Index

Page numbers in italics indicate fi gures or affordance; Procedural affordance; Spatial tables. affordance brainstorming and, 93 – 94, 96, 97 AAAI (Association for the Advancement of explorations for maximizing digital, 103 Artifi cial Intelligence), 365 grid, 87– 96, 103 Abstractions, 19, 52, 71, 301 HCI concepts and conventions and, 59 – 61 of behaviors as discrete models, 135 – 136 information science concepts and expressing cultural values in procedural, conventions and, 68 – 70 157 – 158 mapping, 89– 91, 95– 96, 98 layers, 105, 130, 259 shaping and satisfying interactors’ of processes into fl ow charts and expectations through, 96 – 100 pseudocode, 112– 119 Agency, 12– 13, 23, 159, 184, 221, 291 pseudocode, 133– 134 active creation of belief and, 24 state of complex systems, 134– 135 designing for immersion and, 100– 103 using binary codes for symbolic, 132 – 133 frustration of, 102 of the world into objects and methods, games and, 380 155 – 156 visual design and, 79 Abstract spaces, 182 – 184, 185 – 188, 190 Agents, automated processes as, 281 Access, intellectual, 69 – 70, 159, 225, 247 Aggregation of information, 191– 194 Accessibility, 70 Algorithms, 49, 53, 81, 88, 105 Accompaniment, 347, 352 – 353, 373– 374 pseudocode and, 114 – 118 Achituv, Romy, 295, 296 scripting behaviors, 121 – 122 ACM (Association for Computing Machinery), thinking of processes in terms of, 134 199 – 200, 218, 316 Allosphere, 76 Active creation of belief, 24 Alternate reality games, 394– 395 Adobe Amazon.com, 49, 57, 77, 78, 155, 199, 210, Acrobat, 301 335, 349, 352 Flash, 54 Ambiguity in databases, 242– 247 Photoshop, 103, 299, 301, 305, 330, 331, 333 Analog Adventure (game), 175, 188– 189 technology, 299– 300 Affordances, 2, 9, 19, 23, 25, 112, 224. See television, 34 also Encyclopedic affordance; Participatory Anthropology, social, 62 468 Index

Anticipation, responsive, 369 – 372, 375– 377 Benjamin, Walter, 307 AOL Portal Services, 211 Berners-Lee, Tim, 20, 256, 257, 279, 281– 283, Apple, 28, 35, 39, 47, 58, 71 377 HyperCard, 255 Binary codes, 32, 132– 133 iPad, 5, 6, 164, 295, 311 Bits, electronic, 2, 19, 23, 30, 51, 107, 110– 112 iPhone, 9, 336 classifi cation schema and, 208 iPod, 35, 335, 348, 350 Black box, 129, 321, 322, 339 Knowledge Navigator, 363 – 364, 374, 377 Blackboxing, 82 Lisa GUI, 72 Blogs, 274– 276 Macintosh GUI, 73 Bob operating system, 167, 359– 360, 361 Applets, 73, 334 – 337 Bogost, Ian, 149, 389 Appliance model, 334 – 337 Books, digital, 68 – 69 Archives, structured, 272 Borges, Jorge Luis, 203– 204 Artifact-environment-application-device- Boundary objects, 221, 244, 249 system, 13 Braid (game), 387 Artifacts, digital, 1 – 3, 23, 25, 321, 379 Brain Ball (game), 299 inventing building blocks of design while Brainstorming, 93– 94, 96, 97 designing, 4– 5 Branching trees, 53 – 54, 124 programmable bits and, 51 Breazeal, Cynthia, 357, 358 Artifi cial intelligence, 139 British Heart Foundation, 80 ASCII (American Standard Code for Browsers, 164, 165, 371. See also HTML Information Exchange), 110, 113, 123, 265 Bubble Sort, 134 Ask Jeeves, 366, 367 Bush, Vannevar, 253, 254 – 255, 257, 374 Aspen Movie Map, 73, 74 Byron, Lord, 109 Asynchronous discussions, 56 Bytes, 108, 111 – 112 Atari, 29, 30, 35 Attention Cameras, digital, 56 joint, 14, 293, 380 on cell phones, 312 shared, 13– 16, 23, 385 – 390 Card sorting, 205 Attributes, 246 Carey, James, 36 fi elds, meaningful, 247– 248 Casual video games, 398– 399 metadata, 259 Catalogs, 194– 201 methods and, 105 Catan: The First Island (game), 6 Avatars, 37 Categorization, library, 259 Cell phones, 312 Babbage, Charles, 108, 109 Cells, 229 Baby Name Voyager, 183 Census data, 243 BBC Archive, 169 Chartjunk, 76 Behaviors Chat rooms, 180 – 181 abstracted as discrete models, 135– 136 Choices, representing, 133 emergent, 54, 147 Chunks, information, 71, 159, 216– 217, scripting, 119– 122 224 – 225 Bell, Gordon, 67 Circular visualizations, 184, 187 – 188 Index 469

