EnANPAD 2017 São Paulo / SP - 01 a 04 de Outubro de 2017

Happiness and Consumer Behavior in the Marketing Field: A Literature Overview and Research Agenda Proposition

Autoria Cecilia M Lobo de Araujo - [email protected] Mestr e Dout em Admin de Empresas /FGV/EAESP - Fundação Getulio Vargas/Esc de Admin de Empresas de São Paulo

Resumo A systematic review of the literature that relates happiness and consumer behavior in the marketing field is made, 235 articles are classified and 36 are content analyzed. It is presented the most important aspects of the field: most influent journals, evolution of the number of publications across time, influent authors, utilized methodologies of research, target groups studied, happiness definition and measures utilized, popular topics of the field and most salient discussions. A research agenda is proposed focused on identified needs and motivated questions raised by the review. An experiment, that explore higher level of satisfaction between consumption alternatives in order to maximize happiness through consumption, developed with American undergraduate students, and published at the Journal of Consumer Research, is a typical articles of the field. The needs to explore alternative consumer targets and increase the use of qualitative methodologies are identified and Happiness as a subject matter that needs to have explored its “dark side” is one of the research propositions. EnANPAD 2017 São Paulo / SP - 01 a 04 de Outubro de 2017

Happiness and Consumer Behavior in the Marketing Field: A Literature Overview and Research Agenda Proposition Abstract A systematic review of the literature that relates happiness and consumer behavior in the marketing field is made, 235 articles are classified and 36 are content analyzed. It is presented the most important aspects of the field: most influent journals, evolution of the number of publications across time, influent authors, utilized methodologies of research, target groups studied, happiness definition and measures utilized, popular topics of the field and most salient discussions. A research agenda is proposed focused on identified needs and motivated questions raised by the review. An experiment, that explore higher level of satisfaction between consumption alternatives in order to maximize happiness through consumption, developed with American undergraduate students, and published at the Journal of Consumer Research, is a typical articles of the field. The needs to explore alternative consumer targets and increase the use of qualitative methodologies are identified and Happiness as a subject matter that needs to have explored its “dark side” is one of the research propositions. Key words: Happiness, Consumer behavior, Consumer satisfaction, Subjective well-being. Introduction In common language happiness can be something from momentary joy to something that last and is a state of inner satisfaction. The original Greek meaning of happiness and a good life is being fortunate, lucky, and blessed, which is highly contingent upon external conditions and can be achieved only by very small and extremely fortunate talented individuals. This fragile, external view of happiness was dominant for centuries (Oishi, Graham, Kesebir, & Galinha, 2013). The unattainable happiness idea starts to gradually change with St. Thomas Aquinas that claimed in the 13th century that partial happiness can be achieved through “theological virtues”, the moral obligation to advance after human happiness is a fruit of the European ‘Enlightenment’, intellectual movement on the 18th century that was centered in reason and logic and against all metaphysical entities and religious views that had dominated thinking in the European Middle age (Veenhoven, 2015). The idea that humans are entitled to pursue and attain happiness gained acceptance throughout history even having resistance of the churches and competing ideas like the nationalism. The main act representing that movement was the Declaration of Independence of USA in 1776 by Thomas Jefferson’s that includes the pursuit of happiness along with life and liberty as an unalienable right. The study of Happiness and Well-being, beyond philosophy and psychiatry, can be considered born in 1967 by Warner Wilson and his article "Correlates of Avowed Happiness" that traces the profile of a happy person and open the discussion about happiness beyond a philosophical approach (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999); officially, the inclusion of happiness as an index term by the Psychological Abstracts International occur only in 1973. In 1974 the foundation of the journal Social Indicators Research that devote a large number of articles to subjective well-being and its association, through correlations, to income, consumption, life style, demographics, etc. materialize the discussion (Diener, 1984). According to the study of Kullenberg & Nelhans (2015) the emergence of happiness research on social science occurs after the year 2000 with Diener-Watson and respectively SWLS (Satisfaction with Life Scale) and PANAS (Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale) scales as the established methodological tools. In the Journal of Consumer Research, one of the first articles that link consumption to happiness appear in 1978 (Goldberg & Gorn, 1978), it

