Ecological Assessment of a Proposed Structure Plan for 790C Hot Water Beach Road, Whenuakite

ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF A PROPOSED STRUCTURE PLAN FOR 790C HOT WATER BEACH ROAD, WHENUAKITE

R4800

ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF A PROPOSED STRUCTURE PLAN FOR 790C HOT WATER BEACH ROAD, HOT WATER BEACH

View of kānuka forest and scrub in the main gully.

Contract Report No. 4800

April 2019

Project Team: Nick Goldwater - Field survey, report author GIS - Federico Mazzieri Tim Martin - Peer review

Prepared for: Hot Water Beach (NZ) Ltd 10a Domain Drive Parnell Auckland 1052

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 6

2. METHODS 7

3. ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT 7 3.1 Overview 7 3.2 Climate 7 3.3 Geology and soils 7 3.4 Vegetation 8 3.5 Fauna 9 3.6 Protected areas 9 3.7 Local context 10 3.7.1 Overview 10 3.7.2 Topography 10 3.7.3 Soils 10 3.7.4 Threatened Environment Classification 10

4. VEGETATION AND HABITAT TYPES 11 4.1 Overview 11 4.2 Terrestrial habitats 11 4.3 Freshwater habitats 19 4.3.1 Overview 19 4.3.2 Taiwawe Stream 20 4.3.3 Tributary 1 20 4.3.4 Tributary 2 21 4.3.5 Pond 22

5. FLORA 23

6. FAUNA 23 6.1 Avifauna 23 6.2 Aquatic fauna 23 6.3 Reptiles 24 6.4 Long-tailed bats 24

7. ECOLOGICAL VALUES 24 7.1 Terrestrial values 24 7.2 Aquatic values 25

8. ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE ASSESSMENT 25

9. THREATS TO ECOLOGICAL VALUES 27 9.1 Stock 27 9.2 Pest animals 27 9.3 Pest plants 28 9.4 Barriers to fish migration 28

10. POTENTIAL ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT 29 10.1 Overview 29 10.2 Sedimentation of aquatic and marine habitats 30 10.3 Stormwater and wastewater 30 10.3.1 Stormwater 30 10.3.2 Wastewater 31 10.4 Predation of indigenous fauna by domestic pets 31 10.5 Bird mortality or injury from window strike 31 10.6 Introduction of pest plant species 32 10.7 Removal of stock 32

11. OPPORTUNITIES TO AVOID, MINIMISE OR MITIGATE POTENTIAL ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS 33 11.1 Stormwater 33 11.2 Riparian and terrestrial setbacks 33 11.3 Management of cultivated pest plants 33 11.4 Management of domestic pets 33 11.5 Reducing likelihood of bird window strike 34

12. OPTIONS FOR ECOLOGICAL ENHANCEMENT 34 12.1 Overview 34 12.2 Riparian planting 34 12.3 Revegetation and enrichment planting 34 12.4 Pest plant control 35 12.5 Pest animal control 35 12.6 Remediating barriers to fish migration 35 12.7 Legal protection of natural areas 35

13. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 35

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 37

REFERENCES 37

APPENDICS

1. Vascular plant species AT 790c hot water beach road, whenuakite 40 2. Fauna species recorded at 790c hot water beach, whenuakite 44 3. Site concept plan 45

Reviewed and approved for release by:

______Tim Martin Principal Ecologist Wildland Consultants Ltd

 Wildland Consultants Ltd 2019

This report has been produced by Wildland Consultants Ltd for Hot Water Beach (NZ) Ltd. All copyright in this report is the property of Wildland Consultants Ltd and any unauthorised publication, reproduction, or adaptation of this report is a breach of that copyright.

1. INTRODUCTION

John McDermott and Jeremy Coates (the Clients) are seeking a Plan Change or Variation to introduce a Structure Plan to incorporate a conservation strategy and development proposal for land at Hot Water Beach at 790c Hot Water Beach Road, Whenuakite. A Plan Change/Variation is considered a more appropriate process than making application for a non-complying activity resource consent within the Rural Zone (outside of the coastal environment) under the Proposed Thames-Coromandel District Plan1. This ecological assessment is one of a suite of detailed assessments of the site. It includes an ecological survey and options for ecological restoration and enhancement.

To this end, the Clients have commissioned Wildland Consultants Ltd to undertake an ecological assessment and provide an ecological framework for the proposed development. The assessment incorporates the Taiwawe Stream running along its western boundary, together with two interior tributary gully systems and wetland habitats within both northern and western boundaries. This assessment underpins and recommends the conservation framework to support a Structure Plan providing for a maximum of 45 lots within identified Development Areas.

