is not a tattoo artist but an artist expressing himself with the help of tattooing. Of course, such statements can, to a certain extent, protect artists, providing a solid argument against those who are against such approach.

The material aspect of tattoo mentioned above is also mentioned in this particular discussion. One of the commenters points:

“In principle, even if for living you collect bottles or play on the pot in the subway – for one month you can save enough for normal tattoo. However there is this kind of people who like to take both advantages, this flashset is for 100% for this kind of people like a brand by which you can tell the status” (Appendix 4)

And even thought the mentioning of the price and value of a tattoo was discussed above, this expression is very important, as it touches the topic of status. Here status is seen as an attitude towards this price/value combination, and author expresses his belief that those who are trying to save money on tattoos are “branded”, they constitute the downcast of the tattoo community. This point of view is often seen among those who express sympathy to parlour tattoos, however the counter-point that carries the point of homemade tattoo enthusiast is quite opposite:

“Tattoos, in the end, are what they were from the beginning: visual indication of personal status. “what does your tattoo mean?” “it means that I’m cool and yours means that you’re poor”. So, down with the parlour art! Viva homemade, true status for free, i.e. for true status.” (Appendix 4)

This exposing and lively remark can in a way sum up the importance of homemade tattoo as seen by its enthusiasts – tattoo’s main value is in its ability to carry meanings, and not the quality. These meanings can be called statuses, stories etc., for the homemade style it doesn’t really matter, but instead what means is the personified nature of these meanings and their existence. If so, it becomes unclear why tattoos made for money won’t perform the same task. Will this “true status” disappear if a person who maintains homemade attitude will get a tattoo for money? Indeed, on one hand it can be said that in the case of this “tattoo purchase” the result is still the same “true status” due to the attitude of one receiving a tattoo. On the other hand the contradistinction of home to parlour with all related procedures is quite important for self-definition of homemade tattoo enthusiasts. This opposition helps to establish the style, provides an already existing and functioning system of the same filed, postulates of which can be contradicted to give birth and maintain another stylistic branch with own philosophy.

Next comment section extract (Appendix 5) contains an interesting discussion that deals again with ethics of homemade tattooing and with legitimacy of the style. First, the post itself contains a photo of works by Fuzi that in this case resulted in a near-poetic comparison, made by one of the commenters, that disputes homemade tattoo’s right to be considered a tattoo style:

“I’d add wood burning [pyrogravure]! I really like it as a movement!” (Appendix 5)

Of course, author is probably not familiar with best pieces of wood burning craft that can be very difficult in terms of design and execution. However his main aim seems to be the indication of the simplicity of the presented tattoo style. In post-socialist East European countries pyrogravure is often perceived as an exercise for children, the reason for that were pyrogravure apparatuses that were often given to kids as presents. From here derives the attitude towards this craft – it is preliminary defined as art which is based on childish designs. In this way ,the comparison of pyrogravure and specific style of tattooing brands the latter as something unserious and probably not worth participating.

Next contributor seems to recognize homemade tattoo’s right to be considered a tattoo in general, however he lacks strict definition:

“Well Fuzzi is far from being homemade tattoo artist)) or it is that all non-realism is homemade?” (Appendix 5)

This question is quite fundamental, as, as we can see, indeed homemade tattoo style is something that can be hardly defined by the means of design only. However this instrumental approach is what bothers commenter (and other people interested in tattooing as well) is answered by the admin of the public:

“there is a certain esthetics and our community is about it” (Appendix 5)

Again this notion of aesthetics springs up as a core concept, much more capacious and informative than any others, capable to define the style’s framework. And the commenter continues his pragmatic line:

“what kind of esthetics? I thought homemade tattoo is that is made at home.. why Fuzzi is here then?” (Appendix 5)

This time disturbance is spawned from the side of the location. This pragmatism of course can be seen simply as a will to find a preposition to question Fuzi’s relation to homemade tattooing. But on the other hand, this straightforward message is meaningful in different dimension, it brings the idea of authenticity of homemade tattoo onto a completely (I should use here “new”, but no) old level, more primordial and thus valuable for the style. Indeed this direct and clear message of the definition of the style together with the question “what kind of esthetics?” remind that homemade tattoo once had no ideology behind it and was called “homemade” because it was made

at home. But this kind of authenticity is now clearly rejected, giving way to the new definition of “homemade”, with its own esthetics and philosophy.

