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Martin Douglas Hendry Phd Thesis [Final The Networked Camera: A qualitative analysis of the practices of image sharing using digital technologies Martin Douglas Hendry Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Design October 2016 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to other’s work. This copy is supplied on the understanding that is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. 2016 The University of Leeds and Martin Douglas Hendry 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis could not have been completed without the support of several key people. Firstly, I would like to thank my primary supervisor Dr. Kishore Budha for his support throughout the study, both academically and personally. Secondly, I would also like to thank the secondary members of my supervisory team Professor Stephen Westland and Dr. Vien Cheung for their patience and understanding and support. Thirdly I would like to thank all of my peers over the course of the past four years who have supported me through their shared experience and advice. Furthermore, I would like to express my appreciation of the participants and contributors involved throughout the study, for both: their time and contributions to the data collection phase. Finally, I would like to thanks my support network of family and friends; as well as any other actors who have directly or indirectly supported this endeavour over the course of the past four years; especially Manju Sugathan, whose support and provocation has proven invaluable. 2 ABSTRACT Since the release of the first generation iPhone in 2007, the popularity of smartphones has increased exponentially. As of 2015, two billion smartphones are in use. It is projected that in 2020 two-thirds of the world will use smartphones. One of the features which underpins the popularity of smartphones is camera which allows users to capture and share images quickly and easily. The smartphone is different from older cameras for three reasons. First, it is held continually in users’ possession. Secondly, smartphones are connected to data networks e.g. cellular and Wi-Fi internet. Thirdly, smartphones offer users customizable camera functions; achieved through use of different software tools. As a consequence of the above, smartphone users are capable of creating and sharing photographic images whenever they wish, with global reach – and in a variety of ways. This thesis investigates the extent that smartphone hardware and software tools are transforming personal photography. To achieve this, the researcher develops a theoretical framework merging: the underpinnings of photography and personal photographic practices through literature review. Then, contemporary smartphone photographic practices are investigated through a set of 6 focus groups with 13-18, 18-25 and 25-35yr olds. Findings are interrogated through application of the framework to identify significant transformations and consistencies with precedent. In lieu of these transformations, a series of design principles are generated for personal photography. These principles characterise the current and enduring expectations users have of personal photography; as well as providing an outline for their future course. These principles offer opportunity for: application in current technologies (e.g. novel or optimized smartphone software tools); reflection upon current limitations of previous photographic technology; and development of emerging photographic technologies. This study includes two key contributions. First: a novel framework is formulated that roots personal photography’s rapidly changing social and technological circumstances in its precedent and ontology. Second: via this framework, the accelerated transformation of personal photography away from a representation act to a mechanism of social exchange (coinciding with smartphone use) is described. This offers scope for: 1) academic enquiry; by further developing the model and exploring ongoing change; and 2) industry development; by configuring new tools and collaborating with existing stakeholders to explore the many untapped opportunities in personal photography as it exists today. 3 CONTENTS Acknowledgements 2 Abstract 3 List of Abbreviations 7 List of Tables 8 List of Figures 9 Chapter 1: Introduction 10 Research Context 10 Smartphones and contemporary visual culture 20 Originality of research 35 Research Questions 35 Research aim and objectives 36 Thesis structure 36 Chapter 2: Methodology 39 Overview 39 What is research? 