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Home , Alfredo Stroessner, Argentine Army, Basilio Lami Dozo, Climate of Argentina, Eduardo Lonardi, Emilio Eduardo Massera

GUERRA SUCIA DE (1976) Chaired by Donghyun (Paul) Jeong

Session XXIII

Guerra Sucia de Argentina (1976)

Topic A: End of Peronismo in Argentina

Topic B:

Committee Overview government, have gathered in your first cabinet meeting to discuss the fate of La Guerra Sucia, which translates to Argentina as it navigates through the most “The ,” was a period of state- tumultuous period of its history. sponsored terrorism against perceived Throughout the committee, you will be dissidents and left-wing (“izquierdista”) faced with various crises, such as foreign activists that started in 1974 under President interference, economic failures, domestic Juan Perón and lasted until the fall of the uprising, and internal conflicts. in 1983. Amidst economic failures and politically-incompetent leaders, far-right Parliamentary Procedure (“derechista”) military leaders were able to Parliamentary procedure for gain control of the nation after overthrowing specialized committees will be more relaxed the democratically-elected civilian with a focus on more moderated caucuses. government. The military junta now faces Delegates will represent influential problems from within and abroad. Will individuals during la Guerra Sucia with all Argentina revive itself from the worst portfolio powers that come with it. For more economic and political crisis in its history, or information on JHUMUNC parliamentary will the military junta collapse upon itself procedure, please note the last few pages of and push Argentina into destitution? the Conference guide or consult “Model UN It is now March 29, 1976, and the new Resources” under the “Resources” tab on military junta is the sole executor of our website, jhumunc.org. legitimate violence within Argentina. You, as the leaders of this new Argentine

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Delegate Biographies:

Jorge Rafael Videla , the chief commander of the Air Force.7 Agosti was part of the First Military Videla joined the National Military Junta and assumed executive control over the College in 1942 and rose in ranks within the nation along with two other members of the with an uneventful record. He junta. The Air Force, due to its smaller size and became the Head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of its nature, had been less active in Operation the Argentine Armed Forces in 1975.1 In 1976, Condor and associated political repression.8 President Isabel Perón appointed him as the Lieutenant-General of the Army, the top command within the Argentine Army.2 He is Chief of Staff of the Argentine Army part of the First Military Junta, representing the Viola was born to Italian immigrants and Army, and formally became the President of joined the Army, and was appointed as the Argentina on March 29th.3 While he holds the Chief of Staff of the Army by Jorge Videla in title of the President, in practice he shares power August 1975.9 He served as the second-in- with the other two heads of the junta.4 command of the Argentine Army under the First Junta. He would later go on to replace Videla as the Lieutenant General and the head Admiral of the Argentine Navy of the Second Junta.10 Massera joined the Naval Military School in 1942 and rose in ranks in the Navy. In 1974, he became the Admiral of the Navy, the highest Chief of Staff of the Argentine Navy position in the Argentine Navy.5 During the Lambruschini entered the Naval Military 1976 coup d’état, Massera was part of the First School in 1942 and served as the Captain aboard Military Junta and ruled Argentina ARA General Belgrano.11 He was promoted to with Videla and Agosti.6 Chief of Staff of the Navy in 1975 by Admiral Massera, which made him the second-in- Orlando Ramón Agosti command within the Navy.12 He would later Brigadier General of the replace Massera and become the Admiral and Agosti graduated from Military Aviation the Naval representative of the Second Junta.13 School in 1947 and rose in ranks in the Air Force. In January of 1976, he was appointed as the

1 Seoane, Maria. El Dictador: La Historia Secreta y Publica de Jorge 7 Sims, Calvin. "Orlando Agosti, 73, Argentine Junta Member". Rafael Videla. (Penguin Random House, 1 July 2012). . (11 October 1997). 2 Tikkanen, Amy, et al. Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Jorge Rafael 8 Ibid. Videla”. (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009). 9 "Roberto Viola, 69, Who Headed Argentine Military 3 Ibid. ". The New York Times. (2 October 1994). 4 Seoane, Maria. El Dictador: La Historia Secreta y Publica de Jorge 10 Ibid. Rafael Videla. (Penguin Random House, 1 July 2012). 11 “Murio Lambruschini, miembro de la segunda junta militar.” 5 Viau, Susana. “En el mismo barco.” Pagina 12, (14 December, La Nacion. (17 August 2004). 1998). 12 Ibid. 6 Seoane, Maria. El Dictador: La Historia Secreta y Publica de Jorge 13 Ibid. Rafael Videla. (Penguin Random House, 1 July 2012).

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Omar Domingo Rubens Graffigna Chief of Staff of the Argentine Air Force Brigadier Major of the Argentine Air Force Graffigna joined the Military Aviation Dozo was born to Syrian and Lebanese School and became the Chief of Staff of the Air immigrants who moved to Argentina post- Force in 1976.14 He was second-in-command in I. Dozo joined the air force and rose the Air Force under the First Junta and would in ranks and participated in the 1976 coup later replace Agosti as the Brigadier General and d’état.20 As a high-ranking officer, Dozo goes on the Air Force branch of the Second Junta.15 to replace Graffigna as the Brigadier General and the Air Force branch of the Third Junta.21 Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Division General of the Second Army Corp Albano Eduardo Harguindeguy Galtieri joined the National Military Minister of the Interior College at 17 to study civil engineering and Harguindeguy graduated from the served in the Army in the engineering branch.16 National Military College in 1943 and rose in By 1975 he became commander of the Argentine ranks within the Army.22 He was appointed as engineering corps. He strongly supported the the head of the Federal Police in 1975 by Isabel 1976 coup d’état and became the Division Perón and as the Interior Minister by Jorge General of the Second Army Corp under a Videla in 1976, following the death of Cesario military junta.17 Cardozo, former Interior Minister.23 As the Interior Minister, Harguindeguy maintains Jorge Isaac Anaya control over the Federal Police.24 Chief of Naval Operations Anaya joined the Naval Military School Otto Carlos Paladino and rose in the naval ranks. In 1955, Anaya Secretary of the State Intelligence participated in a coup against Perón, in which Paladino took office as the secretary of he became known for torturing dissidents. He intelligence in 1976. Secretariat of State worked for the CIA in an anti-communist Intelligence (SIDE), the intelligence agency of program afterwards and commanded several Argentina, was involved in various intelligence ships throughout his career.18 By 1976, he was collecting operations under Operation Condor the Chief of Naval Operations and commanded in coordination with Operation Condor the Naval Police and Naval Intelligence. He member states.25 would go on to become the Admiral, replacing Lambruschini as the naval representative of the Third Junta.19

