Year 7 Mastery Booklet

YEAR 7 MASTERY BOOKLET

Unit 2 – Terrifying Tectonics

2019-2020 ARK CURRICLUM PROJECT

Unit 2: Terrifying Tectonics

What will I be learning this unit? By the end of this unit you will know all about earthquakes and volcanoes – what causes them and their impacts. You will investigate two case studies and will make an important decision about reducing future risks.

Lesson 1: What is happening beneath our feet? In this lesson we learn to describe the structure of the earth and to compare its layers.

Lesson 2: Why are the plates moving? In this lesson we learn how convection currents are formed and how this causes tectonic plate movement. We will use global maps to identify the main tectonic plates.

Lesson 3: What are tectonic hazards and where do they occur? In this lesson we will learn to describe the global distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes, using continents and compass directions. We will also begin to understand the connection between plate boundaries and tectonic hazard distribution.

Lesson 4: What causes an earthquake? In this lesson we will solve the mystery of why an earthquake happened in Sichuan in 2008 using a series of clues related to physical features and tectonic processes.

Lesson 5: What were the impacts of the 2008 earthquake at Sichuan? In this lesson we are learning to describe and categorise the impacts of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. We will start to explain why the effects were very severe.

Lesson 6: What causes a volcano? In this lesson we are learning why volcanoes form at destructive plate boundaries using the case study of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala.

Lesson 7: What were the impacts of Volcán de Fuego’s 2018 eruption? In this lesson we describe some hazards resulting from volcanic eruptions, using the case study of Volcán de Fuego. Some students might analyse how volcanic impacts vary depending on factors such as population density, preparedness and emission type.

Lesson 8: How can hazards be managed? In this lesson we are learning to describe how earthquakes and volcanoes can be prepared for and managed afterwards. Using either Sichuan or Volcán de Fuego, students will make a justified decision about tectonic hazard management.

Optional lessons

Lesson 9: What causes a tsunami? In this lesson we will explore the physical processes that led to the formation of a tsunami, using the case study of Japan in 2011. You will use cross-sectional diagrams to help explain how the tsunami formed.

Lesson 10: What were the impacts of and responses to the Japanese Tsunami in 2011? In this lesson we will describe the impacts of the Japanese tsunami including the damage to the nuclear powerplant and trade.

1 Glossary – Terrifying Tectonics Lesson 01 – What is happening beneath our feet? Core – Extremely hot metal Oceanic crust – sections of the crust compounds at the centre of the Earth. beneath the oceans.

Mantle – Earth’s thick ‘middle’ layer, Magma – melted or semi-melted made up of very hot magma. rock.

Crust – Earth’s thin outer layer, made Composition – what something is up of solid rock 7 – 100km thick. made up of, e.g. rock or magma.

Continental crust – sections of crust Density – how dense (heavy) higher than ocean level. something is.

Lesson 02 – Why are the plates moving? Tectonic plate – a large ‘slab’ of the Pangea – A ‘supercontinent’ existing crust. 250 million years ago, which slowly broke apart into seven continents.

Plate boundary – the edge of a Continent – huge chunks of land. tectonic plate. It’s where most There are seven continents. earthquakes and volcanoes occur.

Convection currents – the constant Tectonic plate theory – the idea that rising and sinking of magma in the over 250m years convection currents mantle as it heats and cools. caused Pangea to break apart.

Lesson 03 – What are tectonic hazards and where do they occur? Tectonic hazard – a dangerous event Distribution – the way something is caused by tectonic plate movement spread out or arranged over a (e.g. earthquake or volcanic eruption). geographic area.

Earthquake – sudden violent shaking of Cluster – a group, e.g. of earthquake the ground as a result of movements events. within the crust. Volcanic eruption – when lava and Pacific Ring of Fire –boundary of the other materials erupt through a hole in Pacific plate, so-named because the crust. many tectonic hazards occur here.

Conservative boundary – where two Constructive boundary – where plates slide against each other. plates move apart, allowing magma to emerge and form (construct) new land.

2 Destructive boundary – where Hotspot – volcanic areas formed by continental and oceanic crust collide. exceptionally hot areas within the mantle. They form volcanoes far away from plate boundaries. Lesson 04 – What causes an earthquake? Focus – the location in the crust where Richter Scale – a scale measuring an the earthquake occurs. earthquake’s magnitude.

Epicentre – the point on Earth’s Sichuan – a region in southern China surface where shaking feels strongest that is prone to earthquakes. (directly above the focus).

Seismic waves – waves of energy that Fault – a weakness in the crust move outwards from the focus caused by pressure at the plate through the crust. boundary. Collision boundary – where two or Longmenshan fault – a weakness in more sections of continental crust the crust in Sichuan, caused by push towards each other. pressure at the Indian/Eurasian boundary. Lesson 05 – What were the impacts of the 2008 earthquake at Sichuan? Impact – another word for effect or Environmental impact – damage to consequence. the surroundings, e.g. bridges or forests.

Social impact – something that affects Population density – how crowded a people, e.g. loss of life. place is, measured by the number of people per square kilometre.

Economic impact – something that is Building collapse – the main cause of costly, generally for a government. death in the Sichuan quake; sometimes known as pancaking.

Lesson 06 – What causes a volcano? Volcano – an opening in the Earth’s Crater – bowl-shaped basin in the crust. top of the volcano.

Volcanic eruption – when lava, gases Subduction – when one section of and ash erupt through a volcano due crust pushes beneath another. The to tectonic plate movement. most dense plate subducts.

Magma chamber – large underground Composite volcano – steep, pool of magma. explosive volcanoes made of ash and lava layers. They form at destructive boundaries.

