The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Communications SOFTBALL’S OLYMPIC DEFEAT: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE ONLINE PRESENCE OF WOMEN ON INTERNATIONAL SPORTS FEDERATION WEBSITES A Thesis in Media Studies by Jamie L. Paton © 2010 Jamie L. Paton Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts August 2010 ii The thesis of Jamie L. Paton was reviewed and approved* by the following: Colleen Connolly-Ahern Associate Professor of Communications Thesis Advisor Marie Hardin Associate Dean for Administration Jeanne Lynn Hall Associate Professor of Communications John S. Nichols Professor of Communications Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and Research *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT After softball was dropped from the 2012 Olympic program, the International Softball Federation formed an initiative to regain inclusion. The initiative was unsuccessful. The purpose of this thesis was to examine the International Softball Federation’s communicative efforts by comparing its website with current Olympic team sport federation websites. This study utilized a qualitative content analysis to observe any differences in representation of gender and nationalism. Findings demonstrated that the federation websites offered a Western perspective of international sports and perpetuated common frames regarding female athletes such as exclusion, reinforced femininity, and hyper-sexualization. This thesis offers a unique contribution to the field of sports communication research, as it is the first to study federation websites, which are created by the sports associations themselves, rather than news coverage or advertisements, over which athletes and sports organizations have less control. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................. vi Chapter 1............................................................................................................................. 1 Background......................................................................................................................... 4 A brief history of Olympic softball................................................................................. 4 The IOC and its role in the promotion of women........................................................... 6 The ISF’s Back Softball campaign ................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2........................................................................................................................... 11 Literature Review ............................................................................................................. 11 The gendered nature of sports....................................................................................... 11 Women, sports, and the media...................................................................................... 14 Sponsorship and corporatization................................................................................... 18 The globalization of sports ........................................................................................... 20 Public relations ............................................................................................................. 27 Chapter 3........................................................................................................................... 39 Methodology..................................................................................................................... 39 Sample .......................................................................................................................... 40 Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 41 Chapter 4........................................................................................................................... 44 Findings ............................................................................................................................ 44 Gender portrayal ........................................................................................................... 44 Gender in visuals .......................................................................................................... 53 Sports and an international audience ............................................................................ 59 Principles of dialogical communication ....................................................................... 63 Frames........................................................................................................................... 68 Impression Management............................................................................................... 75 Chapter 5........................................................................................................................... 79 Discussion......................................................................................................................... 79 The representation of women ....................................................................................... 79 A global presence.......................................................................................................... 81 Public relation strategies............................................................................................... 82 Implications .................................................................................................................. 84 Limitations.................................................................................................................... 88 Future Research ............................................................................................................ 88 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 90 Works Cited ...................................................................................................................... 91 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4-1: Woman’s hip with volleyball..................................................................................... 56 Figure 4-2: Woman about to block shot………………………………………………………... 56 Figure 4-3: Man about to block shot………………………………………………………….… 56 Figure 4-4: Female basketball player in posed photo…………………………………………... 58 Figure 4-5: Male basketball player in action shot………………………………………………. 58 Figure 4-6: Photo of female soccer player from calendar…………………………………….… 58 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 3-1: Sports federations’ abbreviations and URLs ………………………………………...41 1 Chapter 1 After four consecutive Olympic appearances, the sport of women’s softball was removed from the Olympic program after the 2008 Summer Olympics. While its fate was sealed for the 2012 games, the International Softball Federation (ISF) hoped to see the sport reinstated by the 2016 Summer Olympics. However, on August 13, 2009, the International Olympic Committee’s executive board voted down bids by softball (and baseball) for readmission. Golf and rugby won the majority of votes and the opportunity for inclusion in the 2016 games while the Olympic fate of softball remains uncertain. Since the initial announcement in 2006 that softball was not going to be included in the 2012 games the ISF has proactively worked to improve the appeal of softball’s Olympic bid. The ‘Back Softball’ campaign was created specifically for this endeavor and promotes the sport through an online and ‘on the ground’ presence (International Softball Federation, n.d.). A substantial portion of the ISF’s initiative was conducted through groundwork such as starting up leagues and introducing the sport to new countries around the world; however, the primary focus of this study is on the online communicative processes undertaken by the ISF through the use of their websites. The purpose of this thesis is to examine the web presence of women within international sports federations. More specifically, a comparative analysis was conducted between the ISF and federations for the current women’s Olympic team sports such as basketball, soccer, ice hockey, and volleyball. Using the sports federations’ official websites and linked media content, I hope to understand how these federations handle women’s sports and communicate to and build relationships with a global audience through the Internet, and to observe any differences in their communicative processes. How the federations position and promote women and sports will be 2 more specifically examined through the federations’ use of online features, frames, and impression management strategies. Although softball is not the first or only sport to be removed from the Olympics, the case of softball and its “Back Softball” campaign is significant. It is an international women’s sport that is continually problematized by the dominance of the United States women’s softball team. With the exception of the 2008 Olympic games, the U.S. team won all three prior Olympic gold medals and seven World Championship titles (USA Softball, n.d.). However, softball is played in 128 countries, and perhaps just needs more time for the playing field to even out. Softball is not the only