Cisco, 182 container conventions and, 162 Class, 138, 216 creating simulation scenarios and, 156– 157 Classifi cation, 70, 159 cultural values and procedural, 148– 155, relational databases, 233 157 – 158 schemas, 203– 208, 219, 242 – 244 emergence and, 147 – 148 Cloud computing, 336 and simulations of complex systems, Clouds, tag, 80, 260, 285 141 – 147 Code, computer, 2, 23 strategies for procedural, 155– 158 Codex, 192 substitution systems and, 138– 141 Cognition Compression, dramatic, 170 distributed, 17, 338, 369 Computation games and, 397 – 400 abstracting the state of complex systems, Coherent behaviors, designing, 80– 82 134 – 135 Coherent spaces, designing, 84– 85 abstraction of processes into fl ow charts and Collocation, 19, 159 pseudocode, 112– 119 aggregating information and preserving binary codes for symbolic abstraction, knowledge through, 191 – 194 132 – 133 catalogs and, 194 – 201 modularity and encapsulation, 127– 132 classifi cation schemes and, 203 – 208 procedures refl ecting cultural values, designing for navigation with appropriate 148 – 155 labels and, 212 – 217 representing choices and iteration in a fl ow in the emerging digital library, 218 – 220 chart, 133 information organization as a taxonomy of representing lived experience as abstract knowledge in, 209 – 211 pseudocode, 133– 134 labels in, 201 – 203 scripting behaviors, 119 – 122 Communication, ritual model of, 36 state and, 123 – 127 CoMotion system, 337 as symbol manipulation, 107– 112 Companion, 289, 380 and thinking of processes algorithmically, Companion model 134 computer as social presence in, 345 – 346 using encapsulation to abstract behaviors as conversational structure in, 356– 357, 358 discrete models, 135 – 136 design explorations, 372 – 377 Computer(s) fantasies of the magical servant and, black box processes, 321, 322, 339 363– 369 early, 108– 110 personifi cation and, 358– 362, 374– 375 as an encyclopedic medium, 66– 68 politeness in, 354 – 356, 374 ergonomic keyboards for, 61, 62 responsive anticipation in, 369– 372, hackers, 324 375 – 377 human error and, 323 surveillance and, 373 – 374 as a new medium of representation, 51 synchronization in, 347 – 354, 372– 373 as participatory medium, 55– 59 Complexity, 52, 162 as a procedural medium, 51– 52 abstracting the world into objects and robustness and scalability, 54 methods and procedural, 155– 156 science concepts and conventions, 52– 55 470 Index

Computer(s) (cont.) Craigslist.org, 266 as social presence, 345– 346 Cruise, Tom, 295, 296 as a spatial medium, 70– 75 Cs í kszentmih á lyi, Mihá ly, 311 Computer Rage Survey, 346 Culture(s), 1 Conditional statements, 53 associations of familiar nomenclatures, Connotative constructs, 32 218 – 219 Consistency, 329 classifi cation processes and, 242 Constraints, 96, 112, 224 design of media as a building block of format, 34 human, 23 Containers, 159, 161 – 165 oral, 15 ancient writing, 201 traditions behind familiar media Content, 11– 12 conventions, 46– 47 Contextual menus, 303, 304, 369 values implicit in informational resources, Contrast, 75 248 – 249 Controlled vocabularies, 70, 205, 279 values refl ected in computational Control panels, 342 – 343 procedures, 148– 155, 157– 158 Control structures, empowering interactors values refl ected in design decisions, with, 329– 334 47 – 48 Conventions, 25, 88, 253, 289. See also Cunningham, Ward, 276 Spatial conventions Cyberspace, 126, 163, 166 design, 17, 23, 41 Cycles, vicious, 143 digital media, 2 human-computer interface, 59 – 66 Dance Dance Revolution (game), 347, immature and mature, 99 349 increasing awareness of media-specifi c, Darfur Is Dying (game), 149 48 – 49 Data, 225 information science, 68 – 70 structures, 110 landscapes, 166– 170 visualization tools, 248 lists, tables, and other containers, Databases, 19, 114, 221 161 – 165 ambiguity in, 242 – 247 maps, 170– 172 creating meaningful attribute fi elds in, media, 390– 397 247 – 248 places versus spaces, 172– 182 defi ned, 225 – 226 pointing, 316 design explorations, 247 – 251 of representation, 33 fl at fi le, 226 – 230, 247– 248 segmentation, 223– 224 metadata, 259 and structure of games, 405– 406 object-oriented, 240– 241 visual design, 75 – 79, 80 relational, 230– 237 Convergence, media, 8, 66 visualization tools, 248 Conversational structure, 356 – 357, 358 Davenport, Glorianna, 230 Conway, John, 147 – 148, 156 Decision space, 2 Cooper, Alan, 357 Delicious.com, 262, 284 Cooper, Sarah, 401 Descriptors, 201– 203 Index 471