Surprisingly, but the differences with parlour tattoo, that homemade tattoo tends to be built on, like undesirability of payment for a tattoo, taboo for copying designs of others etc. are not seen as something limiting, quite opposite, freedom of art in homemade tattoo is often promoted and praised, with no actual consideration of these limits.

V. Conclusion

There is a quote by Vivienne Westwood, which says:

“I didn't consider myself a fashion designer at all at the time of punk. I was just using fashion as a way to express my resistance and to be rebellious. I came from the country, and by the time I got to London, I considered myself to be very stupid. It was my ambition to understand the world I live in.” (Johnson 2014)

This worldview of constant development and learning is something that can be found in modern tattoo culture. For the past few decades, the main principles of tattooing had changed from maintaining a conservative, self-repeating and deeply established practice to the burst of creative freedom, which is rooted in emancipation of art, self-taught art forms, and in our case “ignorant style”, that promote freedom and the spirit of authenticity as hard as they can. In this thesis this new philosophy of art was investigated with the help of the example of the phenomenon of homemade tattoo. This newly noticed by general public style can be rightfully called a “punk” in the world of body modification, the protest and rebellion against mainstream body modification. It happened so historically that tattooing has been a relatively closed craft, to get involved in which would be difficult for an average person. Being seen as a form of deviation, tattoo was often a taboo in different modern societies, making not only direct service providing, but also knowledge exchange and education within the field strictly underground. Today homemade tattooing, on the contrary can offer everyone to become involved in the movement easily, making this ease of becoming an actor an unscripted “motto of the club”. With this openness, it becomes indeed difficult to coin a strict definition for homemade tattoo, especially if we consider the freedom- centrism of its ideology. But how then it is possible to talk about a separate branch of a form of art, if its borders can be hardly defined? In this case, the instrumental and more material aspects of the phenomenon thought are still important, but have to be abandoned. It is the attitude of the actors that matters in this case for the definition of the style, however absurd this may sound. This “way to express my resistance and to be rebellious” here means that the art itself is just a mean for the artists to express themselves, and the things they express become definitive for the whole movement. However informative this perspective might sound, the case wouldn’t be interesting if it consisted of one perspective only and the voyage along it had no riffs.

The investigation took sight over two main sides of the phenomenon. These sides, as in any other cultural product are the providers and the consumers. The role of the providers was fulfilled by tattoo artists, one way or another involved in homemade tattooing, and the consumers were represented by the participants of topical discussions, expressing their thoughts about

separate manifestations of activities within the field. Tattoo artists in this case are viewed not merely as actors actually responsible for tattooing exclusively. As their opinions about the phenomenon were analyzed through the media sources, it can be noticed that another level of their activity is actually performing the role of popularizers of the style of homemade tattooing through the social media. Hence, their role of creating cultural goods stretches beyond production of art only, the information they provide becomes another source of influence, making it possible to share their creativity at another level. Consumers, on the other hand also possess a certain fraction of agency. They can be seen as creatives of the lower level, which means that subscribers of the social media network page have ability to take part in the discourse, express their opinion and thus be to a certain extent influential. However, this ability is completely dependent on the providers’ activity.

Away from the discourse, these two moving parts of homemade tattooing - providers and consumers, or here rather tattoo artists and their clients, - are united by an interesting role redistribution that the phenomenon is based on. The aspect of liminality can be found in the case with an emphasis on the last stage of the process of status transitions. In the end, the tattoo itself becomes an everlasting silent reminder of the procedure both parties took part in. More than that, this reminder serves as an evidence of the unite a tattoo artist and a client formed. This ritualistic approach indeed seems like something that can be evident mostly in the cases of more “intimate” tattooing – when for example couples or friends tattoo each other. But on the other hand this perspective is applicable even to an average tattooing session of Fuzi or other famous tattooers. On this scale, when tattooing is carried out as a performance art, the intimacy may lie in self- association of the client to the works of a famous artist, the bonds that are created in this case are somehow even more strong than in the case of paired home-tattoo experience. These bonds lie in the association of the person getting a tattoo with the larger imagined community, with the whole subculture. As one of the “Homemade Tattoo” group commenters replied to another person who demonstrated his tattoo made by Fuzi “now you’re Fuzi’s property, stylish” (Appendix 3). In other words, the possible reason to actually get homemade tattoos apart from intimate feelings towards the other person is the possibility to become a part of something bigger, of a movement, a certain kind of shared identity, if you wish.