39 Broader considerations in research: from paradigms to methods 43 Data collection methods (qualitative or quantitative) 52 Positivism and interpretivism and the formal practice of design 52 Formulating the research methodology, and selecting methods 57 Methodology Summary 67 Chapter 3: Literature Review 69 Purpose of literature review 69 Photographic theory 70 Personal photography practices 105 The impact of digital imaging and networks on personal photography 116 The extended self 123 4 Conclusion: toward a model of personal photography 134 Framework for analysis of focus groups 138 Chapter 4: Data Collection and findings 143 Review of preparation and planning 143 Data collection 162 Chapter 5: Discussion 209 Overview 209 Key similarities, transformations and design principles 210 Summary 230 Chapter 5: Conclusion 233 Meeting the research aim and objectives 233 Conclusions from the thesis 234 Limitations to the research 236 Contribution to knowledge 237 Recommendation for future work 237 List of References 240 Appendix 249 Research Protocol 250 Screener Questionnaire 257 Information Sheet 261 Participant Consent Form 264 5 Page left intentionally blank 6 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS GPS - Global Positioning System MEA - Middle East and Asia APEJ - Asia Pacific Excluding Japan PDA - Personal Digital Assistant API - Application Platform Interface GUI - General User Interface SMS - Small Messaging Service CPU - Central Processing Unit OS - Operating System MP - Megapixel SNS - Social Network Site CMC - Computer-mediated Communication ETC – “Express, Test, Cycle” HCD – Human-Centered Design MCD – Meaning-Centered Design FOMO – “Fear of Missing Out” CGI – Computer-generated Imagery 7 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Robson’s “Classification of the purposes of enquiry” [55:59-60] 41 Table 2.2: King’s circumstances in which interviews are the most appropriate method [107:16-17] 62 Table 3.1: the three components of a sign in Peircian semiotics [126:29] 84 Table 3.2: the three components of a sign in Peircian semiotics [126:36-37] 85 Table 4.1: age and gender description of Cohort A 148 Table 4.2: age and gender description of Cohort B 149 Table 4.3: age and gender description of Cohort C 149 Table 4.4: description of smartphone brand and apps in Cohort A 151 Table 4.5: description of smartphone brand and apps in Cohort B 151 Table 4.6: description of smartphone brand and apps in Cohort C 152 Table 4.7: additional screener question responses in Cohort A 156 Table 4.8: additional screener question responses in Cohort B 157 Table 4.9: additional screener question responses in Cohort C 158 8 LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1.1. Most popular camera in the Flickr community (09/10/2015) [5] 13 Fig. 1.2 Most popular point-and-shoot cameras in the Flickr community (09/10/2015) [5] 14 Fig. 1.3 Example of Apple “Shot With iPhone” subway poster (Image by Elvert Barnes on Flickr [4] 16 Fig. 1.4 KPCB estimated photos uploaded and shared per day 2005-2014YTD [9:62] 18 Fig. 1.5 Statista visualization of comScore data from December 2013 displaying % of time spent on social networks in the US, by platform [7] 19 Fig 1.6 Three of The Rock’s Instagram images [11] [15] [18] 22 Fig. 1.7. Informal images posted by Kim Kardashian [6], Cristiano Ronaldo [13] and Rihanna [16] to Instagram 23 Fig. 1.8. Screen-captures of a chronological series of 5 images posted to “My Story” on Snapchat by Kim Kardashian. Accessed at 4:05pm on the 31st of August 2016 24 Fig. 1.9. Screen-captures of a chronological series of 5 images posted Instagram by Kim Kardashian on the 1st-5th of September 2016 [10] [14] [17] [19] [20] 25 Fig 1.10 A group ‘selfie’ captured by Bradley Cooper at the 2014 Academy Awards on a Samsung Galaxy Note 3 and then shared by Ellen DeGeneres on Twitter [37] 26 Fig. 1.11 Series of “Bad Luck Brian” image macros containing various riffs on the theme 29 Fig. 3.1 representation of the camera obscura from De radio astronomico et geometrico [1:39]. 72 Fig. 4.1: "Which apps do you use to share images?" 153 Fig. 4.2: "How often do you use your smartphone to take images?" 159 Fig. 4.3: "How long have you owned a smartphone?" 159 Fig 4.4: "How many apps do you use to create and share images" 160 Fig.4.5: "How many images have you created and shared this year?" 160 9 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This chapter presents an overall outline of the research, including: the research context, the problem to be investigated, and a description of the thesis structure. To establish the research problem, an overview of the introduction of smartphones is presented, with emphasis placed on the wider context in that surrounds contemporary personal photography. Here personal photography is defined as photography practices undertaken by the population at large for everyday use; excluding professional or artistic use. This overview encouraged the researcher to conduct a research investigation to identify the impact of smartphone hardware and smartphone software tools on practices of personal photography. Research Context What is a smartphone? A “smartphone” is defined as “a mobile phone that performs many of the functions of a computer, typically having a touchscreen interface, internet access, and an operating system capable of running downloaded apps” [41]. A computer is defined as: “an electronic device … capable of receiving information (data) in a particular form and of performing a sequence of operations … (program) to produce a result in the form of information or signals” [40].
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