3 Vent – central tunnel through the Volcán de Fuego – a very active volcano that magma travels through. composite volcano in Guatemala, near the Cocos/Caribbean boundary.

Lesson 07 – What were the impacts of Volcán de Fuego’s 2018 eruption? Ash column – a large pillar of ash rising Evacuation – removing people from from the volcano, forming an ash cloud an unsafe area. above.

Pyroclastic flows – extremely Warning signs – volcanoes usually dangerous, fast-moving flows of hot give off signs such as steam, gas, ash volcanic rock, gas and ash. clouds or bulging before they erupt. Lahars – volcanic mudflows. Slow- Agricultural land – land used for moving but powerful mixtures of lava, farming, e.g. tobacco farming land ash, pyroclastic flows and rain/ice. around Volcán de Fuego.

Lesson 08 – How can hazards be managed? Management – something that is done Earthquake-proofing – making to reduce risks. buildings stronger to withstand an earthquake.

Predict – use evidence to suggest that Monitoring – observing something to an event will happen. detect any signs that it will happen again.

Prepare – get ready for something, e.g. Respond – action taken after an signposting evacuation routes. event, e.g. first aid for survivors.

Lesson 09– What causes a tsunami? Tsunami – a wave caused by tectonic Displace – to move from its original movement under the sea floor. position. An earthquake under the sea floor displaces water which becomes the tsunami wave. Ocean – enormous body of water. Pacific plate – a huge oceanic plate There are five major oceans, e.g. which subducted under the plate Pacific. that Japan sits on, causing a major

tsunami in 2011. Lesson 10 – What were the impacts of and responses to the Japanese Tsunami in 2011?

Flooding – when land is land covered Fukushima – a city in Japan. A major by water. nuclear power plant there was damaged by the 2011 tsunami.

Nuclear power plant – a site that uses Debris – scattered pieces of rubbish dangerous nuclear technology to or remains, e.g. chunks of houses generate energy. and broken trees left in the tsunami’s wake.

4 Lesson 01: What is happening beneath our feet?

Task 2/Develop Learning: The crust

Answer the following questions about continental and

oceanic crust.

1. What type of crust exists at X? ______I know this because… 2. Is there more oceanic or continental crust? ______Give percentages!

Task 3/Independent Task: Learning more about Earth’s layers

Read Sections A and B before completing the tasks on the following page.

Section A – More on the structure of the earth!

After the earth formed, it was so hot inside the

planet that everything melted. The densest (heaviest) materials sank to the core and the lighter substances rose. This process helped to form the earth’s layers.

There are three major layers: core, mantle and crust. The characteristics of the layers vary (composition, thickness and temperature).

The core is the hottest layer, with temperatures above 6000°C. The core is comprised mainly of iron and nickel compounds. It generates intense heat which keeps the mantle very hot.

The mantle is the largest layer. It sits between the core and the crust and is 2900 km thick. It is made up of molten (melted and semi-melted) rock, called magma. When this rock erupts through the crust it is called lava.

The crust is where we live. It is the thinnest layer and is made up of solid rock. It is brittle (cracks easily).

5 Section B – Oceanic and continental crust

There are two types of crust: oceanic and continental.

A chunk of crust under the ocean is called oceanic crust. Approximately 70% of the crust is oceanic. Oceanic crust is about 7km thick and it is mainly basalt rock which is dense, dark and heavy. Oceanic crust is less than 200 million years old – young in tectonic terms!

A chunk of crust that forms the land is called continental crust. Continental crust is usually between 30-50km thick (can be as thin as 7km and as thick as 100km). It is mainly granite rock and is lighter than oceanic crust in weight and colour. Continental crust is between 1-4 billion years old.

Study the map and the cross-section. They correspond (they match). Oceanic crust is located at A (Pacific Ocean); continental crust is located at B (South America). Memory challenge: can you remember the composition (materials), density (weight), thickness (crust depth) and age for A and B?

Tasks: 1. Using Sections A and B, create a table to show the key characteristics of each layer. Some boxes have been completed for you – see below!

Layer Composition Thickness Temperature Approximately 3500km

radius

Mantle 2900km thick 500-3000°C

<500°C

Tasks: 2. Draw your own cross-section to show oceanic and continental crust. 3. Now label your diagram with as many of the following key terms as possible: continental crust, oceanic crust, denser, lighter, basalt, granite, 7-100km thick, 7km thick, ocean, 200 million years old, 1-4 billion years old, 70% of crust, 30% of crust 4. Stretch: Earth’s layers are distinct (different) but interrelated (they affect each other).

Suggest how the intense heat of the core might affect the mantle and the crust!

6 Lesson 02: Why are the plates moving?

Task 2/Develop Learning: Tectonic plates move… slowly!

Your teacher will give you a printed tectonic plates map. Use the information on the slide to label the following:

• At least two tectonic plate examples (e.g. Nazca plate) • Show their direction of movement (using arrows)

• Identify a plate boundary (e.g. ‘The North American/Eurasian plate

boundary’)

Task 3/Independent Task: Convection and tectonic plates

Read the information on the following page then complete the tasks below in your geography workbook.

TASK A - Create a cross-sectional diagram to show convection currents in the mantle. (Use the information from Section 2 on the next page to help you.) Push yourself further! TASK B – Write the sentences in full! (Use Section 3 and the map to help you.) • Annotate your diagram with brief explanations. • Show convection currents a. A tectonic plate is… b. The UK is part of the ______plate. moving tectonic plates apart! c. An example of a plate that is mainly oceanic is… d. The North American plate is moving in a ______direction. e. The North American plate is moving 2.3cm per year so in 50 years it will move… f. Plate boundary means… g. A plate boundary where plates are moving towards one another is…

TASK C – In your book, write down the terms from 1-8 in the correct order.