A comprehensive Ecological Management Plan (EMP) is recommended to be prepared and submitted at the time of application for subdivision consent to set out the detail of revegetation and enrichment planting, replacement planting where weeds are removed, and buffer planting. The EMP will also cover mitigation measures to ensure restoration and protection of the site’s ecological values, including timeframes required to achieve the ecological outcomes and mitigation measures identified in the ecological assessment. The EMP will be prepared having regard to the subdivision scheme plan being submitted at the time, acknowledging that the scheme plan prepared by Dunwoodie & Green Surveyors Ltd represents a notional subdivision indicative of a possible design and layout. It has been provided and referred to for the purpose of assisting our assessment of the Structure Plan proposal.

This ecological assessment supports the setting aside of the Conservation Area identified in the Structure Plan to provide the conservation framework for ecological values and enhancement of biodiversity. Specifically, this report provides the following:

 Survey methods  Ecological context of the study site  Description and map of the vegetation and habitat types  Description of fauna recorded or likely to be present  Terrestrial and ecological values of the site  Potential ecological effects for the proposed development  Opportunities to avoid or minimise identified effects  Options for ecological enhancement

1 A Proposed Hot Water Beach Structure Plan has been prepared for the site by Graeme Lawrence (Planner) Lawrence Cross Chapman & Co Ltd

2. METHODS

A literature search was undertaken to identify relevant ecological information on the site, and existing information was collated and reviewed. A search of the New Zealand Freshwater Fish Database (NIWA 2018) was undertaken to obtain local records of fish.

Field surveys were carried out on 3-4 October 2018 during fine weather, and included a night time spotlighting survey for indigenous fish. Key vegetation and habitat types, including permanent streams and wetlands, were identified, described, and mapped (Figure 1). All vascular plant species observed at the site were recorded (Appendix 1) together with incidental observations of fauna species (Appendix 2). Representative photographs were taken in the field, and these are provided throughout the report.

3. ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT

3.1 Overview

The study site is located within the Tairua Ecological District, on the east coast of the Coromandel Peninsula. The following description of Tairua Ecological District is derived from McEwen (1987):

Tairua Ecological District is relatively large, and extends from Whitianga to Whangamata on the east coast, and across to the western side of the Coromandel Range, between Thames and Paeroa. Tairua Ecological District is characterised by steep hill country, smaller areas of alluvial plains, and several large river estuaries, including Whitianga Harbour, Whangamata Harbour, the Otahu Estuary, Wharekawa Harbour, and Tairua Estuary.

Tairua is one of the most modified ecological districts within the mainland Coromandel Ecological Region and at 89,000 hectares it is also the largest. Much of the lowland and coastal areas are now covered in farmland, exotic forest and scrub as a result of extensive kauri (Agathis australis) logging and repetitive burning. However, the sub-montane zones and steep rugged areas of the lowland zone along the spine of the main range are still forested, although these areas are highly modified by logging. Most of this forested terrain lies within the Coromandel Forest Park.

3.2 Climate

Overall, Tairua Ecological District is warm and dry in the summer months and mild in the winter. Annual lowland temperatures range between -2.0 and 28.5º Celsius. Rainfall occurs year round, with mean monthly rainfall between 95 and 210 millimetres. Flooding occurs most commonly in autumn and rainfall is higher in winter. Fog is rare in lowland areas, but occurs more frequently in the ranges.

3.3 Geology and soils

In the area surrounding the site, the parent rock is mainly sheets of ignimbrite or rhyolite breccia (Whitianga Group) with extensive intrusions of dome-like rhyolitic lava flows (Minden Rhyolites). Generally, the terrain is less broken and not as steep as in the remainder of Tairua Ecological District.

Soils are yellow-brown earths of hill (on ignimbrite flows) and steep land (on rhyolite domes) country. A deep mantle of volcanic ash has been preserved on the large areas of easy terrain resulting in significantly different soils from those on the Thames side. The main soils on the steep and very steep country are Tangatara steep land soils of low fertility. On the rolling to hilly country, mainly in the east and north of Tairua Ecological District, the soils are varied. The main soils are Puketui hill soils (low fertility), Whangamata sandy loam (medium to low fertility), Pukenamu clay loam (low fertility) and Whitianga silt loam (medium fertility). Recent soils from alluvium (Ohinemuri loamy sand to clay loam) are of high fertility and occur mainly around Whitianga Harbour and along the Waiwawa, Whenuakite and Tairua Rivers. Organic soils of Ruakaka peaty loam (low to very low fertility) are relatively more extensive in Tairua Ecological District than elsewhere in the mainland part of Coromandel Ecological Region.

3.4 Vegetation

Historical accounts of the vegetation of Tairua Ecological District prior to large- scale modifications carried out by Europeans are extremely limited. However, the few remnants in the lower lowland and coastal areas provide some clues to the vegetation and habitat types that occurred on various landforms in these areas. The vegetation structure of the upper lowland and montane areas remain relatively unmodified.

