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Multimethod Investigation of the Neurobiological Basis of ADHD Symptomatology in Children Aged 9-10: Baseline Data from the ABCD Study Max M

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Multimethod Investigation of the Neurobiological Basis of ADHD Symptomatology in Children Aged 9-10: Baseline Data from the ABCD Study Max M Owens et al. Translational Psychiatry (2021) 11:64 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-01192-8 Translational Psychiatry ARTICLE Open Access Multimethod investigation of the neurobiological basis of ADHD symptomatology in children aged 9-10: baseline data from the ABCD study Max M. Owens 1, Nicholas Allgaier1, Sage Hahn1,DeKangYuan1, Matthew Albaugh1,ShanaAdise1, Bader Chaarani1, Joseph Ortigara1, Anthony Juliano 1, Alexandra Potter1 and Hugh Garavan1 Abstract Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is associated with numerous neurocognitive deficits, including poor working memory and difficulty inhibiting undesirable behaviors that cause academic and behavioral problems in children. Prior work has attempted to determine how these differences are instantiated in the structure and function of the brain, but much of that work has been done in small samples, focused on older adolescents or adults, and used statistical approaches that were not robust to model overfitting. The current study used cross-validated elastic net regression to predict a continuous measure of ADHD symptomatology using brain morphometry and activation during tasks of working memory, inhibitory control, and reward processing, with separate models for each MRI measure. The best model using activation during the working memory task to predict ADHD symptomatology had an out-of-sample R2 = 2% and was robust to residualizing the effects of age, sex, race, parental income and education, handedness, pubertal status, and internalizing symptoms from ADHD symptomatology. This model used reduced activation in task positive regions and reduced deactivation in task negative regions to predict ADHD symptomatology. The best model 2 = 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; with morphometry alone predicted ADHD symptomatology with an R 1% but this effect dissipated when including covariates. The inhibitory control and reward tasks did not yield generalizable models. In summary, these analyses show, with a large and well-characterized sample, that the brain correlates of ADHD symptomatology are modest in effect size and captured best by brain morphometry and activation during a working memory task. – Introduction working memory, and attention7 9. Differences in indivi- There is substantial evidence that individuals with duals with ADHD have also been found in activation in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have the ventral striatum, ventromedial prefrontal cortex – below average working memory1 3 and difficulty with (VMPFC), and ACC during monetary reward tasks10. – response inhibition4 6. These deficits may be explained by Additionally, a recent review of morphometric differences reduced activation in brain regions, such as the dorso- measured by structural magnetic resonance imaging lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate (sMRI) in adolescents with ADHD reported abnormalities cortex (ACC), posterior parietal cortex (PPC), ven- in cortical thickness (CT) in the lateral prefrontal and trolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), insula thalamus, and parietal cortices, as well as gray matter volume of the striatum, which have been found to differ in individuals thalamus as the most frequently identified effects11. with ADHD in meta-analyses of functional magnetic However, these reviews and meta-analyses included few resonance imaging (fMRI) tasks of inhibitory control, studies with more than 50 participants and none over 100. Two recent large studies of adolescents (N > 1000) have aimed to characterize the neuroanatomical correlates of Correspondence: Max M. Owens ([email protected]) ADHD. These studies both investigated surface-based 1Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05401, USA © The Author(s) 2021, corrected publication 2021 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a linktotheCreativeCommons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Owens et al. Translational Psychiatry (2021) 11:64 Page 2 of 11 morphometry in a non-clinical sample of adolescents An additional weakness in the existing literature on using the IMAGEN study dataset (https://imagen-europe. the neurobiological basis of ADHD is a primary focus on com/), which includes participants with a range of ADHD categorical diagnoses of ADHD. There is strong symptoms. They identified lower levels of CT in the empirical evidence that child psychopathology is better ventromedial prefrontal cortex12,13 and cortical surface suited to dimensional measurement19.Thisistruespe- area (CSA) in the DLPFC and ACC14, which were also cifically for ADHD as well20.Sub-diagnosticADHD linked to performance on several neuropsychological symptomatology has been linked to poorer educational measures known to be disrupted in individuals with outcomes21 and differences in cortical maturation in ADHD. Additionally, a recent mega-analysis (N = 1713 children22,23. Continuous measures of ADHD sympto- with ADHD, 1529 controls) found smaller gray matter matology show stronger genetic correlations than volume (GMV) in children with ADHD in several sub- ADHD diagnoses24 suggesting that continuous mea- cortical structures (nucleus accumbens, caudate, puta- sures are investigating the same construct at a higher men, amygdala, and hippocampus)15. However, resolution (as opposed to another phenomenon alto- comparably powered studies have not been published for gether). Furthermore, the use of a dimensional approach task fMRI. is more consistent with the National Institute of Mental In response to concerns of mounting replication failures Health’s Research Domain Criteria program25. Thus, the in the social sciences, reducing overfitting and assessing current study used a continuous measure of ADHD generalizability of models have become critical. To achieve symptomatology, the “attention problems” scale of the this, methods such as regularized regression and cross- child behavior checklist (CBCL)26. validation are frequently used16. A recent large machine Given the established relationship of working memory, learning study (N = 2713) found only modest prediction inhibitory control, and reward processing with ADHD, we accuracies when distinguishing children with ADHD from hypothesized that ADHD symptomatology would be controls using sMRI with more rigorous cross-validation17. predictable using each of the three fMRI tasks. We It stands in contrast to prior smaller studies, which had expected that the features used by these models would be shown much more optimistic predictions using more regions activated by the tasks in prior studies, such as the questionable approaches (e.g., failure to tune regularization DLPFC, VLPFC, and ACC for working memory and hyperparameters, not validating tuned hyperparameters on inhibition tasks and the striatum, VMPFC, and ACC for an independent sample, and using accuracy as an outcome the reward task. Based on prior work linking structural for imbalanced groups). However, the majority of existing MRI data to ADHD, we also hypothesized that structural machine learning work on ADHD focuses on only one MRI would predict ADHD symptomatology. We expected imaging modality or task, making it difficult to compare that the features used in these models would be the same classification accuracies across ADHD studies. Additionally, as those whose morphometry had been found to be the use of non-linear modeling strategies makes the inter- associated with ADHD in prior studies, such as the pretation of model features in many machine learning DLPFC, ACC, VMPFC, and striatum. models difficult. Another approach to improving replicability has been Materials and methods the initiation of large-scale open-data projects. The cur- Procedures rent study used baseline data from the Adolescent Brain The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Developmentsm Study and Cognitive Development (ABCD; www.ABCDstudy. (ABCD) is an ongoing multisite, longitudinal neuroi- org) study to predict current ADHD symptomatology maging study following a cohort of 11,875 youths over using elastic net regression models with brain activation 10 years. In this analysis, we use data from the baseline during fMRI tasks of working memory, inhibitory control, visits at which participants were 9–10 years old. All data and the anticipation and receipt of monetary reward, as usedinthecurrentstudy(i.e., fMRI, questionnaire, well as brain morphometry measured by sMRI. Among neuropsychological tasks) were collected at a single visit machine learning approaches, elastic net regression is or across two visits that occurred within 30 days of each particularly effective at making predictions when the other. The ABCD study® was approved by the institu- predictors are highly intercorrelated, has been shown to tional review board of the University of California, be effective at making predictions using neuroimaging
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