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discuss the strong influence of TV advertising on children’s and consequent unhappiness after frustrated request of advertised products. This article intends to give an overview of the field of happiness studies focused on consumer behavior and marketing, and make some propositions about future research possibilities as an invitation for colleagues to work on the theme, or at least have a perspective of possibilities. A systematic literature review is made; 235 five articles were initially selected resulting in 99 articles without duplicity, bibliometric indicators were developed and 36 articles were analyzed in content. The analysis detect the most relevant aspects of the field such as: most influent journals, evolution of the number of publications across time, influent authors, utilized methodologies of research, target groups studied, happiness definitions and measures utilized, popular topics of the field and most salient discussions. A research agenda is proposed focused on identified needs and motivated questions raised by the review. The article is organized as follow: Methodology, Results and Analysis, Research Agenda Proposition, and Conclusion. Methodology A systematic literature review was made inspired by Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart (2003) and applied for in Cacciotti & Hayton (2015) that set up the need to follow a very specific protocol and parameters, a very important need in this study based on the large volume of existing literature on happiness studies in different areas of knowledge, from health and medicine to sociology (Kullenberg & Nelhans, 2015). The first step was to define Scopus database as the source of articles, this database was chosen based on the collection of indexed journals, all relevant journals of the marketing field are listed; Next step and concern was the need to be very specific about the wording and parameters, but not too narrow, in order to have a rich overview of the marketing field. As an example: without parameters, the words “happiness” and “consumer behavior” result in almost three million references. This study decides to use the specific word “Happiness” as the term for the title or subject, even knowing that “subjective well-being” “life satisfaction” and “positive affect” are sometimes used as interchangeable words in part of the literature on happiness (Kullenberg & Nelhans, 2015). That decision was made based on the previous identification that in the consumer behavior and marketing field that term was common used, and it was also as strategy to be more specific. In short, the parameters for terms were: “happiness” on title OR subject AND “consumer behavior” as subject; extra filters were all the references should be academic articles, peer reviewed, and specifically from the marketing field. This search results in 235 articles that ended in 99 articles after the automatic removal of duplicities (Table 1). The third step was to transfer all those articles to a spreadsheet and start to classify all the references. The first classification was the source or journal of origin of each article; after, each article was ranked according to H index (Scimago 2015, SJR – Scientific Journal Rank). For the purpose of this article, the journals that have H index superior to sixty nine were considered; it is the equivalent to the top 11 journals of the Marketing field. The journals that fit those parameters and have articles represented in the sample were: Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Psychology and Marketing, International Journal of Research in Marketing and Journal of Consumer Psychology. Forty three articles were selected (seven articles were identified as duplications and were manually removed) and a bibliometric and content analysis was developed with the 36 articles.

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The fourth step was to continue to classify those articles in content details. All the articles were fully read in order to extract the following information: name of the article; authors; journal; year of publication; methodology; description of the methodology, topic related to happiness; research question; target group of the research; happiness definition; happiness measure; happiness classification as consequence, antecedent or goal; main findings, future research opportunities when clearly identified, and general observations. After the completion of the spreadsheet, several sessions of analysis were realized in order to categorize and organize the extracted information as described in next sessions. Results and Analysis Bibliometric. From the total of 99 originally selected articles, the journals that present the greater number of articles were Advance in Consumer Research (32 articles), Journal of Consumer Psychology (JCP, 20 articles) and Journal of Consumer Research (JCR, 15 articles) see Table 1. The first article to study happiness on that selection is from 1978 (Goldberg & Gorn, 1978) at JCR, it analyses the impact of TV advertising directed to children’s on children materialism and happiness of children’s and family. The frequency of articles per year remain below one in average until 2006 when the frequency starts to escalate and Table 1 Frequency of Articles per Journal achieve eleven articles in 2011 and fifteen in (source: author) 2016 (see figure 1); on the last 10 years 80% of the selected articles were released. That data confirm the tendency found by Kullenberg & Nelhans (2015) that identify “happiness studies” as becoming an “autonomous field of inquiry” and a key research problem for itself. There is a wide variety of authors, 71 were mentioned; Cassie Mogilner and Jennifer Aaker were the most cited authors presented in three articles each (Aaker, Drolet, & Griffin, 2008; Bhattacharjee & Mogilner, 2014; Etkin & Mogilner, 2016; Liu & Aaker, 2008), one of them together “How happiness affect choice” that were released in 2012 and 2014 on the Journal of Consumer Research (Mogilner, Aaker, & Kamvar, 2012) and is Figure 1Evolution of articles per year related to Happiness and Consumer one of the most cited Behavior (source: author) articles in happiness studies. The article that was identified as having the highest number of citation was Nicolao, Irwin, & Goodman (2009) with the article “Happiness for sale: Do experiential purchase brings more happiness than 3