As we might surmise, no shared identity can exist with a single point of reference, and homemade tattoo is not the exception. Apart from the tattoo itself, the phenomenon has a number of aspects that contribute to the general picture. One of these aspects is the tool – a tattoo machine. It might take years for an average person to master a tattoo machine to the level that will be acceptable in tattoo studios. With homemade tattoo this seems not to be the case. Even though in

some cases the quality of works falls under the direct examination of tattoo-lovers (“I recall the tale about naked king every time I see something like this” – a comment about tattoo by Fuzi, Appendix 3), on a more general scale neither the quality, not the tool with which a tattoo is made do not have great importance. Homemade tattoos are equally done with professional machines, with hand-built machines or with stick-n-poke method. The key to the understanding of this variety of equally accepted tools lies in the fact that all of them in the exactly same way provide the agency – they serve as instruments for tattooing. In opposition to parlour tattooing, homemade tattoo ideology does not require mastering of the instrument to become active on the creative level. In other words, the tool, no matter what it is, not the skill gives right to enter the stage.

Another component of homemade tattooing that played an important role in the analysis was the location. The setting in which tattoo is made have been noticed to play several important roles for homemade tattoo enthusiasts. First, to continue with the topic of liminality mentioned above, location, and specifically home, is seen by some tattoo artists as a place of comfort and coziness. This, I believe, serves as a catalyst for the stage of trust establishing, which is an essential condition for the emergence of shared spirituality around the process. Just like the ritual dances and singings during the tattooing process in tribes of Maori help to relieve the pain of those getting their mokos, for homemade tattoo atmosphere of peace and comfort helps to de-officialize the procedure, create the connection between a tattooer and person receiving a tattoo on the basis of equality, relaxation and feeling of fellowship.

The other meaning of location for homemade tattooing is rooted in the counter culture essence of the style. In general, the usage of places that are not generally suitable for tattooing becomes a way to contrapose mainstream tattoo culture. This self-definition through the contrast has a goal to state the idea of officiality avoidance, state the underground-ness of the movement through the display of the liberties it might offer. More than that, as in case of Fuzi tattooing, location is often used as a part of the performance, the only aim of which is to grant a sufficient experience of authentic art style to the person who is receiving a tattoo.

Next step that is required to be taken to fully grasp the phenomenon is the ability of homemade tattoos to carry certain codes, which, surprisingly do not actually depend on the design. If in the case, for example, prison tattoo, these body modifications can be used as a sign system with a direct dependency of the tattoo itself and the message it carries, it is not so simple for homemade tattoos. This sign system of prison tattoos can be best characterized with a WYSISWYG user interface system that are used in various fields of computing. WYSIWYG stands for What You See Is What You Get, its main principle is that during the process of the development of the document or a webpage, the layout of the editor interface will determine the 43

layout of the final product. Similar with prison tattoos, they can’t carry the meaning different to one that is defined by the code, by the sign-system itself. In prison tattoo there exist hundreds of designs where each has one constant meaning. This system is indeed useful for hierarchy and status orientation purposes and can be called a sign-system of the first order. Homemade tattoos, on the contrary, can also be seen as a sign-system, but of a completely different nature. Main meaning of a homemade tattoo tends to be located in the realm of attitude. From this viewpoint, for homemade tattoo as a sign-system there might exist endless number of designs which, similarly to 1 and 0 used in computing, will carry only two basic meanings – the inclusion or non-inclusion in the category of homemade tattoo enthusiasts. In a way this 1 and 0 are difficult to achieve by the mere of only observing the tattoo, for the full diagnosis it is required to know that attitude of the tattoo- carrier. This requirement of additional information may serve a reason why homemade tattoo can be treated as a sign-system of the second order.

