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Background on Chevalley Groups Constructed from a Root System

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Background on Chevalley Groups Constructed from a Root System Background on Chevalley Groups Constructed from a Root System Paul Tokorcheck Department of Mathematics University of California, Santa Cruz 10 October 2011 Abstract In 1955, Claude Chevalley described a construction which begins with the root sys- tem of a complex, semisimple Lie algebra g, and yields a corresponding Lie group G which has g as its Lie algebra. His method was improved by Robert Steinberg in 1959. In the cases An, Bn, Cn, and Dn, this method gives the simply connected groups SLn+1, Spin2n+1, Sp2n, and Spin2n, respectively. However, this method can also be used to more easily define the exceptional Lie groups, the analogous groups over arbitrary fields, or even over commutative rings. Such groups, like SLn(Fq) or G2(Qp), fall under the blanket term ’groups of Lie type’. 1 Background Historically, the identification of many abstract simple groups was done via a careful consideration of simple complex Lie groups. For example, if one defines the group SL2(C) to be the group of two-by-two matrices of determinant one, then the field C may be easily replaced by any field or commutative ring (with identity) without alteration of the definition. But many other groups, which were known (at least formally) to exist via an association to a Lie algebra or root system, failed to admit such a simple definition. Theoretically, all such algebraic groups can be considered as subgroups of GLn satisfying some polynomial conditions on the entries, though the size of n and the nature of the polynomial conditions 1 proved to be elusive. At the time of Chevalley’s work, only the exceptional group G2 had admitted2 such an identification. 1 In Chevalley’s introduction of [?], he states that he has himself applied this method to the groups F4, E6, and E7 in an unedited and unpublished work. 2For the first time in [?] and [?]. 1 Moreover, this path requires one to study each type of simple Lie group individually. The strength of Chevalley’s construction is that it allows us to study all groups which arise from an abstract root system simultaneously, regardless of their association to any Lie algebra or particular field. We will therefore call any group constructed using his method a Chevalley group. 2 Necessary Components To identify the group G in question we require only an abstract, reduced root system. We therefore proceed with a few definitions. Definition 1 ([?]). An abstract root system in a finite-dimensional inner product space V with inner product h·, ·i and norm squared j·j2 is a finite set F of nonzero elements of V such that (a) F spans V, 2hb, ai (b) If a and b are in F, then is an integer, jaj2 2hb, ai (c) The orthogonal transformations sa(b) := b − a, for a 2 F, carry F to itself. jaj2 An abstract root system is said to be reduced if a 2 D implies 2a 2/ D. We may choose a decomposition of F into positive and negative roots F = F+ t F−. The way that we choose this decomposition is unimportant, so long as the positive roots satisfy the following properties: (a) For any nonzero a 2 F, exactly one of a and −a is positive. (b) The sum of positive elements is positive, and any positive multiple of a positive element is positive. Then, among the positive roots we can find the set of simple roots D, which are defined by the property that if d 2 D, then d cannot be written d = a + b for a, b 2 F+. We will also take W to denote the Weyl group of isometries of V, generated by the elements sa (from root axiom (3)) which reflect a root b across the hyperplane orthogonal a in V. After making some choice of positive roots and identifying fa1, a2,..., ang = D (here n = dim V), we define the factors: 2ha , a i = i j Aij 2 jaij 2 Recall that from the root axioms, we are guaranteed that Aij 2 Z. Then, the Cartan matrix of F (with respect to D) is defined to be the n × n matrix A = Aij . Although this matrix will depend not only on our choice of simple roots, but also on their enumeration, distinct choices will lead to matrices which are conjugate by some permutation matrix. The combinatorial properties imposed on the entries of this matrix by the root axioms lead to the classification of all such Cartan matrices, and to the notion of the Dynkin diagram. The classification of all Dynkin diagrams, and therefore all abstract reduced root systems, is well-known and can be found in references such as [?] or [?]. 