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material purchase”, that is one of the first article to question the preference and higher level of happiness coming from experience compare to material purchase, the first article to bring that discussion is Van Boven & Gilovich (2003) that is present in the selection but is highly cited and is the starting point of one of the main topics of discussion on the happiness field. Topics will be discussed on dedicated session. Goldberg, Marvin; Gorn, Gerald; Irwin, J; Labroo, Aparna; Patrick, Vanessa; and Raghunathan, Rajagopal were authors of two articles in the selection. All others authors were cited one time. All the observations related to the content of the articles will be explored on the dedicated sessions. Methodology of researches. The most used methodology of research to explore the relationship between happiness and consumption in the marketing field were Experiments that were present in 25 articles, almost 70% of total. The intense utilization of experiments can be explained by research objectives of the area that looks for preferences, comparative satisfaction and happiness associate to different situations of consumption. The second biggest group was theoretical articles with 8 studies; and finally survey was used in 3 articles, in one of them combined with experiment. On that selection of articles no qualitative methodology were detected. The massive presence of quantitative researches and the absence of qualitative can be explained by the selection of Journals; previous literature review analyzing the last five years of publication in the marketing area shows a predominance of 80% to 85% for quantitative methods. Mixed methods start to be a tendency but still not a reality on the happiness field. Target groups. Most of the researches were realized with undergraduate students, 22 researches representing 80% of the articles that present empirical data, and Americans were in 20 of them, as exception two were developed with Italians and Hong Kong students. General public exclusivity was utilized in only three researches (11%), general public combined with students were presented in eight others articles making less than 50% of participation in all the studies. There is a potential bias on the utilized target groups, Americans and students; it is recurrent in all areas of knowledge, however it can be more sensitive on social sciences and specially when dealing with happiness a very cultural, age, moment of life, and gender sensitive; besides is valued differently by cultures and countries (Wirtz, Chiu, Diener, & Oishi, 2009); some cultures have a less positive view about happiness and even aversion to it (Joshanloo & Weijers, 2014); age is associated with higher and lower levels of happiness, having no agreement on that point; women’s tends to be happier than men’s (Arrosa & Gandelman, 2016; Bhattacharjee & Mogilner, 2014; Lacey, Kierstead, & Morey, 2012; Morgan, Robinson, & Thompson, 2015; Tsai, Knutson, & Fung, 2006; Veenhoven, 2011; Wirtz et al., 2009). Happiness - Definitions and Measures. As already mentioned, in common language happiness can be defined as something from a joy to satisfaction with life as whole. Being fortunate, lucky and blessed was identified as the most common definition of happiness, however, the American definition, source of most studies, has a different meaning and it is defined as something that is attainable and can be individually pursued (Oishi et al., 2013). That difference of meaning and being happiness such sensitive subject matter is obvious that there is a potential bias in all the researchers that involves the study of happiness. However, on the selected articles it has not been identified any specific issue about it. It was identified five definitions of happiness on the selected articles: happiness as satisfaction, what can be considered expected based on the fact that we are dealing with consumer behavior and marketing articles looking for the link between consumption and satisfaction; the second definition was happiness as a mood state; the third definition was happiness as well-being and satisfaction with life as a whole; the fourth definition was Joy, as an emotional state; and 4