In the same time, if we put aside the aspect of attitude, the very issue of identification of homemade tattoo might be an interesting process to follow. This style, as we already know, is noticeable for the designs that can be characterized as sloppy or imperfect. From here on, people indeed fall into two categories – for those who can identify homemade tattoo style and those who cannot. First are purely Goffman’s “wise” people (1963), capable of decoding the language and using the advantages of this decoding in form of the interaction with consideration of the knowledge obtained. For these educated people, tattoo becomes a status symbol, where, again, status is the possession of the code. An interesting linguistic loop appears here, which functioning in a way maintains the whole system. If, on the other hand an individual does not possess required knowledge of the code and fails to identify the style of homemade tattoo – the result must also include the unawareness of the attitudes and homemade tattoo ideology. This shallow incorrect detection can lead to stigmatization, where homemade tattoo will be seen simply as a tattoo of low quality, by its only existence polluting and “killing the culture” (Appendix 4).

Now returning back to the pursue of authenticity that homemade tattoo is aimed on, it might be said that a number of contradictions are found here as well. The data from the social network comments have shown a certain ambiguity in the approach towards “passing” (Goffman 1963) or not “passing” the tattoo art piece as part of homemade style. First, it has to be noticed that the perfect open-mind attitude discussed in this thesis can be rarely met in real life of “Homemade Tattoo” community. And so this ambiguity is basically centered on a tradeoff of a certain kind, where different people when discussing homemade tattoos refer to different determining values important for them. In some cases they address to the style flaws, that, in their opinion, do not correspond the style, in other – they point to the lack of skill of the tattooer. It was also found out

that the issues of extension of homemade tattoo towards mainstream with the help of celebrities and appears in the media can be perceived as a threat to the authenticity of the subculture. In other words, the institutionalization and establishment of the counter-culture is seen as a problem, with only possible solution of exclusion of the manifestations that elaborate this extension from the counter-culture. In general, these inherent characteristics with a hint of mainstream, that homemade tattoo subculture possesses are basically seen as deviations, however without them subculture’s functionality will be under question. This dualism of authentic-inauthentic, or homemade-parlour, seems to be a fat land of homemade tattoo. The opposites of it nourish each other, creating a support for each other to lean on. Without one, it will take a great effort to define the true-ness of the second.

In general, in this thesis homemade tattoo is seen as something deeper than a kind of body modification and even deeper than another average style of tattooing. Homemade tattooing has its own ideology, and best work to describe it would be liquid. It has no solid state, it changes and evolves together with the attitudes of people that take part in the development of homemade tattoo. And this participation does not necessarily has to be intentional, even furious outcries that contain nothing but contempt are still affecting this subculture and changing it. But in the same time this ideology is real ideology – a set of ideas that influence how culture participants act. And the fact that due to its ever-changing essence it is incredibly difficult to capture it in the still state is completely different story. I agree, evidences of it remain, indeed tattoo removal is not ubiquitously practiced so far, but how is it possible to capture the feelings that people have towards their “homemades” in a certain period of time? How is it possible to measure the scale of their affection, the level of the connection that a homemade tattoo maintains? Well, taking into account the values of homemade tattooing, I would say that this doesn’t actually matter. There is one aspect in which homemade tattoo and parlour tattoo agree – the meaning of a tattoo belongs to its carrier exclusively. And away from the matters of connection, magic-ness and spirituality, the fact that the meaning of a tattoo that, of course, does not have to be secret, belongs to a person is its true sacredness.

Epilogue

I got my first tattoo when I was 18. Prior to that there was one year of thinking about this decision, reading forums and literature, finding information about styles, artists and techniques. My first tattoo was a swallow by a design borrowed from Sailor Jerry, with slight reworking, of course. I prepared myself theoretically for this big event in my life, however as soon as in the parlour the needle touched my skin I realized that I knew nothing. The incredible mixture of emotions I was feeling contained excitement, pain and a pinch of nervousness. But the one that exceeded all the others was hope. I have to confess, that the decision to get tattooed was not merely driven by some symbolic beliefs that I had, probably 50% of my confidence was still coming from my opinion that tattoos are cool, however those remaining 50% were deeper. I knew the history of sailors’ tattoos and knew that swallow for them was a symbol of journey and successful return back home, as it was the first bird they saw when approaching the land, at least the legend says so. And so my secret aim of getting this specific design was to see the world, to travel and maintain connection with my homeland, my family. Believe it or not, but next summer I spent in the US, this was a triumph, it worked! In the same time, my interest in tattoos was increased with the appearance of thematic online communities in social media, where one could find exhaustive information about the culture of tattooing, biggest contemporary personalities standing behind it and simply discuss the subject with like-minded people. The culture of tattooing became engrossing my life, however it was probably this plenitude of information, which was restraining me from getting more tattoos.