1. sinks 2. hottest 3. convection 4. million

5. temperatures 6. rises 7. theory 8. move

Extremely high _____ in the earth’s core melt the rock in the mantle. The mantle is at its _____ near the core (approximately 3000°C). From here the molten rock _____ As it moves closer to the crust it ‘cools’ to 500-1000°C, so it _____ This creates a cycle known as _____ Convection currents in the mantle cause the crust to _____ Tectonic plate _____ states that convection currents caused Pangea to begin to move apart approximately 250 _____ years ago, moving the continents to their current locations.

7 Section 1 – Tectonic plate theory From Pangea to today’s continents Tectonic plate theory says that 250 million years ago the continents were merged as one supercontinent called Pangea. Since then, convection in the mantle has caused Pangea to break apart - extremely slowly! Take a look at the diagram to the right and pay close attention to how long these changes have taken!

(250 million = 250,000,000 years!)

Section 2 – Convection Convection currents in the mantle are thought to move chunks of the earth’s crust. The diagram below shows how convection currents move the crust, forming tectonic plates. In some cases, plates move apart; in others they collide.

Section 3 – Tectonic plates You already know that two types of crust exist – oceanic and continental. Chunks of crust are called tectonic plates. The map below shows the major tectonic plates and their directions of movement. The edges of the plates are called plate boundaries. X marks a plate boundary below. Think: what are the plates doing at X (colliding, pulling apart or sliding against one another)? Try to imagine the convection You can see that most currents in the mantle beneath these two chunks of crust! plates have continental and oceanic crust. For example, most of the Eurasian plate is continental, but the western section of the plate is oceanic.

Stretch:

The map key refers to ‘subduction zones and’ ‘divergent boundaries’. What do you think these terms mean? Use the arrows as clues! 8

Lesson 03: What are tectonic hazards and where do they occur?

Task 2/Develop Learning: Three plate boundary types

Study the information on three major plate boundary types below, then draw three simple diagrams in your geography workbook to show these three boundary types (slide, apart, together).

Boundary 1: Plates slide alongside one another

Which hazard? earthquakes

What happens? Tectonic plates slide alongside each other. They may slide in the same or opposite directions. As they slide, they grind and push against

each other. Over time (decades or even thousands of years), pressure builds up. When a plate finally ‘slips’, the ground shakes. Earthquakes at these boundaries can be extremely powerful. The formal name for this type of boundary is ‘conservative’. Example? Pacific/North American boundary.

9 Boundary 2: Plates move apart

Which hazard? earthquakes and volcanoes

What happens? Convection currents move the plates apart which allows magma from the mantle to rise through the gap. This results in volcanic eruptions although they are fairly small (as far as volcanic eruptions go). As the plates move apart the ground can shake so earthquakes occur here as well. These quakes are also ‘gentle’. The formal name for this type of boundary is ‘constructive’.

Example? North American / Eurasian boundary (in the middle of the

Atlantic ocean!).

Boundary 3: Plates move together

Which hazard? earthquakes and volcanoes

What happens? Convection currents drag the plates towards one another. This collision releases huge amounts of energy causing violent earthquakes. If the heavier oceanic crust is forced down into the mantle it will melts and may erupt violently through holes in the crust. The formal name for this type of boundary is ‘destructive’.

Example? Nazca / South American boundary.

Task 3/Independent Learning: Stretch: Mapping tectonic hazards Find examples of tectonic hazards that are not near plate Task: On your blank tectonic plates map boundaries. Why might they occur here? (Hint: hotspots find the following: info box below!)

• Nazca/South American boundary • Pacific/North American Hotspots: Not all volcanoes occur at plate boundaries. Some occur in boundary the middle of plates, in areas called hotspots. Hotspots are fuelled by • North American/Eurasian plumes, which are huge pockets of abnormally hot magma beneath the crust. Plumes can rise up in weak areas far from plate boundaries. boundary For example, the Hawaiian Islands (circled on the previous page’s map)

For each boundary: formed over millions of years by eruptions through weaknesses in the middle of the Pacific plate. They are located thousands of miles away 1. Label the plates involved from the plate boundary. Island formation is still happening on Hawaii every time the volcanoes Kilauea and Mauna Loa erupt – when the 2. Draw arrows to show the direction that each plate is lava erupts it cools and becomes solid, forming new land. The plate moves extremely slowly over time, so chains of volcanoes form. moving in

3. Note whether the plates are sliding/moving together/moving Each island in this apart chain was formed over the hotspot 4. Briefly describe the tectonic shown. Which is events that occur here older: Kauai or (earthquakes, volcanoes or Hawaii? both?)

10 Terrifying Tectonics Mastery Quiz 1 Reteach

Option 1: What is happening beneath our feet?

Layer Composition Thickness Temperature

Metal compounds, Approximately Temperatures Core mainly iron and nickel 3500km radius reach 6000+°C

Molten (melted and Mantle 2900km thick 500-3000°C semi-melted) rock

Solid rock, e.g. granite Crust <100km thick <500°C and basalt

Section A – More on the structure of the earth!

After the earth formed, it was so hot inside the planet that everything melted. The densest (heaviest) materials sank to the core and the lighter substances rose. This process helped to form the earth’s layers.

There are three major layers: core, mantle and crust. The characteristics of the layers vary (composition, thickness and temperature).

The core has temperatures above 6000°C and is comprised mainly of iron and nickel compounds. It generates intense heat which keeps the mantle very hot.

The crust is where we live. It is the thinnest layer and is made up of solid rock. It is brittle (cracks easily). a) Look at the table. Which is the hottest layer of the Earth? Give its temperature! b) Look at the table. Which is the coolest and most solid layer of the Earth? c) Using information from the table and Section A explain why rock in the mantle is

molten.

