66

CURRENT AND EMERGING THERAPEUTICS OF ANXIETY AND STRESS DISORDERS

JACK M. GORMAN JUSTINE M. KENT JEREMY D. COPLAN

During the 1960s and 1970s the concept of ‘‘pharmacologic began to accumulate from just a few studies that GAD dissection’’ became popular as a putative method for differ- might also respond to . This evidence was entiating among different categories of psychiatric illness. largely ignored,and pharmaceutical companies were advised At the time,it was widely held that anxiety disorders,but to stay away from GAD,a condition supposedly so - not depression,respond to ,whereas responsive that no drug would ever be shown effective in depression,but not anxiety disorders,responds to anti- large clinical trials. To the contrary, is now ap- depressants. was held to be the one exception, proved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for responding only to antidepressants. Alprazolam,selective the treatment of GAD,and there is also evidence for the inhibitors (SSRIs),and had efficacy of . not yet been tested. On the basis of these observations,it At this point,rather than ‘‘dissecting’’ among the anxiety was asserted that anxiety and depression are clearly distinct disorders or between anxiety disorders and depression,phar- categories of illness. macologic grounds might lead one to assume that these Thirty years later we find that the situation has changed conditions are variants of each other. This also would proba- dramatically. The first inconsistency with the notion of bly be an oversimplification. Anxiety and depression are pharmacologic dissection was the clear finding that panic different and we can make distinctions among the anxiety disorder does indeed respond to benzodiazepines. For a disorders. Nevertheless,the finding that antidepressants are while,alprazolam and then clonazepam were regarded by so ubiquitously effective across categories raises interesting some authorities and clinicians as first-line therapies for questions and challenges. We review here the evidence for panic disorder,replacing and responsiveness of four anxiety disorders to medication. inhibitors. An even more potent challenge,however,has come from the evidence not only that anxiety disorders respond to anti- PANIC DISORDER depressants but also that antidepressants work better than benzodiazepines for most of them. As this chapter discusses, Panic disorder (PD) has a reported lifetime prevalence of antidepressants are now considered the appropriate pharma- between 1.5% and 3.5% (1,2), is highly comorbid with cologic intervention for panic disorder, disor- major depression,and is associated in its own right with der,posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD),and generalized significant impairment in psychosocial functioning inde- anxiety disorder (GAD). The latter case is particularly inter- pendent of depressive symptomatology. In the Epidemio- esting. Once considered the sole domain of benzodiaze- logic Catchment Area study,subjective reports of patients pines,GAD was then shown to be responsive to a drug in with PD indicate that approximately one-third experience an entirely new category,with no relationship whatsoever poor physical and emotional health,rates comparable with to the receptor or ␥-aminobutyric acid major depression (2). (GABA)—buspirone. At about the same time evidence Historical Notes

