Scoping Agriculture– Wetland Interactions 33 Towards a Sustainable Multiple-Response Strategy
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FAO WATER REPORTS Scoping agriculture– wetland interactions 33 Towards a sustainable multiple-response strategy Coordinated and edited by Adrian Wood and Gerardo E. van Halsema With substantive contributions by the partner organizations of the project Guidelines on Agriculture, Wetlands and Water Resource Interactions (GAWI): Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar) Wageningen University and Research Centre (WUR) International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Wetland Action (WA) Wetland International (WI) FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2008 The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations or of any contributing organizations to this product. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. ISBN 978-92-5-106059-9 All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: Chief Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch Communication Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: [email protected] © FAO 2008 iii Contents Documents available on CD-ROM viii Summary ix Acknowledgements xiii General introduction to the report 1 Section I – Agriculture–wetland interactions 3 1. Exploring agriculture–wetland interactions: a framework for analysis 5 Wetlands – diversity and definition 7 Definitions and typologies 7 Global diversity and distribution of wetlands 9 Ecosystem services 9 Ecosystem services concept 9 Application and relevance of the ecosystem service concept to the GAWI initiative 16 Wetland change dynamics 16 Wetland formation and loss under natural conditions 16 Global change in wetlands, patterns and rates 17 Key driving forces – their diversity globally and by wetland type 17 Agriculture and wetland interactions 17 In situ interactions 18 External interactions (basin interactions) 20 Nature of agriculture–wetland interactions 21 Relevance for the GAWI project 22 MA and CA perspectives on wetlands and agriculture 22 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) 22 Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA) 23 Conclusions for the GAWI initiative 24 Livelihoods, poverty reduction and wetland stakeholders 24 Livelihoods and poverty reduction 25 Local-level stakeholders 26 National-level stakeholders 26 International community and wetlands 26 Relevance to the GAWI initiative 26 Conclusions 27 2. Methods and sources 29 Acquiring the case studies 29 Sources 29 Methodological limitations 30 Analysing agriculture–wetland interactions 31 iv The DPSIR framework 31 Elements of the DPSIR framework 31 Applying the DPSIR framework to case studies 33 Analysing the cases 33 Checklists 33 Database, coding and analysis 35 Reflections 35 3. Assessment of agriculture–wetland interactions across the case database 37 The case database 38 Drivers 41 Driver groups 41 Individual drivers 43 Pressures 44 Pressure groups 44 Individual pressures 44 State changes 47 State change groups 47 Individual state changes 49 Impacts 51 Impacts groups 53 Individual impacts 53 Responses 56 DPSIR level of responses 56 Actors responding 57 Discussion 58 Section II – Case studies 63 4. Small swamp wetlands in southwest Ethiopia 65 Drivers 65 Pressures 66 State changes 67 Impacts 68 Responses 69 The value of the dpsir analysis in Illubabor 69 Wider considerations 70 Conclusions 72 5. Revitalizing regulating services: the Netherlands floodplain policy 73 Floodplain cases from Europe 73 The common EU policy context 74 River floodplains and revitalization of flood retention capacity 76 Drivers 77 Pressures 77 State changes 77 Impacts 78 v Responses 78 Conclusions 79 6. Oil-palm estate development in Southeast Asia: consequences for peat swamp forests and livelihoods in Indonesia 81 Drivers 82 Pressures 83 State changes 83 Impacts 84 Responses 84 Conclusions 85 7. Agriculture in tropical river basins – impacts on aquatic lagoon and estuary ecosystems 87 Overview of key characteristics 87 Case studies 89 Drivers 89 Pressures 91 State changes 91 Impacts 92 Responses 92 Conclusions 94 8. Integrated rice and fish culture/capture in the lower Songkhram River basin, northeast Thailand 97 Drivers 99 Pressures 99 State changes 101 Impacts 101 Responses 102 Value of the dpsir analysis 103 conclusions 104 Section III – Responses and