Design, 23 Dewey Decimal Classifi cation (DDC), for agency and immersion, 100– 103 209 – 210 artifact-environment-application-device- Diamond, Jared, 155 system, 13 Digital artifacts, 1 – 3, 23, 25, 321, 379 choices that shape everyday experience, 46 inventing building blocks of design while coherent behaviors, 80 – 82 designing, 4– 5 coherent spaces, 84 – 85 programmable bits and, 51 as collective process, 1– 3 Digital cameras, 56 confl icting building blocks in, 5 – 6 Digital medium, 2, 8– 9, 23, 25 content/information in, 11 – 12 Digital Object Identifer (DOI), 207– 208 conventions, 17, 23, 41 Digital television, 34 for core human needs, 39– 46 Direct manipulation, 61, 98, 302– 303, 380 of digital artifacts, 1– 3 Disambiguation, 201, 265 – 266, 267 drawing on HCI concepts and conventions, Discourse communities, 32 59 – 66 Discrete time steps, 105, 141 drawing on information science concepts Disney World, 73, 75 and conventions, 68 – 70 Distributed cognition, 17, 338, 369 drawing on visual design concepts and Distributed knowledge, 221, 274, 277 conventions, 75– 79, 80 Documents. See also Structured documents explorations, 46– 49, 80– 85, 103, 132 – 136, digital, 36 188 – 190, 218– 220, 247– 251, 283– 287, Domain mapping, 250 – 251 315 – 319, 340– 344, 372– 377, 405– 408 Donkey Kong (game), 383, 387 as framing and reframing, 25– 29 Dramatic compression, 170 how (not) to talk about, 8 Dublin Core, 259, 265 of an immature medium, 3– 4 Dungeons & Dragons (game), 390– 392 interactivity/agency in, 12 – 13 interface/interaction, 1, 10 – 11, 379 EBay, 49 intuitive/transparent, 9– 10, 55 EBooks, 198, 199, 335 inventing building blocks of design during, Effi ciency, 302 – 306 4 – 5 Egg ’s Journey, 312, 314 and media expanding the scope of our Eliza, 51– 52, 55 shared attention, 13 – 16 Emergence, 147– 148 modularity in, 19, 105, 127– 132, 322 Emergent behaviors, 54, 147 new design strategies for resolving problems Encapsulation, 19, 105, 127– 132, 201 with, 6– 7 information chunking and, 216, 224 new media/digital medium category and, used to abstract behaviors as discrete 8– 9 models, 135– 136 participatory, 64– 66 Encyclopedic affordance, 9, 23, 51, 90, 253. reframing in, 19 See also Affordances three layers of, 9, 23, 29 – 39 computers and, 66 – 68 of the unfamiliar, 3– 7 identifying design elements and issues with, users/interactors and, 11 83 – 84 Design of Everyday Things, The, 9, 59 Encyclopedic brainstorming, 94 472 Index

Engelbart, Douglas, 38 Fekete, Jean-Daniel, 185 Ergonomic keyboards, 61, 62 Fetch, 326 Error, human, 323 Fields, 114, 226, 229 Ethnographic research, 62 – 64 creating meaningful attribute, 247– 248 Evaluations, formative, 235 – 236 metadata, 259 Expectations, shaping and satisfying File transfer protocol (FTP), 256 interactors ’ , 96– 100 Filmmaking, 169 Expert practice, 318 – 319 Filters, 183 Explorations, design search result, 272 collocation in the emerging digital library, Flamenco system, 272 –274 218 – 220 Flanagan, Mary, 29, 30 companion model, 372 – 377 Flash, Adobe, 54 computational strategies of representation, Flat fi le databases, 226 – 230, 247– 248 132 – 136 Flickr, 56, 93, 262, 284 culture and design decisions, 46– 49 FlipBoard application, 5, 164 database model, 247 – 251 Flow, 102, 311, 394 documents structured with metadata, charts, 85, 105, 112– 119, 133, 340 283 – 287 Folksonomies, 260– 261 exploring the affordances of the digital Formative evaluations, 235 – 236 medium, 80– 85 Formats, 12, 23, 31 game model of interaction, 405– 408 constraints, 34 machine model, 340 – 344 in mature media, 37 for maximizing digital affordances, 103 stable, 33, 34– 35 spatial organization, 188 – 190 unstable, 38– 39 strategies for procedural complexity, Framing, design as, 25– 29 155 – 158 Franklin, Benjamin, 193 tool model, 315 – 319 Frasca, Gonzalo, 150 Expressive gestures, 291 – 302, 316– 317 Frustration of agency, 102 Expressivity, 306– 313, 314, 316– 317 Functions, computer, 255 game mechanics and, 407– 408 in machines, 337 – 339 Game of Life, 147– 148, 156 Extensible programs, 127 Games, 20 agency and immersion in, 101 Fa ç ade, 139– 141 alternate reality and pervasive, 394– 395 Facebook, 56, 249, 274, 388– 389 casual, 398– 399 Facets, 259, 272 cognition and, 397 – 400 Farmville (game), 388 – 389 cultural values refl ected in, 148 – 155 Feedback, 10, 57, 61, 303 design explorations, 405 – 408 consistency and immediate, 329 designing coherent behaviors and, 80– 82 errors and, 323 exploratory navigation in, 175 game, 380 expressivity in, 309 – 311 haptic, 317 individual experiences with interactive loops, 105, 142 – 143 environments in, 65 Index 473