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finally the fifth definition was happiness as a personality trait.Regarding the measures of happiness, it exists more than 70 different scales of happiness identified, from the “one item scale” type, to more complex scales of mood and personality trait with several items (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). On the selected articles, seven different scales were identified. Happiness defined as satisfaction was found in 16 articles (44%) and the “one item scale” was the utilized measure. All those articles were classified as utilizing similar definition and measure because they are asking about the satisfaction with a situation, consumption or general aspect of life. Those items were normally analyzed by comparisons between manipulated and non-manipulated groups in experiments, or just two different situations; The second most utilized definition of happiness was happiness as mood, an induced or manipulated state, it was present in 5 articles (14%%), five different ways to manipulated happiness as mood were presented and utilized in our sample (Chien-Huang & Hung-Chou, 2012; Fedorikhin & Patrick, 2010; Goldberg & Gorn, 1987; A. a. Labroo & Patrick, 2009; Mogilner et al., 2012); The third most utilized definition of happiness was subjective well- being or life satisfaction, measured by SWLS(Satisfaction with life scale) defined by (Diener, 1984) that consider positive affect, negative affect and general satisfaction with life, or PANAS (Positive and Negative affect scale) a 20 item scale, those are the most popular scales to analyze well-being and were used partially or complete used depending of the study; The fourth definition of happiness is joy, an emotion; the particularity is that the measurement of our selected article is derived from a negative emotion “Schandenfreude” that means the joy in the suffering of others that has a specific 4 item scale (happy, joyful, satisfied, glad) on a 1 to 9 scale (Sundie, Ward, Beal, Chin, & Geiger-Oneto, 2009). Happiness was also defined as personality trait and was measured by Lyubomirsky and Lepper, 1999 happiness scale (Hellén & Sääksjärvi, 2011). Most relevant topics. There is variety of topics associated to happiness in the marketing consumer behavior field, by coherence, most of them associate happiness to consumption (or the lack of it) and how it can or believe to predict the increase of momentary to long lasting happiness. One way that this article decides to sort those topics is by the role of happiness: as an antecedent, a goal or a consequence. Happiness as antecedent. Happiness as an antecedent, in the context of this article, is all the articles that consider happiness as preexistent; such as trait of personality, mood effect, or emotion presented previous to the analyzed consumption or consumption decision. There are seven articles in our sample with that classification (19%). One of the most impactful articles is (Mogilner et al., 2012) that categorizes types of happiness per age (temporal focus) and its impacts on consumer choices; another example shows how happiness as a trait of personality impacts service evaluation (Hellén & Sääksjärvi, 2011); Chien-Huang & Hung- Chou (2012) show how mood impacts the desire for variety, and A. a. Labroo & Patrick (2009) how happiness, considered as lack of stress, allows consumers to see the big picture and have a better understanding of the environment; Goldberg & Gorn (1987) show how happy or sad mood impact evaluations; Fedorikhin & Patrick (2010) is another example of how mood affects choice, in this example related to heathy choices, and happiness is evaluated from others, a Transformative Consumer Research example; and finally, a more specific article, explain the Darwinian happiness, an overview of the evolutionary consumption (Saad, 2013). Happiness as a goal. Happiness as a goal in the context of this article is the expectation and forecast of the impact of consumption in one’s life, impact that can be from a

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hedonic moment of consumption, to life satisfaction and well-being as a whole. It was identified five articles that explore forecast and expectations (14%). The prediction of happiness was explored in Wood & Bettman (2007) that analyses how normative rules impact expected durability of happiness in future consumptions; on the same path A. A. Labroo & Mukhopadhyay (2009) explore how the perception of emotion duration impacts choices, having always the maximization of happiness as objective; Baskin, Wakslak, Trope, & Novemsky (2014) explore the difference of expectation and satisfaction between gift givers and receivers; Context and Mood were also identified as important in the impact of predicted happiness and satisfaction (Raghunathan & Irwin, 2001); finally, Aaker et al. (2008) explicit how emotion recall (remembered utilities) failures and generally are underreported, and how mixed emotions recall are even harder to be accurate and need to be studied by itself. Happiness as consequence. Happiness as consequence of consumption or expenditure was the largest group of articles, 24 articles that represent 67% of our sample. One of the most relevant topic on that group is how to maximize happiness trough an adequate expenditure, “If money doesn't make you happy, then you probably aren't spending it right”(Dunn, Gilbert, & Wilson, 2011) is one of the seminal articles of the area, the article makes a summary of key empirical findings on maximization of happiness through spending and caused a research dialogue at JCP in 2011. The research dialogue was presented by Priester & Petty (2011) and explores how individuals can use money as a way to increase happiness; Money do not “buy” happiness was the argument of Vohs & Baumeister (2011), they explicit the fact that money is a facilitator to attend goals and reduce life pain, money do not necessarily increase happiness but definitely is a way to decrease unhappiness; Hsee, Yang, Li, & Shen (2009) compare happiness through money, acquisition and consumption and conclude that money and acquisition is are relative (comparability) consumption can be relative of absolute; Thrift was the response from Chancellor & Lyubomirsky (2011) as a new perspective to increase happiness through reduction of consumption or even no consumption. The second big topic is the discussion between experiences and material consumption and its impact on happiness. This discussion has started with the seminal article “To do or to have? This is the question” (Van Boven & Gilovich, 2003) and updated by Gilovich, Kumar, & Jampol (2015) article that reaffirm higher levels of happiness associated with the consumption of experiences compared to material purchase and gave the main reasons and mechanism. This article also invites another research dialogue at JCP presented by (Pham, 2015), the others articles of this dialogue are not presented in our sample but is interesting to mention that they present alternative mechanisms, a new category of purchase - experiential product (material product that provides experiences) (Guevarra & Howell, 2015) and question the unanimity experience as the main provider of superior level of happiness through brand experience mechanism (Schmitt, Joško Brakus, & Zarantonello, 2015). The discussion about experiences continues with the work of Ma & Roese (2013) that compares reward distribution happiness between experience and material rewards, and agreed with Gilovich and colleagues, reaffirm that experiences lead to lower levels of comparison resulting in higher levels of happiness. Specificities about experiences are explored by Bhattacharjee & Mogilner (2014) that detect that extraordinary experiences are valued in all ages, however ordinary experiences are more valued with age; the work of Etkin & Mogilner (2016) explores variety of experiences as a source of happiness in specific conditions (longer period of time); and one important article that question the universal believe about experiences as always the source of higher levels of happiness is provided by Nicolao et al.(2009) that points that this relations is inverted when a negative experience is involved.