Option 2: Why are the plates moving?

Convection currents in the mantle

Extremely high temperatures in the earth’s core melt the rock in the mantle. The mantle is at its hottest near the core (approximately 3000°C). From here the molten rock rises. As it moves closer to the crust it ‘cools’ to 500-1000°C, so it sinks. This creates a cycle known as convection.

Convection currents in the mantle cause the crust to move. Tectonic plate theory states that convection currents caused Pangea to begin to move apart approximately 250 million years ago, moving the continents to their current locations.

By breaking apart the crust and moving it very slowly over time, convection has caused the tectonic plates to form. In some cases, plates move apart; in other cases they collide.

(Option 2 continued)

Read the box on the previous page to help you answer the questions. a) Finish the sentence: Near the core molten rock heats up which causes it to ______.

b) How has convection has caused tectonic plates to form?

c) Do tectonic plates move quickly or slowly? Give evidence from the box.

Option 3: What are tectonic hazards and where do they occur?

What happens at plate boundaries? a) Study the map above. Give two A plate boundary is the edge of a tectonic specific locations where both plate. This is where two or more plates earthquakes and volcanoes occur. meet. b) Another word for boundary is _____. As we know, tectonic plates move. In some

case plates slide against each other, in other c) Why do most earthquakes and

cases they pull apart and in others they volcanoes occur near to plate collide. When plates slide against each other boundaries? the ground can shake intensely

(earthquakes). When plates pull apart lava Stretch OPTIONS can gently flow out (volcanoes) and the ground can also shake. Where plates collide, Complete the stretch if you have all the questions correct one plate can push beneath another causing or if you have finished the tasks above. intense shaking (earthquakes) and violent volcanic eruptions. • Using an atlas, find a tectonic plates map. Can you find any smaller plates that are not shown on the map above? In a few cases volcanoes form far from plate • Google ‘volcanic hotspot Kilauea’ and create a fact-file boundaries where there are holes in the about this Hawaiian island (location, size, appearance, plate. These are known as volcanic hotspots. eruption frequency etc.)

12 Lesson 04: What causes an earthquake?

Task 2/Talk Task: Earthquake features

In your Geography workbook, number 1-5. With a partner, read the definitions below to figure out which key term matches each number.

Key term Meaning

The location in the crust where the earthquake occurs. focus (If the focus is shallow (e.g. 5km) the shaking may feel stronger on the surface.)

The point directly above the focus on the Earth's surface. epicentre Shaking feels strongest here. seismic Waves of energy that move outwards from the focus waves through the crust. (Shockwaves)

A weakness or crack in the crust. (The best-known faults fault are plate boundaries but there are hundreds of other faults in Earth’s crust too!)

Task 3/Develop Learning: Earthquake in Sichuan: why?

Study the maps and the clues in the boxes below to help you solve why Sichuan suffered a violent earthquake on 12th May 2008!

Figure 1:

• The light colour shows continental crust. • The black line is China’s outline. • The other lines are plate boundaries. • The X shows Sichuan’s location.

13 Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Seismic waves after the 2008 Direction of plate Longmenshan fault quake movement. X = Sichuan

FACT A FACT B FACT C Sichuan is a province (like a state or Where plates push together energy A fault is a weakness in the crust. a county) in southern China. It builds over time. The more time Faults form close to plate boundaries contains large cities including passes, the greater the pressure at because as plates move against one Chengdu. Sichuan is close to the the boundary. another they weaken the land on Indian/Eurasian boundary. either side of the boundary. FACT D FACT E FACT F The focus was 19km deep. That is A fault runs through Sichuan. It is The Indian plate is moving north east. quite shallow! Shallow earthquakes called the Longmenshan fault. The Eurasian plate is moving south cause more damage on the surface. east. FACT G FACT H FACT I The Indian plate and the Eurasian When land at the fault ‘slipped’, the When land on one side of the plate are continental plates. ground shook violently. The boundary/fault gives way, seismic earthquake registered 7.9 on the waves move rapidly through the crust. Richter Scale. This makes the ground shake – an earthquake! FACT J FACT K FACT L Intense pressure from collision Southern China is an earthquake- Where two sections of continental caused one side of the fault to slip prone region, but the last crust move towards one another it is downwards – by 12m in some earthquake before the 2008 event called a collision boundary. places! was in 1976. That’s 28 years! Earthquakes but no volcanoes occur at these boundaries.

Task 4/Independent Task: Piecing together the clues!

Complete the below tasks in your Geography exercise book. 1. Read facts A, B, F and I again. Write these letters down in the order you think is most logical. 2. Read facts B, H, I and K again. Give at least one reason why the Sichuan earthquake was so powerful. Try to include the words pressure and years. 3. Main task: Write a newspaper report explaining why an earthquake happened in Sichuan in May 2008! Include key terms and at least one labelled diagram.

14 Lesson 05: What were the impacts of the 2008 earthquake at Sichuan?

Task 3/Develop Learning: Learning more about the impacts

Read all about the earthquake’s impacts in Sections A – C below.

Read Section A below then answer the questions in your geography exercise book.

1. What caused more deaths: landslides or collapsed buildings?

2. Why was it difficult for families to find each other after the earthquake? Give two factors.

Section A: other impacts

A mother grieves her only daughter at a collapsed • 90,000 killed school in Beichuan

• 400,000 injured

• Communication lines were ruined. Some • 21+ million buildings collapsed. This people couldn’t contact family for days. caused most deaths.

• Infrastructure ruined (e.g. roads, factories) • 20,000 students died because over 7,000 school buildings collapsed.

• There is a still a lot of anger over the poor building quality that led to such

widespread building collapse.