14 Juzgado Central de Instrucción Número 5, . “Sumario 21 Ibid. 19/97.” 14 October 1998. 22 Roberto Santoro. “MURIÓ EL REPRESOR 15 Ibid. HARGUINDEGUY.” Tea & Deportea, October 29, 2012. 16 Ibid. 23 Miles, Nick. “Argentine Junta Member Confined.” BBC. (13 17 Ibid. July 2004). 18 "Murió Jorge Isaac Anaya, impulsor de Malvinas". Perfil. (10 24 Roberto Santoro. “MURIÓ EL REPRESOR January 2008). HARGUINDEGUY.” Tea & Deportea, October 29, 2012. 19 Ibid. 25 Seoane, Maria. El Dictador: La Historia Secreta y Publica de Jorge 20 Juzgado Central de Instrucción Número 5, Spain. “Sumario Rafael Videla. (Penguin Random House, 1 July 2012). 19/97.” 14 October 1998.

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Ramón Juan Camps José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz Chief of the Provincial Police Minister of Economy Camps was an Argentine army colonel Martinez de Hoz was an influential who led the Buenos Aires police. He oversaw economist and businessman in Argentina. In twenty detention centers and worked closely 1968, he became the CEO of Acindar, one of the with Batallón de Inteligencia 601.26 The Buenos largest steel manufacturers in Argentina, and Aires police force had extensive local brutally oppressed the union workers of intelligence network and carried out frequent Acindar, murdering hundreds of workers using illegal detentions and of journalists and the family connections with the military.31 In suspected leftist activists.27 1975 he was appointed as the Economy Minister and endorsed neoliberal economic policies, César Augusto Guzzetti believing trade barriers prevented the Minister of Foreign Relations Argentine economy from prospering.32 He also Guzzetti was appointed as the Foreign had personal connections with David Minister by the First Junta after the 1976 coup Rockefeller, which he used to secure major loans d’état. He maintained contact with Henry for the Argentine government from Chase Kissinger in attempts to mitigate the concerns Manhattan and IMF.33 by the US Congress over violations in Argentina prior to the coup and Robert Charles Hill under the military junta.28 Ambassador of the to Argentina Hill was a Republican diplomat who had Carlos Guillermo Suárez Mason served as the US Ambassador to several Latin Commander of the Batallón de Inteligencia 601 American countries. He was deployed as the US Suarez Mason joined the army and Ambassador to Argentina by President Richard became director of military intelligence in 1972. Nixon.34 Hill advocated for human rights in As part of the military intelligence, he partook even as Secretary of State Henry in the Operativo Independencia against left-wing Kissinger told South American regimes that the guerrillas and was appointed as the US would turn a blind eye to human rights Commander of First Army Corp by President abuses.35 As the American ambassador, Hill will Isabel Perón.29 Under the military junta, he was act as the primary point of contact for the the commander of the Batallón de Inteligencia 601, Argentine government with the American a special military intelligence service that government. infiltrated guerrilla groups and participated in assassinations and disappearances of dissidents.30

26 “Ramon Camps: el peor de todos.” Terra Actualidad. 18 March 31 “Significativa Propuesta realizada a Acindar.” Rio Negro. 25 2006. January 2009. 27 Ibid. 32 Rapoport, Mario. “La saga de los Martínez de Hoz y el 28 Campbell, Duncan. “Kissinger approved Argentine Dirty banquero arrepentido.” Buenos Aires Economico. 5 May 2010. War.” . 5 December 2003. 33 Ibid. 29 “Fallecio ayer el ex general Suarez Mason.” La Nacion. 22 June 34 Anderson, Martin. “Kissinger and the Dirty War.” The Nation. 2005. 31 October 1987. 30 Andersen, Martin. Dossier secreto. (Westview Press, 1993.) 35 Ibid.

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Robert Scherrer the Argentine military officers.43 He has FBI Legal Attaché in Buenos Aires command over the Cité Catholique in Argentina Scherrer was an FBI special agent who was and members of the OAS from Algeria that he tasked with ensuring that Operation Condor directed to Argentina following the end of the was executed successfully.36 He was stationed Algeria War.44 in the US Embassy in Buenos Aires and was tasked with gathering intelligence from local Gustavo Valdivieso Quehille sources for the FBI.37 As the FBI agent directing Ambassador of to Argentina operations in Argentina, Scherrer coordinated Quehille was the Chilean Ambassador to operations of the FBI and CIA with Argentine Argentina appointed by Chilean and Chilean intelligence agencies. Scherrer also Pinochet in 1975. The Chilean government is the had extensive sources and connections across central actor in Operation Condor, its the intelligence agencies in Operation Condor.38 intelligence agency cooperating actively with the Argentine counterparts.45 As the Françoise de la Gosse ambassador, Quehille will be the primary point Ambassador of France to Argentina of contact for the Argentine government to the Gosse was the French Ambassador to Argentina Chilean government. during the military junta’s rule of the nation.39 The French government officially took the Raúl Eduardo Iturriaga Neumann position of condemning the military Deputy Director of DINA dictatorship but continued to maintain a Iturriaga was a general and military mission to Argentina.40 The Direction de deputy director of Dirección de Inteligencia la Surveillance du Territoire (DST), French Nacional (DINA), the Chilean intelligence intelligence agency, is present and cooperating service.46 He was involved in Operation with Argentine and other South American Colombo in 1975 in which DINA “disappeared” intelligence agencies.41 The French Ambassador political dissidents who had fled to Argentina.47 will be the primary contact for the Argentine By 1976, Iturriaga was in control of a network of government with the French government, DINA agents in Argentina coordinating with military, and intelligence. Argentine intelligence agency SIDE under Operation Condor.48 Georges Grasset Chaplain of the Organisation Armée Secrète Grasset was a far-right French Catholic fundamentalist priest and an influential leader of the Organisation Armée Secrète.42 He was the personal confessor of Jorge Videla and maintained a close relationship with much of