joysticks, 29, 30 GGG (Giant Global Graph), 283 landscapes, 167– 169 GIGO (“ garbage in, garbage out” ), 147, 246 making meaning with expressive game Go (game), 398 – 399, 399 mechanics, 407– 408 Goffman, Erving, 137 making meaning with replayability, 407 Google, 49, 83 massively multiplayer online role-playing, Book Project, 284 64 Books, 218 mechanic is the message in, 402 – 404 Book Search Library Project, 68– 69 mechanics, 382, 385 – 390 Chrome, 371 media conventions and, 390– 397 Earth, 75 models, 289 four affordances and, 88– 89, 91, 92 patterns as building blocks for interaction Guess-the-, 284 design, 379– 385 image labeler, 284 pointing, grabbing, and expressive gestures mail, 353 in, 295– 297 Maps, 173 recognizing the conventions and structure Map Street View, 58, 73 of, 405– 406 News, 186 replay as repetition with variation in, Scholar, 218, 316 400 – 401 search engine design, 88– 89, 91, 263– 265, scripting the interactors in, 82– 83 268 – 269, 371 simulation, 399– 400 GPS (global positioning system), 63, 312– 313, simulations of complex systems in, 143 – 147 353 – 354 spatial affordances in, 73– 75 Grabbing technologies, 292 – 302, 312, 314 state distinctions in, 125– 127 extending the function of human hands, substitution systems in, 139– 141 315 synchronization in, 347 Grand Theft Auto, 149, 175, 178 translating legacy game mechanics into Granularity, 68, 221, 223, 225 procedural computer code in, 406– 407 Graphical user interface (GUI), 37, 71, 72– 73, tuning, 381 162, 293, 324 video of sports, 230, 231 Graphic design concepts and conventions, violent, 151– 152 75 – 79, 80 Game theory, 403 – 404 Grid, affordance, 87 – 96, 103 Gates, Bill, 360 Grid(s), 34, 75 Geertz, Clifford, 1 Grinding, 380 General Dynamics, 337 Guardian newspaper, 240 Genres, 12, 23, 26, 68, 88, 379 Guess-the-Google (game), 284 conventions of older media, 38– 39 Guitar Hero (game), 347, 348 in mature media, 37 participatory, 56 Hackers, 324 of representation, 33, 36, 114 Hamlet on the Holodeck, 100 Gentle slope systems, 305 Hands, human, extending the function of, learning curves, 289 315 Gestures, expressive, 291 – 302 Haptic feedback, 317 474 Index

Haptic game controllers, 387 organization as a taxonomy of knowledge, Hash tags, 261 209 – 211 HCI (human-computer interaction), 1, 59– 66, science concepts and conventions, 68– 70 324 sharing using widgets and applets, 334 – 337 Hearst, Marti, 272 Information theory, transmission model of, Heavy Rain (game), 310 36 Herigstad, Dale, 296 Inheritance, 138 Heuristics, 121 Innovation, differentiating layers of media, Hexadecimal symbolic representation, 110 47 Hidden processes, modeling, 341– 342 Inputs, 321 Hierarchy, 71, 117, 156, 159 Inscription, 9, 23, 29– 39, 224, 253 site maps and, 176, 179 materials, 33 Horvitz, Eric, 365 methods, 48 HTML (HyperText Markup Language), 34, Instances, 114, 138 255 – 257, 276 Instantiation, 19, 53, 105, 138 Huizinga, Johan, 379 Intel, 110 Human computer interaction. See HCI Intellectual access, 69 – 70, 159, 225, 247 (human-computer interaction) Interaction design, 1, 10– 11, 379 Human error, 323 game model of, 405– 408 Human hands, extending the function of, Interactive Institute, 299 315 Interactivity, 12– 13, 100, 148, 291 Human-machine interaction, 324 Interactors, 6, 11, 23, 159, 289 Human needs, designing for core, 39 – 46, empowered with control structures, 329– 334 49 expectations, shaping and satisfying, 96– 100 Hyperbolic maps, 184, 186 – 187 game, 380 Hypertext, 88, 224, 255 scripting, 82– 83 networked, 256– 257 Interface, 9 design, 10– 11 Identifi ers, 201 – 203 transparency, 392– 393 Identity, social, 132 International Standard Book Numbers Ideology, 404 (ISBNs), 207 IF/THEN/ELSE structure, 117 – 118 International Standards Organization (ISO), 61 Immature conventions, 99 Internet, 87. See also Hypertext; Search Immaturity of digital medium, 3– 4 engines; World Wide Web Immersion, 24, 148 browsers, 164, 165, 371 designing for agency and, 100– 103 metadata tagging and, 259– 260 Improv Everywhere MP3 Experiment, 7, 388 news sites, 212 – 213, 215 Information, 11– 12, 121, 221 Interruption, 354– 355 aggregating, 191– 194 Intuitive design, 9 – 10, 148 chunks, 71, 159, 216– 217, 224– 225 Intuit TurboTax, 103 design, 12 Invisible Computer, The, 334 inscription of, 9 IPad, 5, 6, 164, 295, 311 modular appliances for sharing, 343– 344 IPhone, 9, 336 Index 475