3 The Chevalley Construction The Chevalley generators of G will each be of the form ea(t), parameterized by t 2 k and a 2 F. From these basic generators one can also construct the following secondary elements: Definition 2. For t 2 k×, define: −1 wa(t) := ea(t)e−a(−t )ea(t) ha(t) := wa(t)wa(−1) The relations which define the group G are the following [?, pg 66]: (a) The ea(t) are each homomorphisms from the additive group of k into G, that is: ea(s + t) = ea(s)ea(t) for all s, t 2 k, (b) If a, b 2 F with a + b 6= 0, then i j [ea(s), eb(t)] = ∏ eia+jb(Nijs t ), where the product is taken over all (strictly) positive integers i, j 2 Z such that ia + jb 2 F, and the Nij are each integers depending on a, b, but not on s, t, (c) Each ha(t) is multiplicative in t. Though G is presently only an abstract group, devoid of any topological or geometric properties, the relations just given still impart a significant amount of structure onto the group. For example, one can show that structure constants Nij described in (b) will be equal to either ±1,±2, or ±3 for any initial F or choice of D. There is great deal more theory which comes directly from the Chevalley construction alone, the best treatments of which can be found in [?] and [?]. From our generators, we define the following subgroups: 3 Definition 3 ([?]). If G is a Chevalley group constructed as we have just described, then let T := hha(t)i N := hwa(t)i, where a 2 F and t 2 k×. Then T ≤ G is called the Cartan subgroup of G. The subgroup N will also play a role, as evidenced by the following proposition. Proposition 1 ([?]). Let T and N be as described above, and W be the Weyl group of F. Then: (a) T is normal in N. (b) The map f : N ! W that sends wa(t) to the reflection sa induces an isomorphism of N/T with W. Therefore we note that we are able to define the Weyl group N/T of G without any topological references whatsoever. Of course, in the case that k = C and G is a legitimate Lie group, T will be the familiar maximal torus of G, and its Lie algebra will be a Cartan subalgebra of g. However, these considerations are unnecessary in the abstract case. In the context described above, one often wishes to consider the roots as homomorphisms defined on such a maximal torus. Now that we have the (abstract) subgroup T, we can recover this notion of a root via the following definition: Definition 4. Let t 2 k, and hb(t) 2 T. Then a 2 F can be considered as a homomorphism a : T ! k×, via the calculation 2hb,ai/ha,ai a hb(t) = t . _ × Moreover, one defines the coroot a (t) : k ! T as the homomorphism sending t to ha(t). Therefore we can consider our roots and coroots as characters and cocharacters of T. We can also check that the composition (a ◦ a_)(t) = t2ha,ai/ha,ai = t2 defines a pairing between the roots and coroots. 4 When More is Known Though the theory of abstract Chevalley groups is extensive, quite a bit more can be said if we attach to the root system its appropriate Lie group or Lie algebra. For example, in the case that a root system F can be identified with a well-known algebraic group G, then we might identify generators of G which are in correspondence with our Chevalley generators ea(t). Describing the precise correspondence between various generators and roots usually involves some (sometimes lengthy) calculation. A simple example of such an identification is described in the next section. 4 On the other hand, if one attaches to the root system its appropriate semisimple complex Lie algebra g, there is an explicit connection of the root a to the generator e via the exponential map. One can choose a root space decomposition M g = h ga a2F with a suitable choice of root vectors Xa from their respective root spaces that satisfy certain algebraic properties. Chevalley showed in [?] that such a basis fHd, Xag of g (appropriately called a Chevalley basis) always exists. One can then formally expo- nentiate each basis element against an invariant t to arrive at specific group generators ea(t) := exp(tXa). Since t is an invariant which can be taken from any field, this approach is general. 5 An Example The group SL2(k) can be constructed from rank one root diagram having two roots, F = fa, −ag. Since we also know two generators of SL2(k) when considered as group of matrices over an arbitrary field k, we can make the association, for t 2 k: 1 t 1 0 e (t) = , e (t) = a 0 1 −a t 1 From these generators, we calculate that −1 wa(t) = ea(t)e−a(−t )ea(t) t 1 0 t = 1 1 0 1 −t−1 1 0 1 0 t = , −t−1 0 hf(t) = wf(t)wf(−1) 0 t − = 0 1 −t−1 0 1 0 t 0 = .
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