guidance 105 9. Response scenarios 107 Responses in the context of the DPSIR analysis 107 Characteristics of response scenarios 108 Specific cases of successful response scenarios 111 Conservation 111 Livelihood development and conservation 111 Water resources and river basin planning 112 Market, PES and financial mechanisms 113 Response scenarios and facilitating circumstances 113 Conclusions 114 10.From analysis to guidance 117 Aims and context of the GAWI initiative 117 vi Problems, scope and “issues” of skewed ecosystem services in AWIs 117 Scoping out rebalancing options 118 Diversifying provisioning services 119 Diversifying into other ecosystem services for livelihood benefits 119 Functional and strategic planning at basin scale 121 Scope for gawi guidance 123 Towards guidance 123 References 125 Annexes 1. Ramsar COP Resolution VIII 34 131 2. Checklist format 135 3. Coding for database 137 4. List of case studies 143 5. Tables of individual DPSI elements 151 vii List of tables 1. Categorization by wetland type (Ramsar categories) 8 2. Ecosystem services provided by, or derived from, wetlands 11 3. Relative magnitude of ecosystem services derived from different inland wetland ecosystems 12 4. Search terms and results of academic database interrogation 29 5. Global distribution of case studies by Ramsar wetland type 39 6. Major characteristics of the case database 40 7. Type of response as percentage of total responses 58 viii List of figures 1. Global distribution of wetland types 10 2. Main direct drivers of change (pressures) in wetland systems 18 3. Conceptual model of agriculture–wetland interactions 19 4. Ecosystem services and human well-being 25 5. Distribution of case studies by region and development situation 38 6. Wetland type distribution by region 38 7. Market orientation by region 38 8. Water control by region 40 9. Distribution of reported drivers by driver group 42 10. Global and local market drivers by region 43 11. Distribution of pressures by pressure group 45 12. Agricultural expansion by region 46 13. Agricultural intensification by region 46 14. Distribution of state changes by state change group 48 15. Water quality state changes by region 50 16. Distribution of state changes in Africa 50 17. Distribution of impacts by impact group 52 18. Market and commercial agriculture by region 53 19. Changes in subsistence agriculture 54 20. Socio-economic impacts by region 54 21. Responses to DPSI element 56 22. Actors responding 57 23. AWIs in Illubabor Zone, southwest Ethiopia 67 24. DPSI linkages in the swamps of Illubabor Zone, Ethiopia 71 25. AWIs in the floodplains of Europe 75 26. DPSI linkages in European floodplains 80 27. AWIs in the peat forests of Southeast Asia 82 28. DPSI linkages in peat forests of Southeast Asia 85 29. AWIs in tropical river basins and lagoons 88 30. DPSIR linkages in tropical river basins (including lagoon ecosystems) with rice farming, fisheries and aquaculture 93 31. AWIs in integrated rice and fish culture/capture systems in South and Southeast Asian tropical river basins 98 32. DPSI linkages in integrated rice and fish culture/capture systems in South and Southeast Asian tropical river basins 100 33. Overall responses by Ramsar region 108 34. Detailed response scenarios by Ramsar region 109 ix List of boxes 1. Permanent swamps, Illubabor, Ethiopia 34 2. Similar cases from other countries 65 3. Common and diverse drivers of wetland agriculture in Africa 66 4. Conflicts resulting from wetland agriculture in Africa 68 5. Flood retention in the middle Sava River 74 6. Small river valleys with peat meadows 79 7. Other cases of peat swamp forest loss for oil-palm development 81 8. The issue of water quality in coastal aquatic ecosystems 88 9. Drivers in tropical river basins and coastal lagoons 89 10. Pressures from urban water supply, irrigation and shrimp farming 90 11. State changes – hydroecological degradation in lagoons 91 12. Competition and economic diversification impacts of shrimp cultivation 92 13. Water management responses to integrate fish/aquaculture with rice cultivation 94 14. Wild capture fisheries in rice fields – the hidden harvest 97 15. Rice–fish cultures in other parts of South and Southeast Asia 98 16. Responses in rice–fish cultures in other parts of South and Southeast Asia 103 x Documents available on CD-ROM Using the DPSIR database 1. Opening the database 2. Adding