IPod, 35, 335, 348, 350 Land ’s End, 26, 27, 28 IRISCOM system, 298 Laurel, Brenda, 51 IRobot, 368 Layers Isbister, Katherine, 65 abstraction, 105, 130, 259 Iteration, 133 of media design, 9, 23, 29 – 39 ITunes, 49 Learnability, 302– 306, 317– 318 Iwatani, Toru, 381 Learning curves, gentle slope, 289 Legacy media, 12, 23, 43, 83 Jefferson, Thomas, 193 orienting design toward underlying human Joins, 235 needs, not, 49 Joint attentional scenes, 14, 293, 380 timelines and, 53 Joysticks, game, 29, 30, 292 Legend of Zelda (game), 175, 177 Legos, 152 Kabul Kaboom!, 150 Lemonade Stand (game), 146 Kay, Alan, 25 Leonardo (robot), 358 Keyboards, ergonomic, 61, 62 Levy, David, 365 Kindle, 335 Libraries, 159 Kismet (robot), 357, 358 catalogs, 194– 201 Knowledge classifi cation schemes, 203– 208 distributed, 221, 274, 277 collocation in emerging digital, 218– 220 information organization as a taxonomy of, designing for navigation with appropriate 209 – 211 labels in, 212 – 217 multisequential versus unisequential, 43, 53, digital, 199– 200 221, 224 hypertext and, 88, 224, 255 navigation, creating labels for, 220 information organization as a taxonomy of networks, 218 knowledge in, 209 – 211 preservation of, 191 – 194 knowledge networks and, 218 social creation of, 274– 278 labels as identifi ers, descriptors, and tacit, 9 pointers, 201– 203 web of, 254 – 255 making, 192– 193 Knowledge Navigator, 363 – 364, 374, 377 shelves, 198 Krzwinski, Martin, 187 Library of Congress, 68, 70, 194 – 196, 204, Kubrick, Stanley, 356 205 – 207, 281, 285 Kuchera-Morin, JoAnn, 76 Classifi cation system, 210, 259 Kurzweil, Ray, 364 –365 Lifeworld, 205, 246 Lincoln, Abraham, 196 Labels, 69, 114, 159, 305 Linden Lab, 95 designing for navigation with appropriate, LinkedIn, 249 212 – 217 Links, URL, 257, 258 as identifi ers, descriptors, and pointers, Lippman, Andy, 74 201 – 203 Liquid Time Series, 395– 396 for knowledge navigation, 220 Lists, 89, 161 – 165 Landscapes, 159, 166 – 170 values, 229 476 Index

Loops, 115 Markup language, 256, 286– 287, 328– 329 feedback, 105, 142 – 143 Mash-ups, 173, 178 Lost, 170 Massively multiplayer online role-playing Lovelace, Ada, 107, 108– 109 games (MMORG), 64 Mateas, Michael, 140 Mac computers. See Apple Mature conventions, 99 Machine for Taking Time, 396– 397 Mature media, 37 Machine(s), 20, 289 Mazalek, Ali, 313 defi ned, 321 McGonigal, Jane, 395 models, 62 McLuhan, Marshall, 87 Machine model Meaning appliance model and, 334– 337 made with expressive game mechanics, design explorations, 340 – 344 407 – 408 designing modular appliances for shared made with replayability, 407 information resources in, 343– 344 Mechanics, 289 empowering interactors with control game, 382, 385 – 390 structures, 329– 334 legacy game, 406 – 407 expressivity in, 337 – 339 Media, 23. See also Design getting control of control panels in, ancient, 14– 16 342 – 343 conventions, 16– 17, 390– 397 modeling hidden processes and, 341– 342 convergence, 8, 66 recognizing and controlling machine design layers, 9, 23, 29– 39 processes in, 340 – 341 expanding the scope of our shared visibility and, 321 – 329 attention, 13– 16 Macy ’s, 26, 27, 28 formats and genres as schemas, 17 Madrid (news game), 150– 151 legacy, 12, 23, 43, 49, 53, 83 Maes, Pattie, 314 new, 8 Magic circle, 379 specifi c conventions, 48– 49 Manipulation, direct, 61, 98, 302– 303, 380 templates, 17 Manovich, Lev, 223, 230, 232 temporal, 229 Many Eyes, 190, 248 Megabytes, 66, 108 Map of the Market, 237– 238 Memex, 254 Mapping Memorable places, creating, 189 affordance, 89– 91, 95– 96, 98 Mental models, 59 – 61, 329 domain, 250– 251 Menu bars, 72 Maps, 159, 170 – 172 Menus, contextual, 303, 304, 369 hyperbolic, 184, 186 – 187 Message transmission, 31 labels, 201– 203 Metadata, 70, 203, 221, 258– 263 mash-ups, 173 creating more successful searches using, site, 176, 179 284 – 285 tree, 183, 185 – 186, 237– 238 documents structured with, 283– 287 MARC (MAchine-Readable Cataloging), searching the web with social networks and, 194 – 196, 198, 264 263 – 274 Index 477