Jack M. Gorman, Justine M. Kent, and Jeremy D. Coplan: Columbia Recognized as a distinct disorder that could be distinguished University,New York State Psychiatric Institute,New York,New York. from the general diagnosis of ‘‘anxious neurosis,’’ in part 968 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress through the pharmacologic dissection work of Klein and greatest improvement in panic symptoms (10). Although Fink (3,4) in the 1960s, PD was first categorized as a discrete several other of the heterocyclic antidepressants have been diagnostic entity in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of used in the treatment of PD (amitryptyline,, Mental Disorders,third edition (DSM-III),in 1980. Despite ,),far less controlled data are some minor changes in diagnostic criteria in the third edi- available supporting their efficacy (11,12). Although effec- tion revised (DSM-III-R) and the fourth edition (DSM-IV), tive,side effects often limit the use of this class of medication primarily involving the number and frequency of attacks in the treatment of PD. This is particularly true in the case required,the major criteria remain essentially the same. The of clomipramine,which due to its and anti- key triad of symptoms are (a) the occurrence of spontaneous histaminergic effects can be difficult for patients to tolerate panic attacks; (b) the presence of anticipatory anxiety; and (13). The use of the heterocyclic antidepressants is often (c) the presence of phobic avoidance,resulting in some de- limited by the presence of comorbid medical conditions gree of functional impairment. The pharmacologic treat- such as cardiac disease and glaucoma. Lethality in overdose ment of PD has evolved dramatically since the heterocyclic is another concern given the reported high rates of suicide antidepressants were first established as possessing powerful in this population when depression is comorbid (14–16). antipanic properties in the early 1960s (4). Throughout the Although the SSRIs are often touted as offering a more 1970s and 1980s,the heterocyclic antidepressants contin- tolerable side-effect profile than the heterocyclics,the side- ued to be the mainstay of pharmacologic treatment of PD, effect burden of has recently been shown to be with the monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) used pri- comparable to,although different in nature from,that of marily in patients who failed trials of heterocyclic antide- the SSRIs,with most side effects (with the exception of dry pressants. The high potency benzodiazepines were increas- mouth,sweating,and constipation) not persisting beyond ingly prescribed as both primary and adjunct treatments the first few weeks of treatment (17). throughout this same time period. With the introduction of the SSRIs in the United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s for the treatment of depression,this class of drug began being used in the treatment of PD with promis- Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors ing results. In the late 1990s,several large-scale,controlled Like the heterocyclic antidepressants,the MAOIs,are trials established the SSRIs to be effective and safe treat- clearly established to be effective in the treatment of PD,yet ments for PD,thus supplanting the heterocyclic antidepres- have yielded to newer antidepressants with similar antipanic sants and benzodiazepines as first-line treatment. Although efficacies but less drug–drug and dietary interactions. the serotonin,,and GABA systems remain Among the MAOIs, is the best studied in PD, the traditional targets for the majority of antipanic medica- and its efficacy in the acute treatment of PD is supported tions,widely different classes of drugs targeting an array of by several studies (18–20). Dietary restrictions,lethality in neurochemical systems are now being explored as potential overdose,and drug interaction concerns limit the wide- treatments for PD. spread use of the traditional MAOIs. Stemming from these concerns,the reversible inhibitors of MAOI (RIMAs) were Heterocyclic Antidepressants developed and have demonstrably fewer drug–drug and di- Numerous controlled trials have confirmed the efficacy of etary interactions. These include moclobemide and brofaro- the heterocyclic antidepressants,since the initial observa- mine,neither of which is currently marketed in the United tions of Klein (4),in both the acute and long-term treatment States,but are used extensively throughout Europe and of PD. In general,heterocyclics with greatest serotoninergic other parts of the world. The efficacy of moclobemide has reuptake inhibition effect,such as imipramine and clomi- been shown in the treatment of PD in placebo-controlled pramine,appear to be most effective in the treatment of studies (21),and moclobemide has been found to be compa- PD (5–7). By far the best studied of this class of antidepres- rable in efficacy to clomipramine (21) and (22). sants is imipramine,which due to its well-established effi- Moclobemide has also been shown to be as effective as fluox- cacy has been generally accepted as the gold standard of PD etine in maintenance treatment of PD (23). treatment (8). In the Cross-National Collaborative Panic was shown to be comparable to (24) and clomi- Study,more than 1,000patients in 14 countries were ran- pramine (25) in small randomized,double-blind studies domized into a study comparing imipramine,alprazolam, lacking a placebo. In a placebo-controlled study of the effi- and placebo (9). At the study’s end,imipramine and alpra- cacy of brofaromine,30 patients with PD (DSM-III-R defi- zolam were found to have comparable efficacy,and both nition) were treated for 12 weeks. Although there was no were significantly superior to placebo on most outcome significant reduction in the number of panic attacks for measures. A positive dose–response relationship between those patients treated with brofaromine,patients demon- imipramine levels and clinical improvement has been re- strated clinical improvement on several other measures,in- ported,with plasma levels of 140 mg/mL associated with the cluding agoraphobic avoidance (26). Chapter 66: Current and Emerging Therapeutics of Anxiety and Stress Disorders 969