My next one, which is the apotheosis of my tattoo life story, was made in January of 2014, when I was visiting my family in Ukraine during the winter break. By that time I already knew about homemade tattoo, knew how to make a tattoo machine using an electric motor from any kind of home appliance, how to sanitize equipment, how to heal ready tattoos etc. The very idea of tattooing at home seemed to me very interesting, I suddenly realized that this is a perfect way to emphasize the connection with someone. Soon I took this concept of silent vow and explained to a dear person of mine, offering to tattoo me with a machine that we had to make together. After I received the consent, we prepared the materials for the engineering part, bought tattoo ink and needles, opened a bottle of champagne and began the process. Today, when the tattoo is made and healed long time ago, I can look back without prior adverse excitement and analyze what happened that day.

First, I have to say that my homemade tattoo is a set of simple line shapes: an envelope, a heart and an arrow, located on the left ankle. The actual meaning of the design was never discussed between me and the person who tattooed me. This interesting detail can here serve a bulletproof

evidence that the connection required for the creation of proper, authentic homemade tattoo experience was reached long before the agreement to make this tattoo. For both of us at that time previous sentence would have probably ended right before the word “required”, as our silent agreement for us meant mutual understanding and certain spirituality. I have to also to mention that apart from the design issues, the “sacredness” of the whole process, starting with tattoo machine building and finishing with putting healing gel on the ready tattoo, was considered by both as a great sacrament, where every part is equally meaningful. This prudence and feeling of responsibility for each other was something that accompanied us throughout each stage of our homemade tattooing experience.

One of the main points that we were discussing while making a tattoo machine of an old electric toothbrush was the fact that in the result the ink will stay under the skin forever. Without doubt, this idea would be approached completely differently by different people, but in my case I was excited with the possibility to create something that will last longer than my consciousness. But that was not the idea of relative eternalness of the tattoo that was main during that day. The major role was given to the matter of trust that we discussed while tattooing was carried out. On the other hand, this trust is so important only because of the long lasting nature of a tattoo, that one is expected to choose wisely and carefully calculate all pros and cons before proceeding to actual body modification. More than that, the thought that my body, with which I maintain quite close relations since I was born, is modified by a person that has a certain value for my social life became for me the embodiment of mutual self-devotion, probably with the help of the responsibility we had to accept by agreeing on this step. Pain in this case, I think, can be seen as a clear material manifestation of this self-devotion, a barrier that I had to overcome, just like during the ritualistic initiation tattooing of Samoan tribes.

I have also to confirm that during the process of tattooing, indeed a feeling of a certain role redistribution, which then after, when the tattoo was finished happened again. First when tattooing, it seemed that everybody was performing their job. I was sitting calmly trying not to move my leg despite the pricking that was tangible and made my inborn reflexes try to move the ankle from the danger zone. And the person who was tattooing me was concentrated on the process, trying to deliver best quality of work possible. After the tattoo was ready, there happened a sort of “reunion”, where the emotions were again freely expressed. The only difference was that at that moment there existed a tattoo that was a reminder of an experience that we gained together. This reminder, I think can be best described as an anchor, upon which a shared identity originates.

And if to define the emotions I experience towards my homemade tattoo I would use words „caring“, „responsible“ and „confidential“, I would define the act of tattoing we carried out as 47

„microculture“. By „micro“ here I mean rather not a part of something bigger, of „macro“, but a closed phenomenon of cultural origin, autonomous and eligible to exist on ots own. The tattoo we made formed a sign-system of the third order, a system in which a number of „wise“ people knowing the real code is restricted to two, and only after them come into play people possessing the knowledge of homemade tattoo and able to identify it, who are then followed by those able to see simply a bad quality tattoo. By „closed“ I also mean that the tattoo itself is all-sufficient to carry certain meaning with no help from homemade tattoo ideology, its value is not in shared identity building power or attitude/status examination, but in an intimate importance derived from both meaning and result.