used to structure documents and shared MySpace, 56, 249 resources, 283– 284 Myst (game), 175, 176 Metaphor, 151, 254 Methods, 137 Namespaces, 203 Mice, computer, 292 “ Naming Names,” 188 Micropayments, 255 Napoleon ’s invasion of Russia, 77– 79 Microsoft, 28, 39, 47, 229 Nass, Clifford, 345 automated caregiver, 366 National Digital Library Program, 194– 196 Bing, 271 Naturalized environments, 395 Bob interface, 167, 359– 360, 361 Navigable spaces, creating, 159, 188– 189 ergonomic keyboards, 61, 62 Navigation Kinect, 312 creating labels for knowledge, 220 Offi ce Assistant, 360– 362 using appropriate labels to design for, Word, 103, 302, 333, 372 212 – 217 Microworlds, 152 and visualization large databases, 237– 240 Military technologies, 29 Navigation bar, 169 Miller, Christopher, 345 Needs, designing for core human, 39 – 46, Miller, George, 214, 216 49 Miller, Mitch, 347 Negroponte, Nicholas, 74, 364 Miller, Rand, 176 Nelson, Ted, 255, 256 Miller, Robyn, 176 Nested containers, 162 Minard, Charles Joseph, 76– 79 Netfl ix.com, 210, 349, 351 Mindfl ex Game, 300 Networks, 124. See also Social networks Minority Report, 295, 296 knowledge, 218 Mistry, Pranav, 314 Neverwinter Nights (game), 391 Miyamoto, Shigeru, 383 New media, 8 Mock-ups, 61 News feeds, 56 Modal dialog boxes, 357 Newsmap, 186 Modeling of hidden processes, 341– 342 Newspapers, 18, 40– 41, 48 MODS (Metadata Object Description online, 212– 214, 215, 240 Standard), 196, 197 News tickers, 6, 7 Modularity, 19, 105, 127– 132, 322, Newton, Isaac, 254 343 – 344 New York Times newspaper, 18, 174, 214, 273, Moore, Gordon, 66 283, 365 Moore ’s Law, 66, 110 popularity lists, 271, 272 MSNBC, 213 Nielsen, J., 61 Multisequential knowledge, 43, 53, 221, Nintendo 224 Gameboy, 385 Multitouch screens, 311 – 312 Wii, 35, 384 Music, recorded, 48 Nodes, 124 players, 35, 335, 347 – 350 Noise, 31 Musical instruments, 308 – 309 Nomenclature, 201, 203 “ My Life Bits, ” 67 cultural associations of familiar, 218– 219 478 Index

Norman, Donald, 9, 59, 305, 334, 336 Places, 159 Norman, Kent, 346 analyzing real spaces and, 189– 190 creating memorable, 189 Object-oriented programming, 105, 137– 138, Places versus spaces, 172– 182 240 – 241 Plaisant, Catherine, 185 Oil God, 152, 154 Platforms, 11, 23, 34, 88 On, Josh, 244 – 245 stable, 35– 36 “ One Million Items Treemap,” 185 Play, 379 Ontologies, 221, 287 PlayStation, 310 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Basic Pointers, 201– 203, 292– 302 Reference Model, 131 conventions, 316 Oral cultures, 15 exploiting the expressive power of, 316 – 317 Orature, 66 Politeness, 354– 356, 374 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Predictive text, 371 Development (OECD), 239 Preservation of knowledge, 191– 194 Outputs, 321 Primitives, 105, 112 OWL (Ontology Web Language), 280, 282, Printing press, 192 – 193 287 Procedural affordance, 9, 23, 51, 90, 291. See also Affordances Pac-Man (game), 101, 381 computers and, 51 – 52 Palm system, 228 Procedural brainstorming, 93 Papert, Seymour, 152 Procedural complexity Parameterized repeatability, 400 abstracting the world into objects and Parameters, 105, 128, 229 methods and, 155 – 156 substitution systems and, 139 creating simulation scenarios and, 156– 157 Parappa the Rapper (game), 347 cultural values and, 148– 155, 157– 158 Participatory affordance, 9, 23, 51, 90, 291. emergence and, 147 – 148 See also Affordances objects, classes, methods, and inheritance computers and, 55 – 59 in, 137– 138 Participatory brainstorming, 94 simulations of complex systems and, Participatory design, 64 – 66 141 – 147 Passage (game), 386 strategies for, 155– 158 Path-marking breadcrumbs, 166 substitution systems in, 138– 141 Patterns, 107, 261 Programming making reality, 404 – 405 object-oriented, 105, 137 – 138, 240– 241 PC computers. See Microsoft syntax, 116 PeaceMaker (game), 152, 153 Progress indicators, 326 – 327 Pearce, Celia, 64 Protocols, 31, 365 Perceptive Pixel, 312 shared, 255 Perlis, Alan J., 137 Prototype theory, 246, 250– 251 Personifi cation, 358 – 362, 374– 375 Pseudocode, 81, 105, 156, 218, 287 Pervasive games, 394 – 395 abstraction of processes into fl ow charts Photoshop, 299, 301, 305, 330, 331, 333 and, 112– 119 Index 479