36 Dinges, John; Bourdon, William. Les Années Condor, comment 43 Robin, Marie-Monique. “Escadrons de la mort, l’école Pinochet et ses alliés ont propagé le terrorisme sur trois continents. (La française.” Algeria Watch (13 December 2003). Découverte, 2005). 44 Horacio, Verbitsky. “Breaking the silence: The 37 Ibid. in Argentina and the dirty war.” Open Democracy. 28 July 2005. 38 Ibid. 45 Abramovici, Pierre. "Operation Condor Explained — Latin 39 “Disparitions : un ancien agent français mis en cause.” Le America: the 30 years' dirty war". Le Monde diplomatique Figaro. February 6, 2007 46 Claudia Lagos and Patrick J. McDonneln. “Pinochet-era 40 Tomasevski, Katerina. An End to : Strategies for its general is caught.” Los Angeles Times. 3 August 2007 Eradication. (Zed Books, 1988). 47 La Gran Mentira. (Equipo Nikzor, 2 February 2005). 41 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 42 Horacio, Verbitsky. “Breaking the silence: The Catholic Church in Argentina and the dirty war.” Open Democracy. 28 July 2005.

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Reynaldo Bignone Carlos Alberto Lacoste Lieutenant-General Lieutenant-General Bignone was a general in the Argentine Army.49 Lacoste was an Argentine navy vice-admiral He was involved in operations during the junta, and politician who briefly served as interim and worked his way through the ranks to play a President of Argentina. In the central role in the planning and execution of an then head of state General Roberto Viola was upcoming invasion. In the ousted in a coup d'état, and Lacoste served as future, Bignone will be installed as the final interim President of Argentina before the president of the military junta and successor to succession of Lieutenant General Leopoldo in the wake of the Falklands Galtieri 50. He has connections with several War. 49 football (soccer) associations, including FIFA and CONMEBOL. 50

49 Claudia Lagos and Patrick J. McDonneln. “Pinochet-era general is caught.” Los Angeles Times. 3 August 2007

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Topic A: End of peronismo in Argentina

Introduction favor of them as long as they offered him political support.54 Throughout most of the mid-20th Through these policies, Perón gained century, Argentina had been ruled by the enough political support to be a formidable influential president Juan Perón. His death contender against the conservative and the succession of the presidency to his opposition.55 In the 1946 elections, the incompetent wife and vice president, along centrist Unión Civica Radical (“Radical with worsening economic and political Civic Union,” or UCR) party, far-left problems, led to the military coup in 1976. socialist and communist parties, and the Historical Background moderate right-wing parties created an alliance to keep Perón away from power.56 Rise of Juan Perón However, using his popular support, Perón Juan Perón was born in Buenos Aires secured his victory in the elections, in 1895 and joined the military in 1911.50 He becoming the 29th president of Argentina.57 rose in rank within the military during the 1943 coup, which removed the conservative Argentina Under Perón civilian government led by President Ramón Under Perón’s presidency, the Castillo, in which he played a significant Confederación General del Trabajo part.51 His influence within the new military (“General Confederation of Labor,” or CGT), government grew as he expanded his role as the national labor union which played a the head of the Department of Labor, crucial role in bringing Perón to power, was consolidating power by winning the support given significant power by the new of the left-wing activists and labor unions administration. Important government through socially progressive policies.52 He positions were filled by pro-labor union consistently improved the working politicians, and labor unions grew from conditions and sought to give more political 500,000 to 2 million.58 Perón also expanded leverage to the workers over the social security and health insurance, along employers.53 He also won the loyalties of with raising wages, to close the wealth gap.59 labor union leaders by settling disputes in In the few years following his inauguration, the Argentine economy grew

50 Page, Joseph. Perón, a Biography. (Random House, 1983). 55 Keen, Benjamin. A History of (6 ed.). (Boston: 51 Rock, David. Authoritarian Argentina. (University of California Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000), 325. Press, 1993). 56 Ibid. 52 Crawley, Eduardo. A House Divided: Argentina, 1880–1980. )New 57 Ibid. York: St. Martin's Press, 1985). 58 Rock, David. Authoritarian Argentina. (University of California 53 Ibid. Press, 1993). 54 Ibid. 59 Alexander, Robert Jackson. Juan Domingo Perón: A History. (Westview Press, 1979).

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rapidly due to his policies of diversification arrests and torture of members of the and decentralization of the economy as well opposition political party.66 as the development of new industrial sectors.60 His plan, backed by the temporary Revolución Libertadora trade surplus due to the sudden increase in Despite the declining economy and exports to European powers during World the political oppression, Perón won the 1952 War II, achieved a high growth rate and elections by a large margin by appealing to increasing wages, making Perón immensely the CGT and the military.67 However, the popular.61 political stability of Argentina had However, as the relations with the considerably worsened by this point, with strongly anti-communist United States frequent violent demonstrations by the deteriorated amidst American concerns that Peronistas and terrorist attacks. By 1954, Argentina was turning to , Perón lost the support of the Roman coupled with Perón’s efforts to remain Catholic Church (RCC) and the military neutral between the United States and the when he began pushing for controversial , exports to the United States reforms such as the legalization of divorce fell sharply while the imports of capital and became involved in scandal.68 goods needed to fuel the growth of the The tension between peronistas and industrial sector remained high.62 This the opposition climaxed in 1955 with the unfavorable trade wiped out the trade Bombing of the , where a surplus from earlier years, stopping the nationalist faction of the military bombed a wage increase and pushing the Argentine crowd of peronistas gathered in the plaza in economy into stagnation.63 front of (the office of the In order to consolidate power, Perón Argentine president), killing 364 people, oppressed any opposition to his rule. most of whom were civilians.69 This Influenced by the fascist Benito bombing, which was part of a coup attempt Mussolini and , Perón tightened against Perón, elicited a violent response his grasp on power by consolidating the from peronistas, which led to the ransacking labor unions and the media under his of Catholic churches.70 control.64 His oppressive regime exiled or Despite the failure of the first coup blacklisted the inteligencia class, the attempt, Perón was eventually overthrown educated middle class of Argentina, by another military coup later that year and particularly university faculty and went into exile.71 The nationalist faction of students.65 He also relied on extrajudicial the military, backed by the RCC, established