Benzodiazepines with long-term use can make these drugs as problematic as earlier classes for some patients. Overall,though,the side- The high-potency benzodiazepines,another mainstay of effect burden associated with SSRI treatment has been treatment for PD,have been shown to be effective,well shown to be more tolerable for most patients than the het- tolerated,and safe. In the absence of comorbid substance erocyclics and benzodiazepines (51). Because the SSRIs have abuse,concerns about abuse potential have proven largely been associated with a discontinuation syndrome character- unfounded in this population (27–30). Among the benzo- ized by anxiety,tremor,dizziness,paresthesias,nausea,and diazepines,alprazolam and clonazepam are labeled for the other symptoms when abruptly stopped,these medications treatment of panic disorder and have been shown in numer- should be tapered over a few weeks,if possible,to minimize ous,controlled trials to be effective treatments (31–36). discontinuation symptoms (38). Clonazepam,with a long half-life of 20 to 50 hours,allows fewer doses per day than the short-acting alprazolam,and may reduce the likelihood of rebound symptoms between doses. The benzodiazepines have repeatedly been shown to Newer Antidepressants offer an early advantage in the treatment of anxiety by pro- Among the newer antidepressants,several have demon- viding almost immediate relief of anxiety-related somatic strated promise in PD. Venlafaxine,a serotonin-norepi- symptoms such as muscle tension and (27,37,38). nephrine ,has shown efficacy (on some However,in the long term,antidepressants may offer the measures) in a small,placebo-controlled study (52). Nefazo- advantage of better targeting and relief of psychic symptoms done,a weak serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor of anxiety (37),and provide the added benefit of treating with serotonin receptor subtype 2C (5-HT2C) antagonist associated depressive symptoms. Discontinuing long-term properties,has been shown to reduce anxiety in depressed pharmacotherapy with benzodiazepines can be difficult, patients with comorbid PD (53). enhances with as many as a third of patients with PD being unable to both noradrenergic and serotoninergic neurotransmission discontinue use due to dependence/withdrawal (27). Thus, without reuptake inhibition. Results of an open study in- despite their efficacy and safety,many clinicians remain con- volving ten patients suggested that mirtazapine might be cerned about the risk of dependence (39). effective in the treatment of PD (54). More recently,in a double-blind randomized trial comparing mirtazapine and fluoxetine in the treatment of PD,both drugs showed com- Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors parable efficacy on the primary outcome measures and on (SSRIs) most secondary outcome measures (55). Adverse events dif- Among the antidepressants currently used in the treatment fered between treatments,with weight gain occurring more of PD,the SSRIs have become first-line treatments (40,41). frequently in those patients receiving mirtazapine,whereas Following in the wake of numerous promising open and nausea and paresthesias occurred more often in those receiv- controlled trials,several large,multicenter,placebo-con- ing fluoxetine. trolled studies involving hundreds of subjects each have demonstrated the efficacy of the SSRIs in the treatment of PD (Table 66.1) (42–50). Both and paroxetine Anticonvulsants are labeled in the United States for the treatment of PD, and is approved in several European countries Among the anticonvulsants being used in the treatment of for this indication. Although fluvoxamine has not been PD are valproate and carbamazepine,and the newest anti- studied in clinical trials on the scale of the other SSRIs,it convulsants gabapentin,lamotrigine,pregabalin,and viga- has been shown to be efficacious in smaller (Ͻ100 subjects), batrin. Valproate has shown promise in several open trials randomized,placebo-controlled studies (25,44).Despite (56–58),and one small placebo-controlled study (59). It their established efficacy in the treatment of PD,there are may be particularly effective when mood instability is com- certain problems inherent in prescribing the SSRIs in pa- orbid (60). There is far less support for the use of