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The third featured topic in the “happiness as consequence” group is charity and donation, spending in others. The main accepted idea is that money to benefit others brings high levels of happiness (Dunn et al., 2011). How to increase donation and consequently happiness was explored by Liu & Aaker (2008) with the time ask effect concept that detect that people donate more if you ask for time instead of money; and by Wang & Tong (2015) that detect that publicize the name of donors has a negative effect on total donation; Cause marketing products has been proved to decrease the total amount of donation to a cause (Krishna, 2011), people has the feeling that they had already contributed and the developed relation with that expenditure is more linked with a selfish purchase than a charitable giving expenditure impacting the resultant happiness; the effect of self-construal level on the wiliness to donate is studied by Duclos & Barasch (2014). There are others important topics that appear on the selection of articles, even if without a big volume of cited articles. The impact of materialism on happiness is one of those topics, it explore the negative effect of materialism on happiness; the increase of materialism on child by advertising and the decrease of happiness as consequence of frustration with no consumption is explored by Goldberg & Gorn (1978), and the detection of materialism as mediator and moderator of family structure stress by Roberts, Tanner, & Manolis (2005). Categorization is another topic that is explored in two articles, one detect the alteration of satiation through categorization (Redden, 2008) and the other explores how consumers maximize satisfaction with consumption with different strategies of categorizations to positive or negative experience (Shah & Alter, 2014). An article explores the happiness derived from the suffering of others (Sundie et al., 2009), and another how opinion of other impact happiness of consumption (Raghunathan & Corfman, 2006), Soscia (2007) explores the effect of emotions, in this case, happiness or its absence, in post consumption behavior; Dhar & Kim (2007) explore the Construal Level theory on consumer choice; and finally the last article of our selection has as topic “on line coupons”, however the interesting about this article is related to its procedures, is the only article that explores neurophysiology with the observation of oxytocin levels as one measure of happiness, a still new field (Alexander, Tripp, & Zak, 2015).

Research Agenda Proposition The literature review identified needs and motivated the raise of others research ideas to develop a better understanding of the relation between happiness and consumption in the Marketing field. The main ideas are listed below: It was not detected the utilization of qualitative methodology in our selection of articles and it is not a common methodology of research of that specific field that started with surveys trying to identify the profile of the “happy individual”, and now is centered on experiments. The consumer behavior research field can have interesting new perspectives about the relation between happiness and consumption thorough a qualitative perspective that can explore a better understanding of motivations and needs related to the different kinds of happiness. There is no doubt that the fact that most of the researches are developed with undergraduate students in the USA can create a bias regarding any domain, however beyond a sensitivity to culture that has already be alerted it is important to remember and address that happiness seems to be sensitive to age, gender, etc. and a more diverse and stratified groups should be investigated. Another point is to detect if even in the same “demographic” group there is diversity of the understanding and desires regarding achievement of a happy life for example or just happy moments.