60 Edwin Williamson, The Penguin History of South America. 67 Nohlen, Dieter. Elections in the Americas. (Oxford University (Penguin Books, 1992). Press, 2005). 61 McIntyre, Loren. “Which Way Now for Argentina?” National 68 Rock, David. Authoritarian Argentina. (University of California Geographic. March 1979. Press, 1993). 62 Page, Joseph. Perón, a Biography. (Random House, 1983). 69 Cichero, Daniel E. Bombas sobre Buenos Aires: Gestación y desarollo 63 Rock, David. Authoritarian Argentina. (University of California del bombardeo aéreo sobre la Plaza de Mayo del 16 de junio de 1955. Press, 1993). (Vergara Grupo Zeta, 2005), 163. 64 Eatwell, Roger. Contemporary Political Ideologies. (Continuum 70 Peterson, Harold F. Argentina and the United States: 1810-1960. International Publishing Group, 1999), 196. (SUNY Press, 1964). 65 Rock, David. Authoritarian Argentina. (University of California 71 Lonardi, Eduardo. "The Victor Indicts His Fleeing Foe". Life Press, 1993). Magazine. 17 October 1955. 66 Feitlowitz, Marguerite. A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture. (, 2002).

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a provisional government led by General during his first two terms, such as .72 The new military nationalizing banks, were brought back.81 government became increasingly anti- The temporary economic resurgence was peronista, and ruled until 1973 when it brought to a halt in the 1973 Oil Shock, agreed to allow democratic elections returned, along with the stagnating again.73,74 economy.82 Fall of Peronismo Beginning of the Dirty War Perón’s supporters consisted of Return of Perón people from across the political spectrum, The military junta permitted with his pro-labor union and social reforms democratic elections to be held in 1973 policies popular with the far-left and his amidst public outcry, with the stipulation policies of popular with the far- that peronistas be barred from running.75 right.83 However, the divide between the Héctor Cámpora, an izquierdista who izquierdista and the derechista movements represented Perón, ran and won the election, within peronismo grew as right-wing which allowed Perón to return to Argentina radicals gained power within the CGT and from his exile.76 In 4 months, Cámpora the military.84 This divide erupted into resigned from office, which allowed Perón violence when Perón arrived in Buenos to run for the elections and become the Aires after his 18-year exile. Known as the president once again.77 Ezeiza Massacre, right-wing opened The economy under Perón’s third fire on the crowd of 3.5 million peronistas term began to improve, largely due to the gathered to welcome Perón, targeting efforts by José Ber Gelbard, the advisor to specifically the , a leftist the economy ministry chosen by Perón.78 He peronista guerrilla group.85 sought to find an economic solution that Perón chose to support the satisfied both the CGT and the management derechistas over the left, as the radical right- and created a plan to negotiate price controls wing faction grew in influence in part due to and stimulate the economy.79 The plan was support by the RCC.86 The CGT leadership successful, and inflation, which had run was gradually replaced by derechistas, as rampant since 1955, was brought down to well as the military and various sections of manageable levels.80 As the economy the government. Jose Lopez Rega, a fascist stabilized, the old interventionist policies and adviser to Perón, was given

72 Ibid. 81 Edwin Williamson, The Penguin History of South America. 73 Robben, Antonius C.G.M. Political Violence and Trauma in (Penguin Books, 1992). Argentina. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005). 82 Rock, David. Authoritarian Argentina. (University of California 74 Nohlen, Dieter. Elections in the Americas. (Oxford University Press, 1993). Press, 2005). 83 Christian, Shirley. "Buenos Aires Journal". The New York Times. 75 Ibid. 13 January 1990. 76 Ibid. 84 McBrewster, John, et al. 1973 Ezeiza Massacre. (Alphascript 77 Ibid. Publishing, 2009). 78 Collier, Ruth B. and Handlin, Samuel. Reorganizing Popular 85 Ibid. Politics: Participation and the New Interest Regime in Latin America. 86 Rock, David. Authoritarian Argentina. (University of California (Pennsylvania State University Press, 2010). Press, 1993). 79 Ibid. 80 Cámara Argentina de Comercio y Servicios. Las exportaciones : Evolución reciente y caminos para su expansión. September 2016.

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overwhelming authority over the entire Perón’s administration, having broad government.87 He went on to form the powers as well as control over the Triple A.94 Alianza Anticomunista Argentina Gradually, Rega replaced most of the skilled (“Argentine Anticommunist Alliance”), also policymakers under Juan Perón’s known as the Triple A, a far-right death administration with his own supporters and squad that targeted the violent and used his influence to secure personal moderate left.88 This marked the beginning wealth.95 of the Dirty War, a period of state-sponsored During this period, the Montoneros, terrorism against dissidents. which had lain low during Juan Perón’s Even before Perón’s return, the presidency, as well as the ERP, waged a tensions between Triple A and the left-wing violent resistance against the government. paramilitary groups such as the Montoneros Far-left groups funded themselves through or the Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo kidnappings of business executives and (“People’s Revolutionary Army,” or ERP) participated in and were rising.89 The Triple A was responsible assassinations of key right-wing figures.96 for organizing the Ezeiza Massacre, and in Triple A, backed by the government, waged retaliation, Montoneros assassinated José an equally violent counteroffensive seeking Ignacio Rucci, the right-wing Secretary- to eliminate all left-wing activists. By 1975, General of the CGT.90 When Montoneros the violent clashes between the two took responsibility for the assassination, extremist groups began targeting civilians as Perón turned against the left-wing well.97 The government inaugurated completely and empowered Rega’s Triple A Operativo Independencia (“Operation to completely wipe out the left, forcing Independence”), which sought to eliminate Montoneros to move underground.91 the leftist guerrillas in the Tucuman region.98 The operation became infamous for Military Coup brutalities committed by the government Isabel Perón’s Failure troops. Amidst the violence, incompetence, and failing economy, Isabel Perón and Jose On July 1, 1974, amidst the Rega began to lose popularity.99 deteriorating political of Argentina, By June, the new Economy Minister Juan Perón died of illness, leaving the Celestino Rodrigo appointed by Rega presidency to his wife and vice president, attempted to solve the growing trade deficit Isabel Perón.92 She quickly lost support from problem through economic shock therapy, various constituents and began to oppress which resulted in sudden inflation.100 This the left-leaning activists, similar to her event led to protests from all members of the husband.93 Rega grew influential in Isabel public, including the CGT which had been