carbamaze- tients with PD. Of primary concern on the initiation of pine in the treatment of PD,with uncontrolled studies in treatment is the commonly observed anxiogenic effect, patients with PD with EEG abnormalities demonstrating which,despite being dose-dependent,can nonetheless make some benefit from carbamazepine treatment (58). However, the initial several days of treatment a challenge for patients. the only controlled trial of carbamazepine in a small number -did not report a significant differ (14 ס Initiating treatment with a dose of one-fourth to one-half of PD patients (N that of the normal starting dose may greatly reduce the ence for carbamazepine versus placebo in reducing panic patient’s feelings of restlessness and increased anxiety. The attack frequency (61). Gabapentin has shown promise (62) delayed onset of anxiolytic action contributes to making the and is recognized as having a benign side-effect profile. La- period of SSRI initiation difficult for patients with PD. motrigine,pregabalin,and vigabatrin are currently under Other effects such as sexual dysfunction and weight gain investigation. 970 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress

TABLE 66.1. EFFICACY OF THE SSRIs IN THE ACUTE TREATMENT OF PANIC DISORDER BASED ON LARGE-SCALE, PLACEBO-CONTROLLED STUDIES

SSRI Investigators Study Design Dose Range Outcome

Fluoxetine Michelson et al., Multicenter, 10-week Fixed dose: 10 or 20-mg dose was most effective, demonstrating 1998study of 243 patients 20 mg/day significant change versus placebo on panic attack frequency, CGI improvement scores, Hamilton Anxiety and Depression scores, phobic symptoms, and functional impairment as measured by the Sheehan Disability Scale (family life and social life); the two fluoxetine groups did not differ from placebo in the number of patients who were panic-free at endpoint Michelson et al., Multicenter, 12-week Flexible dose: A significantly greater percentage of patients 2000 study of 180 patients 20–60 mg/day on fluoxetine were panic-free at endpoint (mean dose = (42%, versus 28% on placebo); significant 20 mg) change versus placebo were found for the CGI Severity, HAM-A, State Anxiety Inventory, and Sheenhan Disability Scale (work and social impairment) Fluvoxamine Black et al., 1993 Multicenter, 8-week Flexible dose: up Fluvoxamine was superior to placebo and study of 75 patients to 300 mg/day cognitive therapy at endpoint as randomized to (mean dose = measured by the Clinical Anxiety Scale and either fluvoxamine, 230 mg) CGI Severity and Improvement scales; cognitive therapy, fluvoxamine was superior to placebo as or placebo measured by a greater reduction in mean panic attack severity, and number of panic-free patients; fluvoxamine-treated patients demonstrated significant reductions versus placebo on several measures of the Sheehan Disability Scale (work, social/leisure) Paroxetine Oehrberg et al., Multicenter, 12-week Flexible dose: Number of patients with at least 50% reduction 1995 study of 120 20–60 mg/day in panic attacks was significantly greater in patients—all the paroxetine-treated than placebo group, received cognitive as was number of patients who had only one therapy or no panic attacks during the final study week. The paroxetine group had significantly greater mean reductions in HAM-A and CGI scores versus placebo Ballenger et al., Multicenter, 10-week Fixed dose: 10, 20, 40-mg group demonstrated the greatest 1998study of 278 patientsor 40 mg/day effects, with significant improvement versus placebo on measures of reduction in number of panic attacks, intensity of attacks, CGI Severity and Improvement scores, phobic fear score, HAM-A score, and MADRS Sertraline Pollack et al., Multicenter, 10-week Flexible dose: Significant decreases versus placebo at 1998study of 176 patients 50–200 mg endpoint in number of panic attacks, CGI Improvement and Severity scales, PDSS scores; sertraline also demonstrated superiority on improvement in quality of life scores Sheikh et al., Pooled data from two Fixed dose: All three doses of sertraline were superior to 2000 12-week studies with 50, 100, or placebo on frequency of panic attacks, CGI a total of 322 200 mg/day Improvement, and change in panic burden patients (attack frequency X severity), with no consistent dose-response effect