machine model and, 341 Robots, 357 representing lived experience as abstract, Robustness, 54 133 – 134 Rohrer, Jason, 386, 408 Rokeby, David, 396 – 397 Radio buttons, 360 Roomba vacuum cleaner, 368 Rage, computer, 346 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 223 RDF (Resource Description Language), Rosch, Eleanor, 246 280 – 281, 282, 287 Rosling, Hans, 239 Realit, patterns making, 404– 405 Rover (Microsoft dog), 359– 360 Recoding, 216, 224 Royal Game of Ur, 397– 398 Records, 226, 373 RSS (Really Simple Syndication), 280 Red Button TV, 60 “ Rule of 7, ” 216 Red Dead Redemption (game), 167 Refi ning, 3, 25 Samanci, Ozge, 314 Reframing, 19 Sandboxes, 168, 305, 339 design as, 25 –29 Save points, 400 by Google, 88 – 89 Scalability, 54 Regularity, 75 Scenarios, 105, 146 Relational databases, 230 – 237 Schemas, 17, 34, 221, 329 object-oriented, 241 classifi cation, 203 – 208, 219, 242 – 244 Reliving Last Night, 401 semantic segmentation, 247 Remediation, 4, 45, 87 substitution systems and, 139 Remote controls, 294 XML, 280 Repetition with variation, replay as, 400 – 401 Scientifi c American, 281– 282, 365 Replay, 105, 146 Screens, multitouch, 311 – 312 making meaning with, 407 Scripting behaviors, 119 – 122 as repetition with variation, 400– 401 Scripting the interactors, 82– 83 Representation, 23, 29 – 39, 33, 36, 114 Search engines, 263 – 274, 366 of choices and iteration in a fl ow chart, 133 Second Life, 56, 73, 95, 102, 168 computational strategies of, 132– 136 Segmentation, 69 of lived experience as abstract pseudocode, physical, 224 133 – 134 semantic, 223– 226, 230, 247 Resource allocation Self-regulating systems, 142 simulation, 143 Semantic segmentation, 223 – 226, 230, 247 structures, 105 Semantic structures, standardized, 286– 287 Respawning, 400 Semantic tags, 253 – 254 Responsive anticipation, 369 – 372, 375– 377 Semantic units, 221, 223 Retail stores, 26 Semantic Web, 20, 221, 278– 283, 374, 377 Reversibility, 300– 301 Sennep, 80 Ritual model of communication, 36 Sensual Evaluation Instrument (SEI), 65 Rituals, 119, 289, 346 Shared attention, 13 – 16, 23, 385 – 390 game, 382 Share Tools, 273 synchronization, 372– 373 Shelves, library, 198 480 Index

Shiftbrowse, 165 landscapes, 166– 170 Shneiderman, Ben, 238, 302, 305 – 306 lists, tables, and other containers, 161 – 165 Signals, coded, 31 maps, 170– 172 SimCity, 103, 143 – 144, 149, 153, 242 places versus spaces, 172– 182 Sims, The (game), 126, 155, 304, 327 Spielberg, Steven, 295, 296 Simulations, 53, 105 Spore (game), 102 of complex systems, 141– 147 Stable formats, 33, 34– 35 defi ned, 141 Stable platforms, 35 – 36 games, 399– 400 Standardized semantic structures, 286– 287 scenarios, creating, 156 – 157 State, 19, 53, 123– 127, 328 Site maps, 176, 179 of complex systems, abstracting the, Situated action theory, 62, 63 134 – 135 SketchTop, 313 diagrams, 105, 124 – 125, 340 SmartMoney, 237– 238 game, 398 Social anthropology, 62 Stern, Andrew, 140 Social creation of knowledge, 274– 278 Storyboards, 82, 341 Social identity, 132 Structured archives, 272 Social networks Structured documents, 19, 221 boundary objects and, 249 as the basis of the World Wide Web, maps, 172, 175 253 – 258 searching the web with metadata and, metadata and, 258 – 263 263 – 274 search engines and, 263– 274 Social presence, computer as, 345– 346 semantic web and, 278– 283 Soft Cinema: Navigating the Database, 232 structured wikis and, 274– 278 Solid-state transistors, 109 Structured wikis, 274 – 278 SONY, 309 Substitution systems, 138 – 141 Sorting, card, 205 Suchman, Lucy, 62, 357 Sorting Things Out, 204 Super Mario Brothers (game), 125, 127, 311, Space(s) 383, 384, 386, 402 abstract, 182– 184, 185 – 188, 190 Surveillance, accompaniment with, 373– 374 analyzing real places and, 189– 190 Sutton-Smith, Brian, 379 designing coherent, 84 – 85 Svenonius, Elaine, 191 navigable, 159, 188 – 189 Symbol manipulation, computation as, places versus, 172 – 182 107 – 112 Spacewar! (game), 73, 74 Synchronization, 347– 354, 372– 373 Spatial affordance, 9, 23, 51, 90 . See also Synchronous discussions, 56 Affordances Syntax, programming, 116 computers and, 70 – 75 Google and maximization of, 89 Tables, 161– 165, 221 Spatial brainstorming, 94 multitouch, 311– 312 Spatial conventions object-oriented programming and, 240– 241 abstract space, 182 – 184, 185 – 188 Tacit knowledge, 9 design explorations, 188 – 190 Tag clouds, 80, 260, 285 Index 481