87 Ibid. 95 Ibid. 88 Lewis, Paul. Guerrillas and Generals. (Greenwood Publishing, 96 Lewis, Paul. Guerrillas and Generals. (University of North 2002). Carolina Press, 2002). 89 Ibid. 97 Andersen, Martin. Dossier Secreto. (Westview Press, 1993). 90 Ibid. 98 Crawley, Eduardo. A House Divided. (St. Martin's Press, 1985). 91 Ibid. 99 Ibid. 92 Page, Joseph. Perón, a Biography. (Random House, 1983). 100 Lewis, Paul. The Crisis of Argentine . (University of 93 Crawley, Eduardo. A House Divided. (St. Martin's Press, 1985). North Carolina Press, 1990). 94 Reed, Robert. "Juan Perón & Cocaine Politics". Consortium News. 12 November 1999.

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supporters of Perón. Jose Rega, hated by the overthrow Isabel Perón.108 In the early public, left the country in July after being morning of March 24, 1976, Isabel Perón was appointed as the ambassador to Spain.101 detained, arrested, and deposed as the In the following months, Isabel Perón president.109 The military junta, consisting of attempted to appeal to the public and the General Jorge Videla representing the Army, military by appointing new Economy Admiral Emilio Massera representing the Minister Antonio Cafiero and new heads of Navy, and Brigadier Orlando Agosti the military.102 However, the economy representing the Air Force, assumed continued to spiral out of control, with executive control of the nation and declared inflation reaching the record of 700% .110 Hundreds of peronista following another economic shock officials, unionists, and activists were therapy.103 Trade deficits had nearly detained and later “disappeared” under the depleted foreign currency reserves, and new military government.111 strikes and business lockouts further marred the economy that was already deep into recession.104 The First Military Junta After Rega’s departure for Spain, Isabel Perón appointed Jorge Videla to the chief position of the Armed Forces High Command, replacing the pro-Rega General Alberto Laplane.105 In the midst of rising violence by the left-wing guerrillas, she gave the military the authority to suppress these groups, in an attempt to regain the support of the military.106 However, by December of 1975, General Héctor Fautario, the last general who remained loyal to Perón’s government, was dismissed after a coup attempt.107 With the last peronista general excised from the military, General Jorge Videla had support from the Armed Forces High Command, the public, and the UCR to

101 Augustyn, Adam, et al. Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Jose Lopez 107 “17. Argentina (1916-present)”. University of Central Arkansas Rega”. (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009). Political Science Department, accessed 30 June 2019. 102 Braun, Carlos and Tella, Guido D. Argentina, 1946-87: The https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/western- Economic Ministers Speak. (Palgrave McMillan, 1990). hemisphere-region/argentina-1916-present/ 103 Lewis, Paul. The Crisis of Argentine Capitalism. (University of 108 Rinas, Fernando S. “El papel de la prensa durante el proceso North Carolina Press, 1990). militar.” Argentina a Diario. 24 March 1976. 104 Ibid. 109 Lewis, Paul. Guerrillas and Generals. (University of North 105 Tikkanen, Amy, et al. Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Jorge Rafael Carolina Press, 2002). Videla”. (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009). 110 Tikkanen, Amy, et al. Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Jorge Rafael 106 Crawley, Eduardo. A House Divided. (St. Martin's Press, 1985). Videla”. (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2009). 111 Ibid.

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Questions to Consider negotiating power had been greatly enhanced by Juan Perón’s progressive 1. How will the Dirty War continue policies. Suppressing the labor unions may under the new regime? lead to higher growth for the companies, but The ERP, one of the violent guerrilla may result in human rights violation and groups, had been defeated by December of degradation of the quality of life for average 1975. However, the Montoneros, while citizens. weakened, still remains active and had carried out a violent attack just 9 days prior 4. What will foreign relations look like for to the coup. Triple A, the violent right-wing the new regime? guerrillas that had fought the Montoneros, Juan Perón maintained relative has essentially disbanded, its peronista neutrality vis-à-vis both the First and Second leaders fleeing the nation fearing the new World. His regime had diplomatic ties and military government. How will the new crucial economic relations with the Western regime continue the Dirty War started by the world, as well as relations with the Soviet previous regime? Union and . The United States and France, concerned that Perón’s third 2. How will the military government position policy would lead to loss of consolidate power? Western influence in Argentina, had Despite the success of the coup, there supported the military coup as well as other are influential Peronistas remaining in counter-insurgency operations against Argentina. College and high school leftist guerrillas in Latin America under students, professionals, and union leaders Operation Condor, hoping that the region remain active in political organizations that will become more aligned with the West. may pose a threat to the new regime. Violent suppression may lead to temporary 5. How will the three branches of the silencing of the opposition but may draw military work together? international criticism. The new regime can Even though Jorge Videla, General of continue Isabel Perón’s Dirty War against the Army, was declared as the official the left, or resort to other tactics to President of Argentina, in practice, the consolidate power. leadership of the nation is split among the three branches of the military. While they 3. How can the Argentine economy be cooperated during the coup in order to revived? overthrow Perón, the various leaders within One of the key reasons for the downfall the military have conflicting interests. The of peronismo is an economic failure. The new military leaders lack constitutional military junta inherited a nation with legitimacy unlike civilian presidents and record-high inflation and trade deficits. may be replaced with greater ease. Domestic and foreign companies alike had been struggling with the CGT, whose

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Conclusion The nascent military government has yet to prove itself to its citizens and the As the long-lasting reign of international community that it can peronismo comes to a close in Argentina, the successfully lead Argentina. In the short new right-wing military government will be term, the committee must successfully tasked with saving the Argentine economy defend its regime against peronista guerrilla while maintaining its power amidst the groups and dissidents while gaining the dissidents and political opposition. The support of foreign actors. In the long term, Peronistas, while not in control of the the overall success and survival of the government anymore, still poses a military junta will depend on the economic formidable threat to the new regime. The success and internal unity. Both the committee will also be faced with various continuity of the government as a whole and foreign influences with economic and each delegate’s self-interest will play a role political interests in Argentina. in determining the future of Argentina.