(continued) Chapter 66: Current and Emerging Therapeutics of Anxiety and Stress Disorders 971

TABLE 66.1. (continued)

SSRI Investigators Study Design Dose Range Outcome

Citalopram Wade et al., Multicenter, 8-week Fixed dose: Patients treated with citalopram 20/30 or 1997 comparative study citalopram 10 or 40/60 mg/day were comparable to with clomipramine 15 mg/day, 20 or clomipramine and superior to placebo as and placebo of 30 mg/day, 40 or measured by the number of patients 475 patients 60 mg/day; panic-free in the final week of treatment, clomipramine and by mean reduction in HAM-A total and 60 or 90 mg/day psychic subscale, and the MADRS; only the 40/60-mg/day dose demonstrated superiority to placebo, along with clomipramine, on the HAM-A somatic subscale; on the Physician’s Global Improvement Scale and Patient’s Global Improvement Scale, the 20/30-mg dose exhibited greater effects; however, both the 20/30- and 40/60-mg/day doses were superior to placebo

CGI, Clinical Global Impression; HAM, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale; MADRS, Montgomery-Ashberg Depression Rating Scale; SSRI, selective sero- tonin reuptake inhibitor.

Beta-Blockers disorder. use has two main advantages over the benzodiazepines: (a) it provides antidepressant benefits Although the beta-blockers are more commonly used in the in a population highly susceptible to depressive symptom- treatment of performance anxiety and as adjunctive treat- atology and comorbid major depression (70),and (b) it ment in PTSD,a small number of open studies suggest they eliminates the difficulties associated with withdrawal symp- may be effective in the treatment of PD (63),although they toms upon benzodiazepine discontinuation. In the case of are not considered a first-line treatment. comparable efficacy,medication choice is based on factors such as latency to onset of therapeutic action,safety,and Future Directions the individual side-effect profiles of each medication. In this regard,the SSRIs are currently considered first-line treat- Several classes of drugs,although initially viewed as promis- ment for PD,demonstrating comparable efficacy and supe- ing,have shown limited efficacy in the treatment of PD. rior tolerability to other treatment classes. Combination These include buspirone,,ondansetron,and the therapies are frequently used for treatment resistance,and cholecystokinin (CCK) antagonists (64–67). A number of an approach of prescribing a benzodiazepine at the initiation new classes of drugs are being studied,including the benzo- of treatment with an SSRI,and later tapering it,has proved diazepine partial agonists such as abecarnil and pagaclone, to be popular with clinicians and has recently been demon- and the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) inhibitors. strated to be advantageous in the early stages of treatment Experimental agents showing promise in panic-like models over an SSRI alone (71). in rodents include the group II metabotropic glutamate re- ceptor agonist LY354740 (68) and drugs acting at the neu- ropeptide receptors,including neuropeptide-Y agonists and neurokinin substance P antagonists (69). GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER In summary,the expansion of the antipanic armamentar- ium suggests that,as with many of the psychiatric disorders, The diagnostic criteria for generalized anxiety disorder there is no single effective treatment of PD. Among the (GAD) have evolved over the past two decades,undergoing most commonly prescribed classes of drugs for the treatment substantial revision to the current definition emphasizing of PD [benzodiazepines,SSRIs, antidepressants excessive,unrealistic worry as the cardinal feature of this (TCAs),and MAOIs],there are probably no major differ- disorder. Defined in 1980 in DSM-III as a disorder of con- ences in treatment efficacy,with most reported differences tinuous or persistent worry symptoms of at least 1 month’s in efficacy between classes probably attributable to differ- duration,the diagnosis of GAD was reframed in DSM-III- ences in study design and samples (27). The use of antide- R to require symptoms extended for 6 months or longer, pressants,however,and particularly the SSRIs,has sup- and an emphasis on unrealistic worry was stressed. With planted the long-term use of benzodiazepines for this DSM-IV,GAD was defined as excessive and persistent 972 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress worry,accompanied by three or more physical or psycholog- Tricyclic Antidepressants ical symptoms of anxiety,persisting 6 months or longer. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have been in use in the Because of the shift in diagnostic criteria and required dura- treatment of GAD for many decades; however,data sup- tion of symptoms over the years,comparison of pharmaco- porting their efficacy from controlled clinical trials are ex- logic treatment studies performed prior to the introduction tremely limited. Imipramine is the only TCA shown to be of DSM-III-R is difficult. effective in placebo-controlled trials of GAD patients with- In comparison with panic disorder,PTSD,and obses- out comorbid depression (84,85). In comparator trials, imi- sive-compulsive disorder (OCD),there are fewer publica- pramine has been shown to have clinical efficacy comparable tions devoted to GAD overall,and only a limited number to the benzodiazepines (84,86,87). of published controlled clinical medication trials. Several reasons have been proposed for this deficiency,including underrepresentation in clinical settings and a view of GAD Benzodiazepines as a ‘‘mild’’ disorder (72). In reality,GAD is one of the most commonly diagnosed anxiety disorders,with a lifetime Five benzodiazepines (alprazolam,chlordiazepoxide,clo- prevalence of 4.1% to 6.6% (73,74), which is often chronic razepate,diazepam,and lorazepam) are currently labeled as (75),and associated with significant compromise in func- treatments for anxiety (GAD) (88). Clonazepam and alpra- tioning (76,77). There remains substantial controversy sur- zolam are labeled specifically for the treatment of PD. There rounding the validity of GAD as a primary disorder,as are a limited