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Happiness as antecedent should be better explored. It is known from research on subjective well-being that happiness correlates with the increase of savings, negatively associated with materialism for example. How does it impact consumption as a whole? Is this a stable trait across categories or specific? If happiness is really a desired goal of life, it should be better explored. To start it need to have a better understanding about similarities and differences between groups (age, moment of life, cultures, gender, etc.). What “happiness” means is related to a profile of consumption? How does it differ by groups or demographics? Are we just considering hedonic consumption or consumption as a whole? How about affiliation needs and new identity needs, how does it impact the consumption path? Forecast and expectation about satisfaction through consumption should be better understood. The forecast define consumption and we are not having a good understanding of that mechanism and consequences of it. We are known as bad forecaster, how can we increase our forecast? If we have better mechanism to do a good forecast is this going to change our behavior regarding consumption choices? Maximization of happiness through consumption should explore (more) mechanism in order to maybe develop a “general law” and at the same time it is important to develop the understanding of the individuals. How is the non-consumption trend associated with happiness? Is this the same as conspicuous consumption or is something different? How is the non-consumption trend creating new markets like sharing or renting? How is happiness across all the cycle of consumption? From planning, to buying experience, consuming and disposal, how does happiness varies across the process? Disposal is gaining a salience and relevance in the green economic moment, how does it impact consumption? How that issue (stress opposed to happiness of consumption) can change consumer behavior and buying decisions? If looking for happiness through consumption is called materialism, and materialism has already been proved to have a negative relation to happiness. How that apparent contradiction can be solved? “Dark side” of happiness. The literature on happiness explores the positive side of happiness. However, what happens when “be happy” becomes an obligation as informally detected in the USA? How social media is impacting real happiness with the constant exercise of picturing a perfect life? Is happiness a new source of stress?

Conclusion The literature on happiness is very diverse and has a significant volume of articles but still have a lot of topics to be explored. This article tried to show, in focusing on very specific journals and words, the “tip of the iceberg” of the happiness field offering a good understanding about happiness when related to consumer behavior and marketing. It was detected that even happiness being a relevant and well explored field we still have needs and opportunities to develop a better understanding of consumers and opportunity to impact happiness in one’s life or moments. With the better understanding of motivators, mechanism, target groups we can influence a better life offering more adequate (right) choices, or at least sharing the information in order to allow consumer to make them choices. It is also worth to

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study how the evolution of the concept of happiness to something that should be pursued is impacting the happiness level. Is happiness a new source of stress and unhappiness? Bibliography Aaker, J., Drolet, A., & Griffin, D. (2008). Recalling Mixed Emotions. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(2), 268–278. http://doi.org/10.1086/588570 Alexander, V., Tripp, S., & Zak, P. J. (2015). Preliminary Evidence for the Neurophysiologic Effects of Online Coupons: Changes in Oxytocin, Stress, and Mood. Psychology & Marketing, 32(3), 977–986. http://doi.org/10.1002/mar Arrosa, M. L., & Gandelman, N. (2016). Happiness Decomposition: Female Optimism. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(2), 731–756. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9618- 8 Baskin, E., Wakslak, C. J., Trope, Y., & Novemsky, N. (2014). Why feasibility matters more to gift receivers than to givers: A construal-level approach to gift giving. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(1), 169–182. http://doi.org/10.1086/675737 Bhattacharjee, A., & Mogilner, C. (2014). Happiness from Ordinary and Extraordinary Experiences. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(1), 1–17. http://doi.org/10.1086/674724 Cacciotti, G., & Hayton, J. C. (2015). Fear and entrepreneurship: A review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 17(2), 165–190. http://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12052 Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2011). Happiness and thrift: When (spending) less is (hedonically) more. Journal of Consumer Psychology (Elsevier Science), 21(2), 131– 138. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.004 Chien-Huang, L., & Hung-Chou, L. (2012). Effects of Mood States on Variety Seeking: The Moderating Roles of Personality. Psychology & Marketing, 29(3), 157–166. http://doi.org/10.1002/mar Dhar, R., & Kim, E. Y. (2007). Seeing the forest or the trees: Implications of construal level theory for consumer choice. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(2), 96–100. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70014-1 Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542 Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective Weil-Being : Three Decades of Progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276 Duclos, R., & Barasch, A. (2014). Prosocial Behavior in Intergroup Relations: How Donor Self-Construal and Recipient Group-Membership Shape Generosity. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(1), 93–108. http://doi.org/10.1086/674976 Dunn, E. W., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2011). If money doesn’t make you happy, then you probably aren’t spending it right. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(2), 115–125. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002