• Those who have demanded answers from the Chinese government have been intimidated and pressured to remain

silent. • £140 billion was spent between 2008-2011 to rebuild and repair. • The earthquake triggered landslides. These caused around 1 in 5 deaths. • Millions of livestock and large crop areas (e.g. rice paddies) were destroyed. • Landslides blocked rivers and formed

Approximately 12.5 million farm animals 34 quake lakes. This created a flood risk were killed. so villages were evacuated.

Read Section B on the following page then answer the questions in your

geography exercise book.

3. What does the earthquake specialist think? Why would she disagree with the Chinese government?

4. Why is there controversy (disagreement) about the earthquake?

15 Section B: anger in Sichuan I firmly believe that the reason for the collapse [of The earthquake was my daughter’s school] devastating because it was was due to the quality of so strong. There was little the buildings.

that could be done.

(Chinese government) I was jailed from 2010-2015 for investigating why so many buildings collapsed. There is Earthquakes don’t kill strong evidence of corruption – money for people. Buildings do! building stronger schools was taken by (Elizabeth Hauser, officials. (Tan Zuoren, activist) earthquake specialist)

Task 4/Independent Task: Why were the impacts so severe? Read Section C then complete questions 1 – 4 in your geography exercise book.

Short-answer questions:

1. Which earthquake caused more deaths: Sichuan 2008 or Christchurch 2011? 2. Which place had a more cramped population? 3. The building quality is more significant than the earthquake depth: true or false? Main question:

4. Why were the impacts of the Sichuan 2008 earthquake so severe? Write 1-2 paragraphs using evidence from the Mastery booklet to support your response.

Section C: earthquake comparison

Not all strong earthquakes have extreme impacts. Compare Sichuan to a strong earthquake in

Christchurch, New Zealand. Why do you think effects were worse in Sichuan?

SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE CHRISTCHURCH EARTHQUAKE DETAIL MON 12TH MAY 2008 TUES 22ND SEPTEMBER 2011 magnitude 7.9 6.3 depth 19km 5km time of day 2:28pm 12:51pm Strict building rules; many buildings are Few building rules; many buildings made of buildings ‘earthquake-proofed’ (strong and flexible concrete and crumbly materials materials to bend not break) Cities in Sichuan are very cramped (e.g. in Not cramped (1440 people per square how cramped? Chengdu 6500 people per square km) kilometre) deaths 90,000 185

16 Lesson 05: Stretch reading sheet – Responses to the Sichuan 2008 earthquake

Stretch: Read about the earthquake responses then complete the tasks below.

Key responses to the earthquake: • 14 minutes after the earthquake, the Chinese government sent army troops to affected areas • Within days 113,000 troops were assisting those affected. Army troops, government employees and armed police were on the ground working. They helped to clear collapsed buildings in order to find trapped people. • Some places were difficult to get to because Sichuan is a mountainous region. Some people needing help did not receive it. • Medical supplies were provided very quickly • Disease outbreaks were avoided • Medical services were restored quickly • 45,000 medical workers contributed to care following the earthquake • Populations in danger from landslides or flooding from quake lakes were safely relocated • Beichuan Town residents were relocated and a new Beichuan Town was built 14 miles from the original city • By 2012, 99% of the destroyed buildings had been rebuilt. Many new buildings were made more ‘earthquake- proof’. • Building regulations (rules) were tightened up. However the problem of corruption is still widespread so some buildings may not follow the new rules. • Little psychological support was provided. The effects of trauma are ongoing, especially for those who have lost children. Some people who have demanded answers have been beaten and put in jail.

Effective response check list: ✓ Was assistance sent out quickly? ✓ Were survivors kept physically safe? ✓ Were psychological traumas dealt with? ✓ Were people given sufficient accommodation? ✓ Were houses and other buildings rebuilt quickly? ✓ Were buildings reconstructed using earthquake- proofing?

Stretch

1. Were the responses sufficient? Use evidence from the checklist to help you make your judgement. 2. If you were in charge of disaster response in Sichuan in 2008... a) which problems would you deal with first? b) how would you deal with them? c) what recommendations would you make to the government about avoiding this type of tragedy in the future?

17 Lesson 06: What causes a volcano?

Section A – what is a volcano?

A volcano is a mountain that lava (hot melted rock) erupts from. Volcanoes form when there is a hole or crack in the crust. Lava rises through the gap then becomes solid. Over time each eruption adds lava to the volcano’s sides, increasing its size. Volcanoes emit (let out) other substances too, e.g. ash, gas and steam. Extinct volcanoes no longer erupt; dormant volcanoes have not erupted for a long time but may still do so; active volcanoes erupt fairly regularly. Guatemala’s Volcán de Fuego is an active volcano.

Definitions

• Magma – hot melted rock • Magma chamber - large underground pool of magma • Lava - magma, once it reaches the surface • Crater - bowl-shaped basin in the top of the volcano

• Vent - central tube which magma travels through

• Ash, steam and gas – fine material thrown out by

the volcano

• Volcanic bombs - larger

material thrown out by the force of eruption, e.g. hot rocks

Section B – Volcán de Fuego Volcán de Fuego means Volcano of Fire. It is one in a chain of volcanoes near Guatemala’s coastline. It is close to the Cocos and Caribbean boundary. Fuego is an example of a volcano formed at a destructive boundary. The volcano is 3,763m high and is 10 miles from the city of Antigua.

It is very active, with several gas and ash emissions every

hour. Large eruptions happen every month or so and a

very dangerous eruption occurred in 2018.

Prep task: Write one sentence describing Volcán de Fuego ‘s location.