number of clinical trials demonstrating the opposed to a comorbid condition or a prodromal/residual efficacy of benzodiazepines in the treatment of GAD in its phase of another disorder (78,79). Findings from epidemio- current (DSM-IV) definition (89,90); however, benzodiaze- logic studies of GAD suggest that current comorbidity with pines have been shown effective in controlled studies using other disorders is as high as 58% to 65% (73,76), and life- DSM-III criteria for GAD (91). time comorbidity rates are between 80% and 90% (76,80). Non-comorbid,‘‘pure’’ GAD lifetime prevalence was found Buspirone to be only 0.5% in the National Comorbidity Survey (76). Overall,the sum of studies examining quality of life issues Buspirone is a serotonin receptor subtype 1A (5-HT1A) par- support the idea that non-comorbid GAD is relatively rare, tial agonist with anxiolytic properties. In a metaanalysis of but is associated with significant impairment in its own placebo-controlled comparator trials with benzodiazepines, right (81,82). buspirone showed comparable efficacy to the benzodiaze- pines in eight trials in 735 patients meeting DSM-III criteria (1 month’s duration of illness) for GAD (92). In a metaana- Historical Notes lysis of eight placebo-controlled studies in over 500 GAD Prior to the introduction of the benzodiazepines,the main patients with coexisting depressive symptoms,buspirone agents available for the treatment of anxiety were the tri- demonstrated significant superiority to placebo (93). Prior cyclic antidepressants (,imipramine,amitrypty- recent treatment with a benzodiazepine (Ͻ1 month) has line),antihistamines (,hydroxyzine),bar- been shown to predict poor response to subsequent buspir- biturates (mephobarbital),and the sedative antianxiety one treatment in GAD (92). This may be due to a combina- agent meprobamate (Milltown). The development of the tion of factors including the presence of benzodiazepine benzodiazepines in the mid-1950s led to the introduction withdrawal,exacerbation of benzodiazepine discontinua- of chlordiazepoxide (Librium) in 1959,and ushered in an tion symptoms by buspirone and its metabolite a-(2-pyridi- era of benzodiazepine use in the treatment of a wide range nyl)-piperazine via enhancement of noradrenergic activity of anxiety symptoms related to anxiety and mood disorders, (94),and psychological factors such as patient expectations. psychosis,and alcohol withdrawal. Greater tolerability and the superior safety profiles of the benzodiazepines resulted SSRIs in a sharp decline in the use of barbiturates for anxiety disorders (83). The benzodiazepines have remained a com- The first published study of a medication with significant mon treatment choice for GAD throughout the past two serotonin reuptake inhibition properties in GAD involved decades. However,concerns about dependence and with- a small,open-label trial of clomipramine (95). The sugges- drawal,short-term memory impairment,interactions with tion of efficacy in this study,along with the success of clomi- alcohol,and psychomotor impairment have resulted in in- pramine in treating other anxiety disorders,raised interest creased interest in alternative medications. The introduction in pharmacologic agents for GAD that target the serotonin- of drugs such as buspirone (1986),SSRIs (from 1980 on), ergic system. Following several years later,the first compari- and the serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor son trial of an SSRI in the treatment of GAD was published (SNRI) venlafaxine (1994) have broadened the available by Rocca and colleagues (89). Treatment efficacy of paroxe- treatment armamentarium for GAD significantly. tine was compared with the tricyclic imipramine and the Chapter 66: Current and Emerging Therapeutics of Anxiety and Stress Disorders 973 benzodiazepine 2′-chlordesmethyldiazepam in 81 subjects cant improvement across seven of the eight outcome mea- with GAD. Of the 63 patients who completed the random- sures,and the 225-mg/day group was the only group to ized,8-week study,68% of the paroxetine group,72% of show significant improvement in scores on both of the CGI the imipramine group,and 55% of the 2 ′-chlordesmethyl- subscales (severity,global improvement) versus placebo. diazepam group were judged to be responders as measured by a 50% or more decrease in Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) scores. The greatest improvement during Other Agents (, , the first 2 weeks occurred in the group receiving the benzo- Anticonvulsants, Partial GABA Agonists) diazepine,as expected by the early relief of physical anxiety In a randomized,placebo-controlled comparator trial of tra- symptoms and insomnia provided by this class of medica- zodone,diazepam,and imipramine in the treatment of 230 tion. However,from the fourth week forward,the paroxe- patients with GAD,trazodone was found to be superior tine and imipramine groups demonstrated superior benefits, to placebo yet somewhat less effective than diazepam and particularly in the area of psychic symptoms of anxiety. imipramine at the study’s endpoint (84). The antidepressant More recently,the efficacy of paroxetine was demonstrated nefazodone,which antagonizes the 5-HT 2C receptor and in a large,fixed-dose study of more than 500 patients with inhibits the reuptake of both serotonin and NE,has shown a DSM-IV diagnosis of GAD without major depression promise in the treatment of GAD in an open trial (102). (96). Patients were randomized to receive paroxetine 20 mg/ Anticonvulsants such as valproate and carbamazepine have day,paroxetine 40 mg/day,or placebo for 8 weeks. Patients been used in the treatment of GAD; however,evidence of receiving both doses of paroxetine demonstrated significant their efficacy is primarily anecdotal,as there are no con- differences in the primary outcome measure,reduction in trolled clinical trials for either of these medications in the HAM-A score,versus placebo,with 68% on 20 mg paroxet- treatment of GAD (103). Other agents such as the partial ine and 81% on 40 mg paroxetine rated as responders based GABA agonist abecarnil have not demonstrated significant on a Clinical Global Impression (CGI-I) score of 1 or 2, efficacy