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Topic B: Operation Condor

Introduction enunciation of the , which took a hardline stance against communism Operation Condor began in 1975 as in Latin America.114 The US military and the international coordination between CIA became active in supporting anti- intelligence agencies of South American communist leaders, even going as far as nations with the goal of combating leftist overthrowing democratically elected guerrillas. The right-wing of presidents.115 Throughout the 1960s, the South America targeted not only the violent United States supported various coups paramilitary groups but also left-leaning d’état in left-leaning Latin American states. activists, journalists, and political dissidents. The United States provided financial and End of Leftist Regimes in South technical assistance to Operation Condor, which resulted in serious human rights America violations in the member states. The United States began supporting conservative, anti-communist hardliners Historical Background that opposed the leftist regimes of Latin American countries. From the mid-1950s to , the left-leaning governments were As the between the United overthrown violently by American-backed States and the Soviet Union escalated dictators. These nations in the Southern following World War II, the United States Cone would later go on to become active (US) began to implement policies that participants in Operation Condor. sought to fight the spread of communism in In 1954, General the Western Hemisphere. John F. Kennedy, overthrew the moderate right-wing the 35th President of the US, declared in his president Federico Chavez of and inaugural address the Kennedy Doctrine.112 implemented a strict martial law Kennedy's administration struggled to stop indefinitely.116 A staunch anti-communist, the spread of communism to American he detained and arrested left-wing countries, especially after the Cuban dissidents and completely suspended all Revolution that brought communism to the civil liberties. The United States supported doorstep of the US. 113 the overthrow and provided $146 million as President Lyndon Baines Johnson aid between 1962 to 1975 to his regime.117 continued Kennedy’s policies through the

112 Kennedy, John F. “Inaugural Address” (speech, Washington, 115 Gleijeses, Piero. “The United States Invasion of the Dominican DC, 20 January 1961). Republic, 1961-1965.” Latin American Studies. 28 October 2011. 113 Kennedy, John F. “Alliance for Progress Address” (speech, 116 Bruneau, Thomas C. "Government and Politics.” Library of Washington, DC, 13 March 1961). Congress Federal Research Division. December 1988. 114 Johnson, Lyndon B. “Statement by the President Upon 117 Cooper, Allan D. The Geography of Genocide. (University Press of Ordering Troops into the Dominican Republic” (speech, America, 2008). Washington, DC, 28 April 1965).

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In 1964, the Brazilian military, with Chilean Coup of 1973 the backing of the United States, overthrew In 1970, of the leftist President João Goulart, a left-leaning Popular Unity party won the presidential member of the Brazilian Labor Party.118 elections in Chile, defeating two Goulart drew ire from the United States by conservative candidates and preventing an maintaining the non-aligned foreign policy American plot to allow the incumbent pro- and proposing socialist economic policies.119 American President Frei Montalva to The United States, suspicious of Goulard’s circumvent the constitution and win another communist sympathies, empowered various presidency.125,126 Chile sought closer conservative groups and the military that relationships with ’s Cuba and opposed Goulard to eventually overthrow sought socialist policies that concerned the 120 him. West.127 Amidst declining economy and In 1971, Suarez, the growing political tension between the left military general of , overthrew and the right, President Allende won President Juan Jose Torres in a military another presidency in 1973 despite attempts coup.121 The Nixon administration, fearing by the United States to incite a right-wing Torres’ socialist policies and sympathy to coup against him.128 workers’ unions as signs of communist During the decades prior to the coup, sympathy, The United States financed and the Chilean military had undergone de- provided advisors to Banzer that proved politicization and therefore had less political crucial to the success of the coup.122 influence than other Latin American In 1973, Juan Maria Bordaberry, the militaries that had successfully overthrown civilian dictator of , took control of the civilian governments.129 The military the nation along with the military junta to had been underfunded and therefore had counter the supposed communist threats.123 grievances against the civilian The US provided military aid and training to government.130 The military had also been the military junta who sought to eliminate heavily influenced by American anti- the communist guerrilla group called the communist ideology due to cooperation Tupamaros.124 with the American military and military schools.131 Amidst a declining economy, the Chamber of Deputies controlled by the conservative coalition denounced the president and accused him of

118 Kingstone, Steve. " remembers 1964 coup d’état". BBC 126 Central Intelligence Agency. CIA Activities in Chile. 18 News (1 April 2004). September 2000. 119 Skidmore, Thomas. The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964- 127 Porpora, Douglas V, et al. Post-Ethical Society: The Iraq War, Abu 1985. (Oxford University Press, March 1990) Ghraib, and the Moral Failure of the Secular. (University of Chicago 120 Ibid. Press, September 2013). 121 Zunes, Stephen. "U.S. Intervention in Bolivia". Huffington Post 128 Central Intelligence Agency. CIA Activities in Chile. 18 (25 May 2011). September 2000. 122 Ibid. 123 Lessa, Alfonso. Estado de guerra - de la gestación del golpe del 73 a 129 Gonzáles, Mónica. Los Mil y un Días del Golpe. (Catalonia, 2013). la caída de Bordaberry. (University of Michigan Press, 1996). 130 Ibid. 124 US . Pachequism, 1967-72. 131 Rafael Sagredo and Cristian Gazmuri. Historia de la Vida 125 Nohlen, Dieter. Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Privada en Chile. Tomo II: El Chile moderno de 1849 a 1925. (Taurus- Volume II. (Oxford University Press, 2005). Aguilar chilena ediciones, 2006)