18 Section C – Composite volcanoes

There are different types of volcanoes. Composite volcanoes are very explosive. They form near destructive boundaries. They are steep-sided and cone-shaped. They are made up of layers of ash and lava. Volcán de Fuego is a composite volcano. Very sticky lava usually comes out of composite volcanoes. Sticky lava does not ‘run’ very far. It solidifies on the sides of the volcano which is what gives it a Preparation task: steep shape (thin runny lava would run down the sides and create a flatter volcano). List three features of composite volcanoes.

Task 4/Independent Task: Volcán de Fuego: formation and features

Create your own diagram to show

how the destructive plate boundary caused Volcán de

Fuego to form! Use two pages in your book.

Copy this outline to start or draw your own.

Success Criteria. My diagram has:

Using Section A: • volcano features (minimum: crater, magma chamber, vent) • volcano emissions (what comes out of a volcano) • brief explanation: how volcanoes form

Using Section B & cloze activity:

• plate names and arrows to show their directions

• plate types (continental and oceanic)

• volcano name and location

• key terms: subduct, erupt etc. • brief explanation: why eruptions occur (use answer to cloze activity) Using Section C:

• brief description: what is a composite volcano?

19 Lesson 06: What causes a volcano? Stretch reading sheet

Stretch:

Read the information about composite volcanoes then answer the question:

Why do composite volcanoes have such explosive eruptions?

Composite volcanoes – a deeper understanding

Composite volcanoes form at destructive plate boundaries. At these locations the magma that develops beneath the volcano has a high acid content which makes it very viscous (sticky).

Imagine a huge pool of very thick hot lava filling a magma chamber beneath an enormous composite volcano like Volcán de Fuego. When the oceanic Cocos plate subducts and melts, more magma rises into the chamber, forcing more sticky lava upward.

Composite volcanoes have complex layers and lots of additional vents inside them. This means that lava can become clogged and stuck in the complex system of vents and when it finally does explode, enormous amounts of lava push upwards, resulting in huge and powerful eruptions.

To add to this, when oceanic crust subducts underneath continental crust, it can drag large amounts of seawater with it which speeds the process of magma rising.

For most composite volcanoes major eruptions do not happen very often. This means that enormous pools of magma build up beneath the volcano in the years between eruptions. When they do erupt, a lot of lava comes out!

Composite volcanoes do not only emit lava. The deadliest emission is pyroclastic flows. These are deadly flows of toxic gases and hot rocks which plummet down the steep sides of the volcano at hundreds of miles per hour. Pyroclastic flows are faster and kill more people than lava.

Pyroclastic flows race downwards Explosive eruption of lava

Lesson 07: What were the impacts of Volcán de Fuego’s 2018 eruption?

Task 2/Independent Task: What were the impacts of the 2018 Volcán de Fuego eruption?

You will answer this question in detail once you have studied Sections A – C below…

Section A –

what came out?

Ash fall and pyroclastic flow

from Fuego covered towns, villages and agricultural land (farmland).

Pyroclastic flows – why so dangerous? Composite volcanoes are partly made of rock layers which can come blasting out as pyroclastic flows. A pyroclastic flow looks like a falling cloud of ash. But if you could see into the cloud you would find a really hot and fast-moving storm of solid rock. The flow moves at speeds of up to 90 miles per hour so it is almost

impossible to escape if in its path. It can include

volcanic bombs the size of boulders! To make matters worse, they are up to 1000 degrees Celsius. Consequently, pyroclastic flows incinerate (burn) or crush almost everything in their path. Volcán de Fuego emitted huge amounts with little warning, burying villages and crops.

21 Section B – See the impacts

left to right: emergency services rescue

survivors; homes, cars and farmland buried by

ash and pyroclastic flows.

below: before and after – destroyed housing and farmland in the village of Los Lotes

Section C – Facts and figures Ash and mudflows covered roads and destroyed bridges affected 1.7 million people 165 died, mainly Lahars blocked off some The 15km high ash Grief and trauma from pyroclastic areas, preventing rescue. column collapsed under flows and lahars. its own weight, adding Volcanic ash spread Anger at the authorities to the pyroclastic flows. over a 12-mile radius 200+ never found for not evacuating earlier

3200+ people Few warning signs made it difficult to evacuate in time Guatemala City’s evacuated airport closed, affecting

Rainfall during the eruption combined trade and travel Within one day 13 new evacuation with the ash and pyroclastic flows, create centres were filled with survivors lahars (slow but powerful mudflows, like Recovery workers a wall of hot moving concrete). struggled in hot conditions. Shoes Timeline of events on 3rd June 2018: were ruined by hot 6am: Ash and gas emissions visible materials and 12pm: First major pyroclastic eruptions breathing was difficult 4pm: Lava eruptions. People advised to due to volcanic leave. particles in the air. 22 Lesson 07: What were the impacts of Volcán de Fuego’s 2018 eruption?

Stretch reading sheet

Stretch:

Read the information below to find out why people were not evacuated earlier!

Monitoring volcanoes

Unlike earthquakes which occur with little warning, volcanoes usually give off signs before they erupt. Some signs are visible to the naked eye, e.g. gas and steam. Other signs are picked up via satellite and other monitoring, e.g. infrared technology can detect rising heat levels, seismometers can detect plate movement, gas meters detect raised gas emissions, and There are many tools to predict eruption! satellites may detect bulging as magma rises. Why weren’t people warned? This technology and the skills needed to constantly monitor volcanoes can be expensive, In Fuego’s case, eruption was

especially for a country with so many volcanoes difficult to predict for a few reasons.

like Guatemala. Firstly, the volcano is extremely active and has regular emissions of ash, gas and steam. People are used to seeing this activity and it rarely means that a major eruption will occur.

Secondly, even though it is only 10 miles from major cities, Fuego is very difficult to access so monitoring was below standard. Only one seismometer was being used and it didn’t pick up signs to indicate that evacuation was needed. Most Volcán de Fuego is very large, very volcanoes are monitored with steep and very active. Fantastic to several seismometers, gas meters, investigate on Google Earth! pressure sensors and satellites.