versus placebo in GAD (101). versus 52% on placebo. In summary,although the benzodiazepines have been the mainstay of pharmacotherapy for GAD since their intro- Venlafaxine duction,significant concerns regarding their long-term use in GAD have fueled the search for other effective treat- Venlafaxine is an inhibitor of SNRI. Venlafaxine has re- ments. Given the chronic nature of GAD,medications such cently been demonstrated in humans,using peripheral mea- as buspirone,and the antidepressants venlafaxine and parox- sures,to have primarily 5-HT reuptake inhibition properties etine,which have fewer effects on cognitive and psychomo- at low doses (75 mg/day),with increasing norepinephrine tor function,now represent first-line therapies for GAD. (NE) reuptake inhibition properties at higher doses (375 mg/day) (97). Shown to be effective in the treatment of anxiety symptoms associated with major depression (98,99), the extended release (XR) form of venlafaxine has been SOCIAL PHOBIA shown to be effective in the treatment of GAD (DSM-IV criteria) in several placebo-controlled studies (100,101). In Social phobia (SP) (or ) is reported a placebo-controlled multicenter comparator trial,405 pa- to be the most common anxiety disorder with a 1-year prev- tients with GAD were randomized to receive venlafaxine alence of 7% to 8% and a lifetime prevalence of 13% to XR (75 or 150 mg/day),buspirone (30 mg/day),or placebo 14% in patients aged 15 to 54 years. Social anxiety disorder for 8 weeks. For the 365 patients for whom efficacy mea- can be classified into two subtypes—discrete and general- sures were obtained,there was no significant difference be- ized. Level of disability with SP can be high,and 70% to tween groups in improvement on the primary outcome 80% of patients have comorbid psychiatric disorders,partic- measure,the HAM-A. However,both doses of venlafaxine ularly depression and substance abuse (104). Given the high were shown to be superior to placebo in improving HAM- degree of burden of illness in SP,its treatment has become A psychic anxiety and anxious mood scores at the endpoint a major priority. (week 8),and venlafaxine demonstrated superiority to pla- cebo and buspirone on the CGI-S at the same time point. Historical Notes More robust efficacy findings for venlafaxine were reported in a recent large,multicenter trial,involving 377 outpatients Liebowitz et al. (105) noted that SP,like with GAD without comorbid depression (101). Patients (106),had a specific responsivity to the MAOIs,whereas were randomly assigned to receive either placebo or venla- TCAs,although effective for PD and ‘‘typical’’ major faxine XR at one of three doses (75,150,or 225 mg/day) depression,were not effective for SP (107). The efficacy of for 8 weeks. Of the 349 patients included in the efficacy the MAOIs,which block reuptake of in addition analysis,those receiving 225 mg/day demonstrated signifi- to NE and serotonin,prompted speculation about a poten- 974 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress tial ‘‘’’ component to the neurobiology of SP. As is the case with PD,buspirone does not appear effec- Several open clinical studies have attempted to utilize the tive for SP as monotherapy in placebo-controlled double- ‘‘dopamine component’’ concept in phamacotherapy with blind studies (123). It may,however,have a role in augmen- some success,e.g.,seligiline (108) and pergolide (109). tation of the SSRIs. However,as data accumulated,other systems were also im- plicated,and the pharmacologic dissection approach seemed Serotonin/Norepinephrine Reuptake less applicable (see above). Positive results with the high- Inhibitors potency benzodiazepine clonazepam (110) suggested a GABAergic component. However,the suitability of benzo- One open label study (124) aimed to evaluate the clinical diazepines for long-term treatment of a chronic condition response to venlafaxine in SP in 12 patients who were nonre- such as social anxiety disorder has been questioned. In addi- sponders to SSRIs,and to assess how the response could be tion,the benzodiazepines are ineffective against comorbid influenced by Axis II comorbidity with avoidant personality depression. disorder (APD). The duration of the study was 15 weeks using an open flexible-dosing regimen in individuals with RIMAs (Reversible Inhibitor of or without concomitant APD. Venlafaxine improved SP ) and/or APD symptomatology,as demonstrated by decreas- ing LSAS total scores. Similar favorable open-labeled results Although phenelzine demonstrated efficacy,the need for have been reported for nefazodone (125,126). Placebo-con- dietary restrictions severely limited its use. Moclobemide is a trolled studies are warranted. RIMA with a much lower propensity to induce hypertensive crises and has a more favorable side-effect profile. Moclobe- Anticonvulsants mide had been reported to have efficacy in early studies in the treatment of social phobia (111). However,conflicting A randomized,double-blind,placebo-controlled,parallel- results have subsequently been reported in placebo-con- group study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and trolled trials. Some studies have shown moclobemide to be safety of gabapentin in relieving the symptoms of social more effective than placebo,whereas two recent,large,ran- phobia. A significant reduction in the symptoms of social domized placebo-controlled trials conducted in the United phobia was observed among patients on gabapentin com- States have reported less robust results (112,113). Brofaro- pared with those on placebo as evaluated by clinician- and mine,another drug in the RIMA class,may still hold prom- patient-rated scales (127). Adverse events were consistent ise. The safety and efficacy of brofaromine were examined with the known side-effect profile of gabapentin. The effi- in a multicenter trial of 102 outpatients with SP (114). cacy of other novel anticonvulsants remains to be investi- Brofaromine produced a significantly greater change from gated,although encouraging results have been reported for baseline in Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) scores the gabapentin-like compound,pregabalin (128). compared with placebo.

POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER SSRIs Based on clinical evidence,SSRIs are the first-line treatment Despite the high prevalence,chronicity,and associated in social anxiety disorder (115). The most extensive database comorbidity of PTSD in the community,relatively few pla- for the treatment of social anxiety disorder exists for the cebo-controlled studies have evaluated the efficacy of phar- SSRI paroxetine. Several large,multicenter,placebo-con- macotherapy for this disorder. The symptom overlap be- trolled trials have been completed on three different conti- tween PTSD and other pharmacotherapy-responsive nents (116–119). In all cited studies,a significantly greater disorders has suggested that pharmacotherapy might be ef- proportion of patients responded to paroxetine treatment fective. Nevertheless,in those placebo-controlled trials in- compared with placebo. Paroxetine is currently the only vestigating the pharmacotherapy of PTSD that have been SSRI licensed for use in this condition in the United States. carried out,statistically significant efficacy for the treatment The SSRIs are particularly attractive agents due to their being studied has traditionally been inconsistent. One of favorable tolerance and safety profile,although typical SSRI the key methodologic limitations has been the fact that most side effects may nevertheless be problematic. studies have been conducted with war veterans,who are Despite promising open studies with fluvoxamine,fluox- likely to constitute a more treatment-refractory population. etine,and citalopram (120,121)only fluvoxamine has been tested under double-blind,randomized,placebo-controlled SSRIs trial conditions (122). Like paroxetine,fluvoxamine yielded efficacy data superior to placebo. A report on a multicenter More recently,a total of 187 civilian outpatients with DSM- sertraline trial was pending at the time of this writing. III-R PTSD (73% were women,and 61.5% experienced Chapter 66: Current and Emerging Therapeutics of Anxiety and Stress Disorders 975 physical or sexual assault) were treated with the SSRI sertra- these limitations and is therefore potentially useful in the line in a placebo-controlled design (129). Sertraline effec- treatment of PTSD. Moclobemide was highly effective in tively diminished symptoms of PTSD of moderate to an open-labeled design (140). However,in a double-blind, marked severity in comparison to placebo. Using a conserva- randomized,placebo-controlled,multicenter study,brofar- tive last-observation-carried-forward analysis,treatment omine,also a RIMA,failed to surpass efficacy levels seen with sertraline resulted in a responder rate of 53% at the with placebo. Thus,the role for RIMAs remains unclear at .this time ס study’s endpoint compared with 32% for placebo (p .008). Sertraline is the first medication approved by the FDA for the treatment of PTSD. Similar positive results Anticonvulsants have been reported for the SSRI fluoxetine in civilian popu- lations (130,131). In a study by van der Kolk et al. (132), Despite a long-recognized role for anticonvulsants in the fluoxetine was found to be most effective in the nonveteran treatment of PTSD (141),few placebo-controlled studies versus veteran portion of his study sample. Although pub- have been reported. An open study of divalproex reported lished placebo-controlled data for paroxetine are not avail- favorable results (142). In a placebo-controlled study,pa- able,Marshall et al. (133) have argued that this particular tients treated with lamotrigine showed improvement on re- SSRI may have specific advantages because of its relatively experiencing and avoidance/numbing symptoms compared low activating properties. Direct comparative studies are to placebo-treated patients (143). The authors concluded lacking. that lamotrigine may be effective as a primary psychophar- macologic treatment in both combat and civilian PTSD and could also be considered as an adjunct to antidepressant Combat Veteran PTSD therapy used in the treatment of PTSD. Further large-sam- Among combat veterans,PTSD is a highly prevalent and ple,double-blind,placebo-controlled trials are warranted. often chronic disorder,persisting in as many as 15% of Vietnam veterans for at least 20 years (134). Treatment Summary and Future Directions response in veterans with combat-related PTSD has been disappointing. Although anxiolytics,anticonvulsants,anti- Current management of PTSD is well summarized by Da- psychotics,and antidepressants,including SSRIs,have been vidson et al. (144). Clearly,there are many challenges associ- tried,none has been consistently associated with improve- ated with the treatment of PTSD. Different patients with ment in all primary symptom domains (i.e.,intrusive recol- PTSD may not respond to pharmacotherapy in the same lections,avoidance/numbing,and hyperarousal). In an open manner,and it is unclear whether this is related to gender, study using nefazodone,at mean daily doses of 430 mg trauma type,or other factors. Antidepressants,particularly (range,200 to 600 mg/day),19 treatment-refractory PTSD the SSRIs,are currently the form of pharmacotherapy for patients demonstrated benefit after 12 weeks (134). Double- patients with PTSD with greatest support in the literature. blind placebo controlled studies would be of interest. Psychosocial techniques,such as cognitive-behavioral ther- The efficacy of the antidepressant drug bupropion in the apy or stress inoculation training,are effective and may be treatment of male combat veterans with chronic PTSD was considered as adjunctive therapy with medication. Larger investigated in an open-label study of 6 weeks’ duration placebo-controlled studies for many different classes of (135). Improvement was seen in hyperarousal symptoms medications would be desirable in moving the field forward. but was less significant than the change in depressive symp- In addition,carefully conducted polypharmacy in which toms. Mirtazapine,a novel drug with both noradrenergic drug interactions are well understood may well be necessary and serotoninergic properties,may be effective in individu- for more difficult cases. als who demonstrate intolerance to side effects of,or a lim- In a review by Shalev and colleagues (145),a synthesis ited response to,SSRIs. Three of six severely refractory of findings in PTSD studies is provided. Most studies ex- PTSD patients treated with mirtazapine were assessed as plored a single treatment modality (e.g.,pharmacologic,be- responders in a pilot study (136). Case reports have sug- havioral). The cumulated evidence from these studies sug- gested benefit for refractory patients treated with venlafaxine gests that several treatment protocols reduce PTSD (137) and (138). Raskind et al. (139) reported symptoms and improve the patient’s quality of life. The ␣ that the 1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin ameliorated com- magnitude of the results,however,was often limited,and bat nightmares in a small sample of veterans with PTSD. remission was rarely achieved. Given the shortcoming of unidimensional treatment of PTSD,it was suggested by the authors that combining biological,psychological,and Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors psychosocial treatment yields the best results. Traditional MAOIs have shown efficacy in the treatment A host of novel compounds show promise for the treat- of PTSD,but their use is limited by serious drug and food ment of PTSD (146). Such classes of compounds include interactions. Moclobemide,a RIMA,is relatively free of corticotropin-releasing factor antagonists,neuropeptide-Y 976 Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress enhancers,antiadrenergic compounds,drugs that down- Sanofi-Synthelabo,and Aventis. Dr. Kent has served as a regulate glucocorticoid receptors,more specific serotoniner- consultant for Bristol-Myers Squibb and SmithKline Bee- gic agents,agents that normalize opioid function,substance cham. Dr. Coplan has received research support from P antagonists, N-methyl-D-aspartate facilitators,gluta- SmithKline Beecham,Eli Lilly,and Janssen. In addition, matergic antagonists,and antikindling/antisensitization an- he has served on a speakers’ bureau and/or an advisory board ticonvulsants. for the following companies: SmithKline Beecham,Wyeth- Ayerst,and Bristol-Myers Squibb.

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Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress. Edited by Kenneth L. Davis,Dennis Charney,Joseph T. Coyle,and Charles Nemeroff. American College of Neuropsychopharmacology ᭧ 2002.