In a way it becomes a polis, a city-state inside of a state, with it’s own law codex and political system. This autonomy on one hand confirms the main principles of homemade tattooing with the easiness of establishig the meaning system behind the tattoo, but on the other hand it questions the very existence oh the phenomenon. If this particular „microculture“ can be so easily separated from the general concept of homemade tattoing by stressing the level of understanding that external actors will never reach, will then the concept at the whole exist on its own? Here the answer in my opinion is yes and no in the same time. „Yes“ comes from the fact that homemade tattoing does not consist from the „microcultures“ exclusively, there are still artists like Fuzi, who operate on a worldwide scale and promote aesthetics of the style. These artists probably won’t strive to establish a certain intimacy when tattooing globally. In this way the pure and value-free homemade tattooing as an art style may survive despite the lack of connections it is supposed to carry. On the other hand, „no“, homemade tattoing will always contain a certain part of affinity in each separate act of tattoing, notwithstanding the industrialized approach of artists. The example is the attractiveness of the same artist Fuzi, who is beloved and trusted by a big number of followers of his „ignorant style“. In this case, this fondness serves as a trust gained in absentia of the object of trust. Then if this kind of affinity can be extracted from any act of tattooing, then each of these acts can be reduced to a „microculture“ with its own incomprehensible for the outsiders values. Thus homemade tattoing at a large scale will be nothing but the combination of these „microcultures“ tied together by one similarity – they all possess meanings inaccessible for others. Whether or no, the question of existence of pure homemade tattooing idea becomes a matter of philosophy and personal attitude.

This personal example, of course sets a certain level of prejudice, which might threaten the whole analysis carried out above, however I am sure that without it the latter won’t be possible. This experience helped me not only fully understand how homemade tattooing is performed, but also made it easier to project these personal remarks on a larger scale.

Appendices.

Public discourse examples taken from comment sections from the public page Homemade Tattoo:

Appendix 1. Extract 1.

Photos of Scarlett Johansen demonstrating fresh tattoo by Fuzi

Noooo

And on the other side she should tattoo “fuck all”

Good one

Not really LUCKY

Scarlett?

Johansen?

Hey, this is FUZI

Ahaha)

Hey, this is shit

I wish the font was a bit more interesting and in general more straight

Portak*

*”Portak” is a term originated in criminal sphere and means tattoo, in everyday use usually means tattoo of a low quality

Appendix 1. Extract 1. Continuation

Googled tattoos of celebrities. Laughed.

Isn’t it Photoshop?

Also homemade tattoo)

Anastasiya, I heard she already fixed it

Ocean, I saw this photo but with another tattoo

Portachina*, dammit!

She’d better took a photo of her tits

This is the only thing I like in her

It looks like there are no tits there

Where have you seen tits there?) :D

Sir, ++++++ to you) you’re right)

So-so tattoo

Totally nothing

So-so? This is simply crap!

*”Portachina” – exaggerated form of portak

Appendix 1. Extract 1. Continuation I don’t understand why one would PR that?!

All the point is the carrier– SCARLETT!!!

The thing of “homemade” tattoo is that they are made not with a machine but just with a needle))and what is made with a machine is different

T-shirt and hand is different

She’s a lover of partaki in general

What a horror!!!

She made that for a beer

Nadezhda, Those are not partaki))) this is the style))

She looks like Scarlett Johansen

Vadim, as a designer I can’t understand that. When I was 17 I tattooed a letter on myself=) with a needle and it looked better. This is possibly for “admirers” or like Okhlobystin* said “meaning of tattoo?they are made while being drunk”

Nadezhda, I’m not an admirer of THESE tattoos, but someone likes them)))

Vadim, these are like lowered Dzigas, when you have no opportunity to buy a normal car and first you tell yourself that this is normal car and then you’re trying to persuade the others

Alexander, it is something different here)))these tattoos are sometimes not less expensive than those made with a machine)))it is like not to have money for amazing supercar, but buy a retro car instead for the same money))

*Russian actor

Appendix 1. Extract 1. Continuation

Did it herself?