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unconstitutional attempts to limit the under the Perón regime.139 As then- economic freedom of Chile.132 The Chamber Argentine President Juan Perón began to requested the military to take action if turn against the left-wing Peronistas, Allende’s government did not comply.133 Argentina agreed to cooperate with the The United States also offered to support a other right-wing dictatorships to combat coup if the military decided to carry one left-wing guerrillas in South America.140 out.134 In September of 1973, the military, led During this period, refugees from these by General of the army , countries who fled the state-backed overthrew the Allende government, terrorism to Buenos Aires were assassinated bombing the Chilean presidential residence by the Argentine police according to the and killing Allende.135 cooperation guidelines.141 Pinochet and his military junta ruled Operation Condor was formally Chile with the support of the United States. created on November 25, 1975, between the Similar to post-coup Argentina under the military intelligence agencies of Argentina, military junta, the Chilean junta violently Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia.142 suppressed the political enemies and leftist During Isabel Perón’s presidency, Argentine activists.136 The CIA and the US military intelligence, along with other intelligence provided financial support to the Pinochet agencies, targeted various left-wing regime despite many of the officers involved activists.143 Their official targets were the in human rights abuses.137 leftist guerrillas such as the Montoneros and the ERP, but the government extended the Operation Condor target to include political opponents and Beginning of the Cooperation suspected leftists as well.144 The overthrow of Chilean president Argentine Coup of 1976 Allende and the following Pinochet regime The Argentine military had the full led to the official formation of the Operation support of the US in its anti-communist Condor. While cooperation between the operations, despite its concerns that newly formed right-wing dictatorships of Argentina under the control of the military Latin America existed prior to the junta would create similar problems as with Operation, Chile took the leading role in Chile and Uruguay, where mounting creating a supranational coalition between human rights concerns made American Latin American intelligence services.138 support difficult.145 As Isabel Perón became In 1974, Chilean, Bolivian, and more unpopular throughout 1975 and 1976, Uruguayan police leaders met with Alberto the U.S. was aware of the upcoming coup Villar, who was a co-founder of Triple A

132 Chile Chamber of Deputies. “Agreement of the Chamber of the 139 Ibid. Deputies of Chile” 22 August 1973. 140 Ibid. 133 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 134 Kornbluh, Peter. The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on 142 Plummer, Robert. “Condor Legacy Haunts South America.” Atrocity and Accountability. (The New Press, 2003). BBC News (8 June 2005). 135 Ibid. 143 Ibid. 136 Ibid. 144 Ibid. 137 Ibid. 145 United States. Department of State. “1976BUENOS01042.” 138 Abramovici, Pierre. "Operation Condor Explained — Latin February 1976. America: the 30 years' dirty war". Le Monde diplomatique (May 2001).

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planned by the military. The United States sent students who were trained to go on to was also aware of the planned state- become military leaders in their respective sponsored terrorism by the new military nations.150 Many graduates from the SOA regime but decided to not intervene in the were later involved in right-wing state coup. The US Secretary of State Henry terrorism and human rights violations.151 Kissinger later made this clear to the new According to the declassified CIA regime that the US would support the documents, the US officials were notified military junta despite the human rights about the 1974 meeting between the police abuses.146 With the American support, the leaders of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Argentine Coup d’état of 1976 successfully Bolivia, and Paraguay that established overthrew Isabel Perón’s government and cooperation in fighting leftist guerrillas.152 began to actively suppress Peronistas, left- The US was also aware of the official wing activists, and any dissident to the formation of the Operation Condor in 1975 regime. and the anti-communist supranational intelligence collecting efforts carried out Foreign Influence under the Operation.153 The US Defense American Involvement Intelligence Agency reported the efforts by the Argentine and Chilean intelligence Since the Eisenhower administration, agencies carrying out operations, mainly in the United States had attempted to contain Argentina. Their operations stretched out the spread of communism.147 The US played across the territories of the nations in the a key role in the establishment of the right- Operation Condor.154 wing bloc in the six nations The United States was also aware of and went on to support those regimes the assassinations and tortures against the despite reports of human rights abuses left-wing activists under Operation under the excuse of stopping communist Condor.155 The United States turned a blind guerrillas. eye to the violence within the members of American attempts at containing the Operation but warned against spreading communism in Latin America started in the the operation to activists who fled to non- 1960s at the US Army School of the Americas member states, such as France or Portugal.156 (SOA).148 The SOA was founded in an However, the CIA provided intelligence American fort in Panama Canal Zone with regarding individuals sought out by the the goal of training the Latin American South American intelligence agencies, and militaries with pro-American and anti- the FBI had also carried out searches within communist doctrines.149 The client nations the US for such individuals.157 The US,

146 Osorio, Carlos. “National Security Archive Electronic Briefing 152 McSherry, Patrice. Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert Book No. 104.” National Security Archive (3 December 2003). War in Latin America. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005). 147 Ambrose, Stephen. Eisenhower: The President (1952–1969). II. 153 Ibid. (Simon & Schuster, 1984). 154 Ibid. 148 Grimmett, Richard F., and Mark P. Sullivan. US Army School of 155 Osorio, Carlos. "Operation Condor on Trial." The National the Americas: Background and Congressional Concerns. (Library of Security Archive (8 March 2013). Congress, 2001). 156 Editors. “New Operation Condor Files Show Terror, Torture in 149 Ibid. Argentina.” TeleSur (12 December 2016). 150 Ibid. 157 McSherry, Patrice. Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert 151 McCoy, Katherine E. "Trained to Torture? The Human Rights War in Latin America. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005). Effects of Military Training at the School of the Americas". Latin American Perspectives (2005).