Tags, 201 making digital tools learnable and metadata, 258– 263 transparent, 317– 318 semantic, 253– 254 pointing, grabbing, and expressive gestures Taxonomy, 70, 260 in, 292– 302 of knowledge, information organization as, supporting expert practice, 318– 319 209 – 211 using pointing conventions, 316 Technique, tool, 307 – 308 Tools, 20, 289 Technophilia, 42 computer, 292– 302 Telephones, 49 defi ned, 291 – 292, 321 cellular, 312 Tooltips, 325, 376 TelePresence, 182 Torchlight, 362 Television, 6, 7, 34, 36, 60, 210 Trackballs, 292 digital video recorders and, 350– 351 Traditions, cultural, 46 – 47 Templates, 138, 221, 369 Transclusion, 255 media, 17 Transmedia properties, 8 Temporal media, 229 Transmission, 9, 23, 29– 39, 56, 224, 253 Testing, user, 61 codes, 33 Tetris (game), 81, 102 model of information theory, 36 Text, predictive, 371 Transparency, 9– 10, 31, 55, 276, 289, 321 Text Rain, 295, 296 in games, 382 Thesauruses, 205, 279 habituation and, 345 They Rule (website), 244– 245, 249 interface, 392– 393 Think-aloud protocols, 61, 85, 235 pointing technologies, 293 Threads, 274 tool model and, 302– 306, 317– 318 3D navigable worlds, 170 Treemaps, 183, 185, 185– 186, 237– 238 Threshold objects, 297, 317 True/false variables, 117 Timelines, 53, 159, 183, 184 Tuan, Yi-Fu, 161 Time steps, 183 Tufte, Edward, 76 – 77 TiVo, 326, 350– 351 Tuning, game, 381 Toasters, 4, 5 Turing Test, 375 Tolstoy, Leo, 79 Turkle, Sherry, 346 Tool model Twiddler, 310 connecting the real and the virtual with Twitter, 56, 84, 261 threshold objects, 317 2001, 356 design explorations, 315 – 319 effi ciency, learnability, transparency in, Underkoffl er, John, 296 302 – 306 Undo commands, 300 – 301 exploiting the expressive power of pointing, Unfamiliar, designing the, 3– 7 316 – 317 Unisequential knowledge, 43, 53, 224 expressivity and virtuosity in, 306– 313, United Nations, 239 314 Unstable formats, 38 – 39 extending the function of our hands, 315 URIs (Universal Resource Identifi ers), 281, games and, 393 – 394 282 482 Index

URL (universal resource locator), 207, WarioWare (game), 385, 386 256 – 257 Washington Post, 215 Uru, 64 Wattenberg, Martin, 183, 238 Usability, 61 Web of knowledge, 254– 255 studies, 62 Weizenbaum, Joe, 51 – 52, 55 User(s), 6, 11 Welty, Eudora, 354 – 355 testing, 61 Widgets, 334– 337 Utterback, Camille, 296, 395– 396 Wikipedia, 89, 90, 94, 102, 217, 218, 255, 267, 276– 277 Vacuum cleaners, robot, 368 explored as an information structure, Vacuum tubes, 108 285 – 286 Values, 246 Wikis, structured, 274 – 278 cultural, 47– 48, 148– 155, 248– 249 WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointing), database record, 226 73, 293, 313 list, 229 Windows computers. See Microsoft metadata, 259 Winograd, Terry, 291 Variables, 105, 117 – 118 Wired, 4 database cell, 229 World of Warcraft (game), 140, 325, 331, 390, Variation, replay as repetition with, 400 – 401 391, 393 Vicious cycles, 143 World Wide Web, 34, 35, 42, 56, 68, 87 Victor Talking Machine Company, 349 browsers, 164, 165 Video games. See Games container model and, 163– 164 Violent video games, 151– 152 databases and, 239 – 240 Virtual Iraq, 180 searches using metadata and social Virtual meetings, 180 – 181 networks, 263– 274 Virtual worlds, 64, 180 Semantic Web and, 278– 283 four affordances and, 95 shared meeting spaces, 180– 181 immersion in, 102 structured documents as the basis of the, meetings spaces in, 179– 181 253 – 258 threshold objects and, 317 structured wikis and social creation of Virtuosity, 306– 313, 314 knowledge, 274– 278 Virtusphere, 181 Wright, Will, 126, 143, 144 Visibility, 61, 122, 276 Writing, 15– 16, 31 designing for, 321 – 329 aggregating information and preserving expressivity and, 339 knowledge through, 191 – 193 Visual design concepts and conventions, scripting behaviors, 120 75 – 79, 80 WYSIWYG (“ What You See Is What You Visualizations Get ” ), 328 circular, 184, 187 – 188 database, 239, 248 Xanadu, 255, 256 Vocabularies, controlled, 70, 205, 279 Xerox, 39 Star, 71 Wales, Jimmy, 276 XML (Extensible Markup Language), 280– 283, War and Peace, 79 286 – 287

Index 483

Yahoo, 83 search, 270 Web Everything, 212 YELP, 63 YouTube, 56, 59, 84, 210, 239, 284

Zork (game), 170, 171, 175, 188 – 189 Zotero, 284