Scarlett Johansen?

Vadim, Prioras* are also sometimes invested with a lot of money)

Huh)) Yes)) this is the matter of taste of each person)))

Total shit) Fashion for portaki)

Arthur, yes, this is sad

Victoria, there is a guy who lives in my house his name is Vovan and he’s homemade tattoo artist

Arthur, tattooing for a bottle of beer?

Victoria, if you come in sportpants – for free

Arthur, ahahah

Amvar Kubarov, language – Russian, city – Moscow))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))

Real esthete tattoo – gorgeous!

*Lada Priora (a model of a car)

Appendix 2. Extract 2.

Tattoos made with borrowed designs by FUZI

Appendix 2. Extract 2. Continuation

Fuzi..

Dammit, stealing designs from fuzi. Weirdos

Fuzi is good

Funny)

Alina, dear, calm down and do something yourself except of opening your smelly cave))) get lost!!!

Roman, I’m doing myself and doing without extra directions. And doing my own things, my hands are growing from proper place

Alina, may Allah extend your legs, baby!!!

Amazing conversation style

Is there anyone tattooing from Kaluga

Alina, not for your treating, darling

Alina, is it bad to steal or what?

Alexander, this is a matter of ethics. Yes, bad.

Alina, ok thanks))

Fuzi

Someone please send the picture of skateboard cracked in halves :c

Appendix 2. Extract 2. Continuation

Sasha, I don’t know you, but if you’re riding – don’t make a tattoo of a skateboard, this will be top disrespect to it. Peace

I ride, but will tattoo not myself but a friend skater. It’s ok.

Alina, another question, you’re saying you never used someone else’s flashes?

Sasha, it’s all tight then)

Fuzi. Is when you see a tattoo and think “Damn, nice idea, so cool…But I would never make same tattoo to myself”

*Image of skateboard*

Alexander, guys won’t understand and mom would scold the style?

Maria, there are two variants: 1-flash is designed by client and I always state that it is not mine but client’s, 2-flash is bought/ordered from another artist (e.g. with flash by Andrey Svetov) and I tattoo with his permit and of course state. But these are rather exceptions, more often I tattoo with my own flashes

Guys won’t get, mom won’t care. Shame for oneself (and no, in the same time, no! this is the style, the approach!) to carry this on body

Huh, I’m just drunk and too radical, too subjective

But the fact is the fact – Fuzi is easily recognized, however contradictive he is

Alina, good for you, client brought the flash and I made. Just saying, own flashes are own ideas, not simply copied medieval engravings

Appendix 2. Extract 2. Continuation

Maria, what a misfortune =(

Alina, misfortune doesn’t come alone

Alexander, the style is close to me too. I think I would get a tattoo from him

Maria, threats in comments, I like it =)

Blue, do you have more?

Alina, seems you didn’t understand, peace to you, and learn to play with imagination, everything is too down-to-earth

Maria, you with your imagination is stealing flashes, this is cool)))) you could have stylized them a bit, not simply copy

Igor, read above, dumbass

Sasha, google

Maria, ok((( it didn’t work to show off

Igor, don’t forget a shovel, shorty, or you’ll be kicked out from the sandbox!

Igor, schoolkid)

Roman, ok glass)

Igor, what a rhymer)))go read books, shoe)

Appendix 2. Extract 2. Continuation

Is it your flash?

German, all questions in PM, will answer with pleasure)

No, I’m interested in something else. You’re talking about someone’s ideas, in the same time among your works I see a drawing that looks like works of Family Ink. And it is not signed in the way that it can be seen that the idea was taken from aside

German, I had an order to rework and combine these flashes

Oh, I didn’t notice that it is even in public page of Family Ink. Then everything’s fine c:

German, it is ok)

Dammit, and I thought I tattoo crap when drunk)))

It’s all fine, just keep lying that it’s punk style

Dammit

Fuzi would appreciate

Tattoo Fuzi’s flashed is goddamn moveton

Ah, Mogilev, then it doesn’t matter

Appendix 3. Extract 3.