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Liu, W., & Aaker, J. (2008). The Happiness of Giving: The Time-Ask Effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3), 543–557. http://doi.org/10.1086/588699 Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803–855. http://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803 Ma, J., & Roese, N. J. (2013). The Countability Effect: Comparative versus Experiential Reactions to Reward Distributions. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(6), 1219–1233. http://doi.org/10.1086/668087 Mogilner, C., Aaker, J., & Kamvar, S. D. (2012). How Happiness Affects Choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 39. http://doi.org/10.1086/663774 Morgan, J., Robinson, O., & Thompson, T. (2015). Happiness and age in European adults: The moderating role of gross domestic product per capita. Psychology and Aging, 30(3), 544–551. http://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000034 Nicolao, L., Irwin, J. R., & Goodman, J. K. (2009). Happiness for Sale: Do Experiential Purchases Make Consumers Happier than Material Purchases? Journal of Consumer Research. http://doi.org/10.1086/597049 Oishi, S., Graham, J., Kesebir, S., & Galinha, I. C. (2013). Concepts of happiness across time and cultures. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(5), 559–77. http://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213480042 Pham, M. T. (2015). On consumption happiness: A research dialogue. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 150–151. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.10.001 Priester, J. R., & Petty, R. E. (2011). The pot-holed path to happiness, possibly paved with money: A research dialogue. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(2), 113–114. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.005 Raghunathan, R., & Corfman, K. (2006). Is happiness shared doubled and sadness shared halved? Social influence on enjoyment of hedonic experiences. Journal of Marketing Research, 43(3), 386–394. http://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.43.3.386 Raghunathan, R., & Irwin, J. R. (2001). Walking the Hedonic Product Treadmill: Default Contrast and Mood‐Based Assimilation in Judgments of Predicted Happiness with a Target Product. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3), 355–368. http://doi.org/10.1086/323727 Redden, J. P. (2008). Reducing Satiation: The Role of Categorization Level. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(5), 624–634. http://doi.org/10.1086/521898 Roberts, J. A., Tanner, J. F., & Manolis, C. (2005). Materialism and the family structure– stress relation. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(2), 183–190. http://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1502_10 Saad, G. (2013). Evolutionary consumption. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23(3), 351– 371. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2013.03.002 Schmitt, B., Joško Brakus, J., & Zarantonello, L. (2015). From experiential psychology to consumer experience. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 166–171. 11

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http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.09.001 Shah, A. K., & Alter, A. L. (2014). Consuming Experiential Categories. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(December), 000–000. http://doi.org/10.1086/677893 Soscia, I. (2007). Gratitude, delight, or guilt: The role of consumers’ emotions in predicting postconsumption behaviors. Psychology & Marketing, 24(10), 871–894. http://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20188 Sundie, J. M., Ward, J. C., Beal, D. J., Chin, W. W., & Geiger-Oneto, S. (2009). Schadenfreude as a consumption-related emotion: Feeling happiness about the downfall of another’s product. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(3), 356–373. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2009.02.015 Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review *. British Journal of Management, 14, 207–222. http://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375 Tsai, J. L., Knutson, B., & Fung, H. H. (2006). Cultural variation in affect valuation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 288–307. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022- 3514.90.2.288 Van Boven, L., & Gilovich, T. (2003). To Do or to Have? That Is the Question. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(6), 1193–1202. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022- 3514.85.6.1193 Veenhoven, R. (2011). Cross-national differencies in happiness: Cultural measurment bias or effect of culture? Happiness: Does Culture Matter?, 2, 333–353. http://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v2.i4.4 Veenhoven, R. (2015). Informed Pursuit of Happiness : What we should know , do know and can get to know. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1035–1071. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9560-1 Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2011). What’s the use of happiness? It can’t buy you money. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(2), 139–141. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.003 Wang, X., & Tong, L. (2015). Hide the light or let it shine? Examining the factors influencing the effect of publicizing donations on donors’ happiness. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 32(4), 418–424. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2015.06.001 Wirtz, D., Chiu, C., Diener, E., & Oishi, S. (2009). What constitutes a good life? Cultural differences in the role of positive and negative affect in subjective well-being. Journal of Personality, 77(4), 1167–1196. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00578.x Wood, S. L., & Bettman, J. R. (2007). Predicting Happiness: How Normative Feeling Rules Influence (and Even Reverse) Durability Bias. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(3), 188–201. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70028-1

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