Preliminary Hydrodynamic Modeling of the Steep Rock Pit Lakes, Atikokan, Ontario by Larissa Mikkelsen A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree in Masters of Sciences Department of Geology Lakehead University © Copyright by Larissa Mikkelsen (2012) Library and Archives Bibliotheque et Canada Archives Canada 1+1 Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-84405-2 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-84405-2 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Canada/n iM Pit lakes are often a planned part of an open pit mine closure where the excavations are expected to flood and water quality is not an issue. Common environmental issues regarding pit lakes include their rebound rate, hydrodynamic behaviour and water quality. The water quality of pit lakes can be influenced by their hydrodynamics, for example overturn in a holomictic lake can transport dissolved oxygen down to submerged tailing resulting in the production of acid mine waters if sulphide minerals are present, or the unexpected overturn of a meromictic pit lake can bring stagnant, dissolved metal laden waters to surface that may be toxic to aquatic life. Where water quality is of concern and pit lakes outflow into adjacent watersheds their behaviour can determine if noxious material will be brought to the surface and released. At the former Steep Rock Iron Mines property near Atikokan, Ontario, three pit lakes are currently flooding and will eventually join to form a super pit lake before they outflow into the West Arm and subsequently Seine River system. Previous studies on two of the pit lakes, Caland and Hogarth, have shown that the pit lakes are meromictic and holomictic, respectively, and that both have elevated sulphate concentrations. The aim of this research was to: i) evaluate existing rebound models by modeling rebound and assessing which parameters exert the greatest influence on the rebound rate; and, ii) develop hydrodynamic models of Caland and Hogarth pit lakes to assess if their current limnology will change as rebound continues and they outflow into the West Arm. Rebound models are constructed using two approaches and compared to the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Regional Engineering model that accurately predicted water levels to 2011. The first rebound modeling approach uses two curves to model the stage-volume relationships, a hypsometric curve and a surface area versus elevation curve. The second approach fits an exponential curve to measured water elevations and then future water elevations are forecasted by extrapolation. Rebound Model 2B constructed following the first approach matched measured water elevations best for the two pit lakes and predicts 2010 measured water elevations better than the Regional Engineering model. Model 2B predicts that Caland will flow into Hogarth in 2070 and that the new Steep Rock pit lake will outflow into the West Arm in 2087, 18 years longer than predictions made by the Regional Engineering model. Based on the water balance parameter sensitivity analysis, the difference between this study's predictions and those of the Regional Engineering model is the result of different pit volume calculation methods. In this study's rebound models the stage-volume relationships for Hogarth are more accurate than for Caland, suggesting that in future work, at minimum, linear interpolation should be used to define the volume in Caland pit lake. This study is the first to model the hydrodynamics of Caland and Hogarth pit lakes. The Dynamic Reservoir Simulation Model (DYRESM) was used to: i) assess if it can accurately model the current pit lake conditions; and, ii) model the future conditions in Caland and Hogarth for when the pit lakes join and when they outflow to the West Arm. The model salinities are discussed to assess the future toxicity of the pit lakes. DYRESM simulations of current conditions accurately portray the observed limnological characteristics of Caland and Hogarth pit lakes, including: i) that Caland is meromictic and has a lower salinity relative to Hogarth; and, ii) that Hogarth develops a temporary meromix. Simulations of when the two pits join indicate that the freshwater lens in Caland will be maintained, but is thinner, and that Hogarth develops a meromix, which is maintained throughout the simulations. Simulations of when the pit lakes outflow into the West Arm indicate that Caland will maintained its upper freshwater lens and that a fresh water lens is only briefly present in Hogarth. In most cases, variations of the simulations for current and future pit lake conditions, including additional inflows, alteration of the inflow salinities, and the use of a slower rebound rate to define the DYRESM water balance, only produced minor changes in the simulation. iii A linear trend between sulphate concentrations and salinity exists for water samples from Caland and Hogarth. Based on this trend, the DYRESM salinity profiles suggest that the waters that outflow from Caland into Hogarth will have sulphate concentrations ranging from 0 mg/L to 100 mg/L and that waters that outflow from Hogarth will have sulphate concentrations ranging from 1700 mg/L to 1900 mg/L. In general, the sulphate concentrations in Caland are below maximum acceptable limit of all water quality standards while those in Hogarth exceed all water quality standards. These results suggest that the waters that outflow from the pit lakes will be toxic. DYRESM can be used to simulate the future hydrodynamics of Caland and Hogarth pit lakes, however, future studies and field investigations should address some of the areas of uncertainty in the DYRESM simulations for Caland and Hogarth pit lakes, including constraining seep and groundwater volumes and chemistry, on site meteorological monitoring and measurement of the light extinction coefficient. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A sincere thanks is due to Dr. Andrew Conly for assistance, instruction and constructive criticism. Rob Purdon and Brian Jackson for their help and insight into the study site, Lindsay Moore for assistance in the field, Dr. Mary Louise Hill for her support and encouragement. A special thanks to my husband, family and friends for your support, encouragement and days spent watching Leif. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page i Abstract ii Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vi List of Figures viii List of Tables xii List of Appendices xiii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 General Introduction Regarding the Hydrodynamics of Pit Lakes 1 1.2 Scope of Study 7 Chapter 2: Background Information 10 2.1 Location 10 2.2 Geologic Setting 10 2.3 Hydrologic Setting 18 2.4 Previous Research 22 2.4.1 Previous Rebound Models 26 Chapter 3: Rebound and Water Balance Models 29 3.1 General Introduction and Scope of Work 29 3.2 Conceptual Model 30 3.3 Stage - Volume Relationships 32 3.4 Water Balance 36 3.5 Determination of Meteorological Parameters 38 3.5.1 Precipitation 38 3.5.2 Evaporation 43 3.6 Rebound Models and Calibration 46 3.6.1 Models 46 3.6.2 Calibration 47 3.7 Sensitivity Analysis 48 3.8 Results 49 3.8.1 Summary of This Study's Predictions 49 3.8.2 Comparison of This Study's Predictions to Measured Water Elevations 52 3.8.3 Comparison of This Study's and the Regional Engineering Model's Predictions 53 3.8.4 Sensitivity Analysis Results 55 3.9 Discussion 60 3.9.1 Study Results 60 3.9.2 Sensitivity Analysis 66 3.9.3 Model Limitations 69 vi 3.10 Conclusions 71 Chapter 4: Hydrodynamic Modeling 72 4.1 Description of the Limnological Program DYRESM 73 4.2 Description of the Limnological Program DYRESM 74 4.3 Description of DYRESM Input Files and Their Creation 74 4.3.1 Configuration 75 4.3.2 Physical Data and Lake Morphometry 76 4.3.3 Initial Profile 77 4.3.4 Meteorological Data 77 4.3.5 Stream Inflow 79 4.3.6 Withdrawals 80 4.3.7 Parameters 81 4.4 Simulated Scenarios 81 4.4.1 Scenario 1 - Current Conditions 81 4.4.2 Scenario 2: Future Conditions When Pit Lakes Join 84 4.4.3 Scenario 3: Future Conditions When Pit Lake Outflow to the West Arm 85 4.5 Results 86 4.5.1 Scenario 1 86 4.5.2 Scenario 2 95 4.5.3 Scenario 3 98 4.6 Discussion 105 4.6.1 Study results 105 4.6.2 Implications for the Future Toxicity of Caland and Hogarth Ill 4.6.3 Limitations of the study and future work 117 4.7 Conclusions 123 Chapter 5: General Conclusions 126 References 129 Appendices 136 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Map showing the four open pits on the former Steep Rock Iron Mines property.