Fresh tattoos by glorious Fuzi

What the crap

What’s with the leg

It is fashion, the worse the more fashionable

Fuzi is a hole

))Fuzi is giving)

Appendix 3. Extract 3. Continuation

Tattoo Fuzi on your asshole

For those didn’t get, “animals” above woman, which is in the same time is a snake when you look from another angle, and she’s crying because such a centaur is leaving her, who is also by the way not fully a man. Funny animals and childish humor

Lost, yes looks like no one got it

And what’s with the leg?

I don’t understand where from right front leg is growing

It’s ok, required associations are not formed yet, when they’ll be 35-40 they’ll solve these rebuses easily

Ah, you’re talking about the tattoo

Fuzi tattooed me last year, I’d want more, I’m jealous) did he visit us again?

Filipp, now you’re Fuzi’s property, stylish

I recall the tale about naked king every time I see something like this

This is his girlfriend or something like this!

Nikita, are you talking about the execution or the design?

Oleg, more about the execution, designs are different for different people

Appendix 4. Extract 4.

Designs for very low prices for most desperate beggars!

Well this is total shit, why are you killing the culture, scums, enough

This can be stolen, why to buy?

Don’t do this anymore

For homosexuals or what?

For “red zone” inhabitants

Sexy, when you’re over 40

Appendix 4. Extract 4. Continuation

Shit

Is there anyone from Yaroslavl who tattoos “homemade”?

In principle, even if for living you collect bottles or play on the pot in the subway – for one month you can save enough for normal tattoo. However there is this kind of people who like to take both advantages, this flashset is for 100% for this kind of people like a brand by which you can tell the status

Tattoos, in the end, are what they were from the beginning: visual indication of personal status. “what does your tattoo mean?” “it means that I’m cool and yours means that you’re poor”. So, down with the parlour art! Viva homemade, true status for free, i.e. for true status

Three quarters of the content of this public is killing the culture with the quality of works, which is becoming a norm, with their boring designs that repeat each other, with copying of works of others. And big part of the subscribers bear out all this with their approval and feeble mind. Dumbasses, who consider “normal” to steal someone’s works, owners of “unique” tattoos with a deer and blockheads cheering for realism only, banal provincials and other rubbish. And for some reason no one is crying because of that. If you don’t understand the form, don’t understand anything in the development of tattooing, why then are you showing all this ignorance? The message is following – suck! P.S. Plots are always subjective and are of authors choice exclusively, you don’t understand – pass by. Ed, give us more!

Artem, like God’s prayer.

If someone will get top left – post a photo

Masterpiece of art of cocks, definitely

Appendix 5. Extract 5.

Picture shows tattoos made by Fuzi

Fuzzi)

I’d add wood burning! I really like it as a movement!

Koditon, ahahahahahaha)))))

Well Fuzzi is far from being homemade tattoo artist)) or it is that all non-realism is homemade?

Appendix 5. Extract 5. Continuation

Aristarkh, there is a certain esthetics and our community is about it

Homemade tattoo, what kind of esthetics? I thought homemade tattoo is that is made at home.. why Fuzzi is here then? According to your logic Adams is also homemade tattoo artist?

Koditon, well it is like that) even photo of Fergus is from that damn article)

I want this guy in guy!

Fuzi is with one “z”, you smartasses

Ternovoy, really??

Aristarkh, no

Appendix 6. Interviews with tattoo artists taken from Youtube show “Domashnyaya Tatuirovka”

Interview with tattoo artist Andrey https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IzzK2Gxovrw Volkov

Interview with tattoo artist Mikhail https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QyrTcVaQARw Kravchenko

Interview with tattoo artist Alisa Sakhar https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbYe22a2mnY

Interview with tattoo artist Jura Gritskikh https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_9XleRROws

Interview with tattoo artist Edgar Maksimjuk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9Si93N2uVQ

Interview with tattoo artist Lesha Ermolaev https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBFLWsgo0P0

Interview with tattoo artist Denis Shkilya https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sa-9SkoXENo

Interview with tattoo artist Dima https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPx01HtqA2Y Romashkin

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