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according to officials from the State in counterinsurgency operations and Department, was both aware of, and had the torture. From 1959 to 1981, French military capability to stop, the violent mission, consisting of veterans of the counterinsurgency operations planned by , trained their Argentine the Operation Condor, but decided against counterparts in counterinsurgency and took stopping them. The United States would go important positions as officers of the on to warn the South American nations Argentine Army.163 about the human rights abuses fearing While the official position of French international criticism over supporting President Valery Giscard d’Estaing’s dictatorships, but did not go as far as government was that of condemnation of condemning the regimes.158 state-sponsored terrorism, French military Despite these concerns over human and the French intelligence agency, the DST, rights, the US continued to covertly support cooperated secretly with both Chilean and the Operation Condor, providing Argentine intelligence to help the right-wing intelligence, training, financial assistance, dictators suppress left-wing activists.164 and advanced telecommunication and During this period, the French far- tracking technology from the base in right became interconnected with the Panama Canal Zone.159 According to a CIA Argentine right-wing movement. Cité document, the intelligence agencies of the Catholique, far-right Catholic fundamentalist Operation Condor member states movement, greatly increased its presence in communicated with each other using a Argentina during the period of military rule communication system called before the return of Juan Perón to Argentina CONDORTEL, which relied on American in 1973.165 The Cité Catholique condoned the infrastructure based in the Panama Canal use of torture as a means of stopping Zone.160 The CIA also played a key role in subversives and strongly opposed establishing a network of advanced communism.166 It influenced the Argentine computer systems for the Operation military due to the strong Catholic member states.161 fundamentalism that was present within its ranks.167 Catholic priests of Argentina were French Involvement also influenced by the hardline stance of Cité Military cooperation between France Catholique.168 and Argentina goes back to 1959 when a Organisation Armée Secrète, a French permanent French military mission was terrorist organization that fought against the established in Buenos Aires.162 From 1954 to Algerian independence movement, also 1962, France had fought the Algerian war, participated in the anti-communist where French intelligence gained experience operations in Argentina. The chaplain of the

158 Dinges, John. The Condor Years: How Pinochet and His Allies 163 Ibid. Brought Terrorism to Three Continents. (The New Press 2004-2005). 164 Tomasevski, Katerina. An End to Torture: Strategies for its 159 Greg Grandin. The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Eradication. (Zed Books, 1988). Cold War. (University of Chicago Press, 2011). 165 Robin, Marie-Monique. “Escadrons de la mort, l’école 160 Dandan, Alejandra. “Los crímenes de la represión que no française.” Algeria Watch (13 December 2003). reconoció fronteras.” Pagina 12. 166 Ibid. 161 Greg Grandin. The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the 167 Ibid. Cold War. (University of Chicago Press, 2011). 168 Ibid. 162 Robin, Marie-Monique. “Escadrons de la mort, l’école française.” Algeria Watch (13 December 2003).

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OAS, Georges Grasset, brought members of the OAS as he took charge of the Argentine branch of the Cité Catholique.169 The members of the OAS had experience in counterinsurgency operations and urban warfare, as well as torture and other means of suppressing dissidents from their operations in Algeria.170 Many members of the OAS were also part of the Cité Catholique.171

169 Ibid. 171 Ibid. 170 Ibid.

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Questions to Consider 4. What will be Argentina’s relationship 1. How will the Operation Condor with South American nations? continue under the new regime? The South American dictatorships have temporarily united under Operation Argentina joined the Operation Condor to face their common threat of leftist Condor before the 1976 coup, but the new guerrillas and dissidents. However, military leaders are as aggressive as, if not Argentina has had troubled relations with more so than the previous peronista regime. its neighbors, in particular with Chile, which With the absence of the right-wing had been leading Operation Condor. The paramilitary groups, the new right-wing two nations have an ongoing territorial government’s intelligence agencies, police, dispute over Beagle Channel which may and military will need to coordinate escalate to a military conflict. The tension amongst themselves and with foreign between the two core member states may agencies to effectively continue the drive the whole Operation to a failure. Operation.

2. How will human rights be addressed? 5. What will be the fate of political Even though the US and France are refugees in Argentina? supporting Operation Condor, both nations, Due to military coup in surrounding at least publicly, oppose human rights nations, Argentina had been flooded with violations, which has led to troubles refugees from other Condor member states. between Condor nations and the West. The purpose of the Operation Condor is to Protecting the basic freedoms of allow transnational assassinations and Argentinians might appease the West, but arrests across all South American states, may lead to the downfall of the military which means political dissidents in junta. Argentina are no longer safe from their respective governments. To what degree 3. How will Argentina interact with will Argentina allow foreign intelligence foreign powers? agencies to operate within its borders, and Foreign assistance is crucial to the how will its own intelligence agency, police, survival of the regime. Argentina relies and military cooperation with their foreign heavily on technical, financial, and military counterparts? support from its Western allies, but overreliance on allies may lead to loss of sovereignty for Argentina. The interests of the allies may conflict with Argentine interests at times, which will require careful political navigation to avoid a crisis.

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Conclusion good economy often translates into a happy public, and for the good of Argentina, a The peronista regime in Argentina ragtag group of military dissidents must has come to an abrupt end, but the period of step into the business of governing a state as right-wing supremacy will likely continue well as maintaining a tight military under the new regime, born with the operation. blessing of the anti-communist United The committee will likely face States. However, given the delicate political internal conflicts, domestic dissidents, and balance of the Cold War era, much of the challenges from leftists and former peronista influence held by the United States over the allies throughout the continent. As a military—as well as the shared network of member of Operation Condor, Argentina influence that now connects all governments serves as a vanguard of capitalism and under Operation Condor—must be kept as conservative values in an increasingly leftist, secretive as possible. communist-leaning Latin America. The The new military government has the committee must be able to band together daunting task of suppressing political with its allies to resist the spread of leftism, dissidents and leftist activists while both domestically and regionally, in order to simultaneously appeasing Western preserve the economic and military support standards of human rights. Garnering public of the United States. However, Argentina support, by the carrot or by the stick, is must also be wary of challenges from its critical in supporting the legitimacy of the allies within the Operation, particularly in new government and easing Argentina’s the face of territorial disputes with Chile. transition from a leftist democracy to a While the future is yet unclear, the . It is also tasked with only thing that is certain is that the decisions the critical mandate of saving Argentina of the new military government will shape from the economic and political crises that the future of Argentina for decades to come. the Peronistas imposed upon the public. A

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