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Holistic versus individualistic non-anthropocentrism

applaud The Ecological Citizen for biocentrism. For example, I have contended Gregory M defending ecocentrism, a worldview that – depending on the answers, currently Mikkelson Ithe Earth needs urgently. Many of the unknown, to certain empirical questions Journal’s articles to date have targeted – individualistic theories commit their About the author anthropocentrism as their main opponent. adherents to endorsing one of two repugnant Greg is an associate However, holders of that patently extremes: utter human domination of the professor in the School defective view arguably now comprise a planet, or human extinction. Ecocentrism’s of Environment and minority, even of Americans (Leiserowitz intrinsic-valuation of biodiversity saves Department of Philosophy, et al., 2005). The real battle seems to it from this dilemma, and justifies the McGill University, Montréal, have shifted from theory to practice, obviously preferable middle ground: an QC, Canada. where anthropocentrism remains firmly Earth with thriving populations of all entrenched (McShane, 2016). Meanwhile, 10 million species, including humans. To Citation two other rivals of ecocentrism remain further vindicate ecocentrism, I have found Mikkelson GM (2019) Holistic largely unchallenged in these pages, on it necessary to get more specific about what versus individualistic non- either theoretical or practical grounds: it entails. The best-known exponents of the anthropocentrism. The Ecological Citizen 2: 137–8. sentientism and biocentrism. view – such as Aldo Leopold, Arne Naess Sentientists hold that all sentient and Val Plumwood – have offered much Keywords animals have intrinsic value. But they deny inspiration and food for thought. However, a further claim that biocentrists assert: I submit that the lesser-known theorist Agriculture; animal ethics; anthropocentrism; that non-animal organisms, such as plants Peter Miller synthesized such insights more ecological ethics; and fungi, also have moral significance for coherently and convincingly than any of worldviews their own sake (Var ner, 2001; Attfield, 2013). these more famous thinkers have. Miller What sentientism and biocentrism share defined intrinsic value as “richness”, which is a commitment to moral individualism. is in turn a function of variety, harmony According to both, the intrinsic value of a and achievement (Miller, 1982; 1983). One species or ecosystem reduces to the sum, advantage of such an axiology is that it average or some other function of its arguably explains the intrinsic goods individual constituent organisms’ well- involved in sentience, and in life, better being. What distinguishes ecocentrism than even sentientism or biocentrism can from these rival views is the idea that (Mik kelson, 2019). such an ecological whole is ‘more than the So far, I have stressed the need to champion sum of its parts’. That is, in addition to ecocentrism against sentientism and the well-being of its constituents, certain biocentrism. However, I will close by noting holistic properties count for their own one important value judgment on which sake as well, such as overall diversity and all three of these non-anthropocentric integrity within the species or ecosystem. theories converge: that at least at anywhere Proponents of holistic ecocentrism must near current levels, livestock farming is a show how and why their view is superior massive net disvalue. Ecocentrism counts not only to anthropocentrism, but also to not only the harms inflicted by this industry its non-anthropocentric but individualistic on individual domestic and wild organisms, alternatives. but also its devastation of biodiversity Arguments for ecocentrism in general can and ecosystem function (Machovina et make some headway against sentientism and al., 2015). Ecocentrists thus have even

The Ecological Citizen Vol 2 No 2 2019 137 Holistic versus individualistic non-anthropocentrism www.ecologicalcitizen.net

greater theoretical motivation than non- Machovina B, Feeley K and Ripple W (2015) Biodiversity anthropocentric individualists do, to fight conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption. the global scourge of animal agriculture. Science of the Total Environment 536: 419–31. However, in practice, sentientists like McShane K (2016) Anthropocentrism in climate ethics Peter Singer and Martha Nussbaum have and policy. Midwest Studies in Philosophy 40: 189–204. probably inspired more people to reduce Mikkelson GM (2018) Convergence and divergence between ecocentrism and sentientism concerning or eliminate their meat consumption than net value. Les Ateliers de l’Éthique/The Ethics Forum (in have ecocentric thinkers (but see Tudge press). [2018]). Thus, while ecocentrists should Mikkelson GM (2019) Sentience, life, richness. In: advance their worldview against all forms DesRoches C, Jankunis F and Williston B, eds. New of moral individualism, they should join Directions in Canadian Environmental Philosophy. their fellow non-anthropocentrists in McGill-Queen’s University, Montréal, QC, Canada: seeking to dramatically diminish the 96–114. livestock industry, and rewild the land that Miller P (1982) Value as richness: Toward a value theory this will free up (Mik kelson, 2018). n for an expanded naturalism in environmental ethics. Environmental Ethics 4: 101–14. References Miller P (1983) Axiology: A metaphysical theme in Attfield R (2013) Biocentrism. In: LaFollette H, ed. The ethics. Journal of Value Inquiry 17: 3–16. International Encyclopedia of Ethics. Wiley-Blackwell, Tudge T (2018) Lies, misconceptions and global New York, NY, USA: 526–34. agriculture. The Ecological Citizen 2: 77–85. Leiserowitz A, Kates R and Parris T (2005) Do global Varner G (2001) Sentientism. In: Jamieson D, ed. A attitudes and behaviors support sustainable Companion to Environmental Philosophy. Wiley- development? Environment 47: 23–38. Blackwell, New York, NY, USA: 192–203.

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138 The Ecological Citizen Vol 2 No 2 2019