Stretch: Was this tragedy avoidable?

23 Terrifying Tectonics Mastery Quiz 2 Reteach Option 1: What causes an earthquake?

Complete Option 1 if you got question 1, 2 or 3 wrong.

Key term Meaning The location in the crust where the earthquake occurs. (If the focus focus is shallow (e.g. 5km) the shaking may feel stronger on the surface.) The point directly above the focus on the Earth's surface. epicentre Shaking feels strongest here. seismic Waves of energy that move outwards from the focus through waves the crust. (Shockwaves) A weakness or crack in the crust. (The best-known faults are fault plate boundaries but there are hundreds of other faults in Earth’s crust too!)

a) Look at the table. What is the difference between the focus and the epicentre? b) Look at the fact boxes. On the map, draw two arrows to show the direction that the Indian and Eurasian plates are moving. c) Why did an earthquake occur in Sichuan in 2008?

Option 2: What were the impacts of the 2008 earthquake at Sichuan?

• 90,000 killed a) Look at the Venn diagram. Now code impacts 1-7 from the box as • Communication lines were ruined in some areas; in either SOC, EC or EN. some cases people couldn’t contact family for days afterwards b) Put these events into the correct • Infrastructure ruined (e.g. roads, factories) order: landslide, earthquake, rivers • The earthquake triggered landslides blocked, quake lakes formed

• 34 quake lakes formed as soil and rocks broke away from hills and blocked rivers c) Look at Elizabeth Hauser’s quote. Why did so many students die in • £140 billion was spent between 2008-2011 to the earthquake? rebuild and repair • 20,000 students died

24 Option 3: What causes a volcano?

Study the diagram to

answer the questions:

a) Complete the sentence: A v______is a hole in the crust through which lava erupts.

b) ‘Composite’ means

made up of several parts. Why do composite volcanoes have this name?

c) What happens to the oceanic plate after it

subducts?

Option 4: What were the impacts of Volcán de Fuego’s 2018 eruption?

Study the fact boxes.

a) How far did the volcanic ash spread?

b) Give two reasons why it was so difficult for recovery workers to save people.

c) Explain why pyroclastic flows are

so dangerous.

Stretch

Complete the stretch if you have all the questions correct or if you have finished the tasks above. In contrast to composite volcanoes, ‘shield volcanoes’ (wide, gently sloping volcanoes) form where plates move apart and lava easily flows out. Look back to the map from lesson 03 to help you figure out where in the world we would find a) composite volcanoes and b) shield volcanoes. Make a list!

25 Lesson 08: How can hazards be managed?

Location 1: Sichuan, China

Sichuan fact file

Population of Sichuan province: approximately 90 million

Average income: about £8,000 (compared to average UK income £42,500)

Recent major tectonic event: 7.9 earthquake, 12th May 2008

(approx. 90,000 died) Chengdu, capital city of Sichuan

Option 1 – Invest in earthquake prediction

It is extremely difficult to predict exactly where or when earthquakes will occur. However, some general techniques exist.

• Seismologists (earthquake experts) can study records of

past earthquakes to calculate how soon another earthquake is likely to happen. • Seismologists research where the most pressure is building to make general predictions about where earthquakes might strike.

Advantage: Can encourage preparation in possible EQ zones

Disadvantage: Costly and imprecise

Option 2 – Earthquake-proofing (PREPARATION)

The main way to protect against earthquakes is by earthquake-proofing buildings. This reduces building collapse, which is the greatest cause of death. Earthquake-proofing involves improving existing buildings or building all new ones to meet strict standards. Techniques include: • Cross-bracing and shear walls to prevent collapse. • Base isolators let the building move during an earthquake to reduce risk of breaking.

• Flexible building materials = ‘bend not break’.

Advantage: Reduces building collapse Disadvantage: Extremely expensive and takes a long time Option 3 – Invest in emergency services (RESPONSE)

Investing in the emergency services increases the number of people

trained in search and rescue. After an earthquake one of the most important steps is to search for people who are trapped under buildings as this can save many lives. In Sichuan in 2008 there were many cases where people were pulled out from underneath

collapsed buildings, including babies and children. One of the challenges faced by the emergency services is getting to people in remote and hilly regions, of which Sichuan has many.

Advantage: Saves lives, relatively inexpensive Disadvantage: Does not prevent main cause of death

26 Lesson 08: How can hazards be managed?

Location 2: Volcán de Fuego, Guatemala

Regional fact file

Population of Volcán de Fuego region: approximately 1.5 million Average income: about £3,700 (compared to average UK income £42,500) Los Lotes village, covered by volcanic rd Recent major tectonic event: major ash and pyroclastic eruption, 3 June 2018 materials in 2018 (approx. 165 died)

Option 1 – Build a high-tech monitoring system (PREDICTION) Volcanologists (volcano experts) use many different techniques to predict volcanic eruption. Some include:

• Tiltmeters measure changes in the crust when magma rises

• GPS (global positioning systems) detect changes in the volcano’s surface, e.g. crater shape/size • Observing ash, gas and steam emissions If volcanologists think that a volcano is going to erupt, they can advise evacuation which saves lives.

Advantage: Relatively inexpensive; enables timely evacuation Disadvantage: Knowing when to advise evacuation is difficult when a volcano has regular (and generally safe) emissions like Fuego; difficult

to get monitoring equipment onto inaccessible volcanoes like Fuego

Option 2 – Build lahar channels (PREPARATION)

A ‘lahar’ is a volcanic mudslide. They can include boulders, ice, volcanic Above: A lahar materials such as lava and pyroclastic flows, and debris (e.g. broken trees). They are extremely dangerous as they can cover buildings and drown channel in Japan people. Lahar channels are large concrete structures (like enormous Left: lahar waterslides) that direct lahars away from populated areas. They require lots of upkeep because lahar materials damage the base of the channel. channel diagram

Advantage: Reduces risk of death by lahar. Disadvantage: Extremely expensive; does not reduce risk from other hazards such as pyroclastic flow.

Option 3 – Invest in emergency services (RESPONSE)

Emergency services workers dig Investing in the emergency services increases the number of people trained through hot ash to find survivors in search and rescue. After an eruption one of the most important steps is

to search for people who are trapped inside buildings and under volcanic materials as this can save many lives. In Guatemala in 2018 many people were rescued. One of the challenges faced by the emergency services is getting to people in areas blocked off by ash, lahars and pyroclastic materials – immense amounts of which were emitted by Fuego in 2018.

Advantage: Saves lives, relatively inexpensive Disadvantage: Very difficult conditions for recovery workers; cannot always access trapped people

27 Lesson 09: What causes a tsunami?

Task 1/Independent Task: What caused the 2011 tsunami in Japan?

Section A has information about the causes of the 2011 tsunami. Read each box then answer the questions in your geography exercise book.

1. Sequence letters A/E/G/H to show the correct order of events.

2. Study Section B which shows three images. Match each image to either box E, F or G (e.g. Image 1 = Box G).

Section A: jumbled events

A 200 years of pressure build- B A tsunami is a huge and C The Pacific plate is oceanic up from subduction caused the fast-moving wave of water crust. It is denser (heavier) Eurasian plate to jolt violently, caused by an earthquake than continental crust. causing a 9.0 earthquake. under the sea floor.

D The Eurasian plate is E The Pacific and Eurasian F Water rushed away from (mainly) continental crust. plates collide. Where they the epicentre at up to 700km meet it is a destructive plate per hour. Some areas had only boundary. 8 minutes’ warning between earthquake and tsunami.

G The earthquake shifted H The Pacific plate subducts I Japan’s east coast is close to massive volumes of water under the Eurasian plate by the plate boundary. The 2011 outwards from the epicentre. approximately 8cm per year. under-sea earthquake was This was the tsunami wave. only 70km from the coastal city of Sendai.

1 Section B: maps and images

3. Create your own diagram/s to show how the 2011 Japanese tsunami formed.

You could create one major diagram or a series of smaller diagrams (a storyboard).

• Use labels (e.g. the key terms) and

annotations (descriptions/explanations).

• The unfinished cross-section below might help as a starting point.

• Mini-stretch: add arrows to show convection currents moving the plates!

Section C: unfinished cross-section

STRETCH: Option 1: Finished? Well done! Suggest how debris from Japan made it to North America!

Complete one or more of the (Tip: think back to the clips we watched earlier…)

optional tasks!

Option 2: Option 3:

Imagine that you are standing Calculate how much seawater was displaced by on top of a building in Miyako the earthquake using the following approximate City as the tsunami rushes in. data about the ‘size’ of water that was moved:

Describe what you see! depth: 6km, width: 2km, length: 100km

29 Lesson 10: What were the impacts of the 2011 Japanese Tsunami?

Sections A and B explain more about the tsunami’s impacts. Read each

section then answer the questions in your geography exercise book.

Section A: So much debris!

Debris (da-bree) means scattered rubbish or remains.

Debris is a major cause of

death and destruction when

tsunamis rush onto land.

Imagine a 40-metre-high wall

of water carrying houses,

cars, and broken bridges

towards you at hundreds of

kilometres per hour!

The tsunami swept five million tonnes of debris out to sea. Burning houses and This map shows where some other debris was of the debris ended up. swept out to sea.

A reporter, Toya Chiba, was lucky enough to survive after clinging to debris. Thousands of others caught in the wave were not so lucky.

1. Debris means s______r______.

2. State two items of debris that ended up in Canada.

30 Section B: Why was the Q: Most places along the Q: Tsunamis have tsunami so devastating? coastline had sea walls. happened before in Why didn’t this stop the Japan. Why didn’t Q: What made this wave? everyone go to tsunami so powerful? higher ground? A: Most sea walls were A: The quake was extremely between 3m and 18m in A: Many people strong (9.0) and extremely long height. In some places the expected the tsunami (6 minutes). Also, the Pacific wave was 40m high! to be small like plate slid a long way (50m) previous tsunamis so which shifted enormous they stayed put amounts of water very quickly. thinking they’d be safe.

3. Six minutes is very long for an earthquake. 4. Japan expected a tsunami of this size.

5. The sea walls were too small.

6. Main Task: Describe the impacts of the 2011 tsunami. Include

social, economic and environmental impacts.

Stretch: Read Section C below before you complete Task 6. Include information from Section C in your answer!

Section C: Tragedy at Okawa Elementary School

Okawa Elementary is a primary school in northern Japan. On 11th March 2011, 78 pupils were at school. The earthquake hit at 2:46pm. At 2:49pm there was an official warning that a 6m tsunami was coming; by 3:14pm the prediction was 10m.

As the children waited, some teachers insisted they should take students up a nearby hill. Two 11-year-old boys started to run towards the hill but were ordered back and returned obediently. Senior teachers decided that they should follow the general evacuation plan and head down towards the village. As they entered the village teachers and students saw a wall of black water rushing towards them. Some froze; others turned and fled the way they had come; the smallest children were confused. Four of the 78 students at school that day survived by running uphill and clinging to trees and debris. The rest died in the tsunami. Ten out of eleven teachers died too. Over the coming months parents realised that bad decisions had been made which cost their children their lives. They have recently been awarded $11 million in compensation; their loss will remain.