Coastal Zone

Generally only small remnants of forest dominated by pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), pūriri (Vitex lucens), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile) and kauri remain on the sheltered hillslopes and gullies along the coast. Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), northern rata (Metrosideros robusta), and northern rata-pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa × M. robusta) hybrids are thought to have once occurred along inland facing slopes, with pūriri, kohekohe and pōhutukawa. Whenuakite, which is the largest area of protected coastal forest on the east coast of the Coromandel Peninsula, has coastal vegetation dominated by pōhutukawa, kauri, kohekohe, rata, pūriri, tānekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides), and tōwai (Weinmannia silvicola).

Semi-Coastal Zone

Most of the rolling hill country has been converted to farmland and exotic plantation forests as the easy access allowed extensive indigenous vegetation clearance. The majority of remaining indigenous vegetation is in the form of scrub with a similar species composition to that found in the coastal zone. The semi-coastal zone was originally thought to have been covered in tawa, kohekohe, pūriri, northern rata, rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), tōtara (Podocarpus totara), kauri and, on steeper terrain, possibly hard beech (Fuscospora truncata). However this is not entirely

certain as there are no beech remnants remaining. Remnant kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), mataī (Prumnopitys taxifolia), rimu, tānekaha, and tōtara remain in the alluvial flats and terraces of the semi-coastal and lowland zones. Poorly drained sites also support some remnants of pūriri, karaka, tītoki (Alectryon excelsa), and a few swamp maire (Syzygium maire).

Lowland Zone

Much of the mid-altitudinal range vegetation types are reverting scrubland consisting of mānuka, the introduced prickly hakea (Hakea sericea), mingimingi (Leucopogon fasciculatus), akepiro (Olearia furfuracea), O. townsonii, akeake (Dodonaea viscosa), koromiko (Hebe stricta), and prickly mingimingi (Leptecophylla juniperina var. juniperina). Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa), kauri ricker, and wilding radiata and maritime pine frequently occur as emergent species.

3.5 Fauna

Tairua Ecological District is home to a variety of common forest bird species, but there are some noteworthy absences, including whitehead (Mohoua albicilla) and North Island rifleman (Acanthisitta chloris granti), which are locally extinct in the Thames-Coromandel District. North Island robin (Petroica longipes) is also absent from the district, although it has been reintroduced to Moehau/Port Charles in recent years.

Most indigenous forest remaining in Tairua Ecological District lies within the Coromandel Forest Park. The presence of threatened species such as North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli), North Island kaka, North island fernbird (Bowdleria punctata vealeae), long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus), and Hochstetter’s frog (Leiopelma hochstetteri) are justification for the wildlife habitat of Coromandel Forest Park to be considered outstanding, although numbers of several of these species have declined substantially over the past three decades.

A wide range of lizard species is present in Tairua Ecological District, although many are confined to offshore islands. Mainland skink species recorded include shore skink (Oligosoma smithii) and moko skink (O. moco). Gecko species occurring on the mainland include forest gecko (Mokopirirakau granulatus), common gecko (Woodworthia maculata), Pacific gecko (Dactylocnemis pacificus), and elegant gecko (Naultinus elegans).

3.6 Protected areas

Coromandel Forest Park encompasses the main spine of the Coromandel Range. Within the Park, the Kapowai, Motutapere, and Te Tipi Ecological Areas include most of the montane vegetation as well as kauri and hard beech forest associations. In all, 116 protected Significant Natural Areas (SNAs) cover 18,151 hectares, of which 11,587 hectares is part of southern Coromandel Forest Park.

Many small reserves administered by the Department of Conservation, and several relatively large QEII National Trust open space covenants, are present in the lowland, semi-coastal and coastal zones. Much of the vegetation within these areas is

made up of secondary growth forest and scrub, with very small and scattered mature forest elements left, often invaded by wilding pines. Fauna values, however, are high, with kiwi, fernbird, and Hochstetter’s frog present.

3.7 Local context

3.7.1 Overview

Vegetation at 790c Hot Water Beach Road is part of an extensive tract of indigenous forest and scrub which covers hilly coastal land from Hot Water Beach in the north to Tairua in the south. The vegetation is contiguous with a large area of the Coromandel State Forest Park (administered by the Department of Conservation). This tract of vegetation is semi-contiguous with forest and scrub habitats that cover much of the Coromandel Peninsula, extending north to Fletcher Bay and south to the Kaimai-Mamaku Forest Park. A large area of indigenous vegetation, protected under a Queen Elizabeth II Open Space covenant, occurs on a neighbouring property to the southwest of the study site. Other smaller parcels of covenanted land are scattered around the Whenuakite locality (Figure 1). The shoreline of the Pacific Ocean lies approximately 820 metres northeast of the property. Taiwawe Stream flows in a northerly direction along the western boundary of the property, discharging at the southern end of Hot Water Beach. Two tributaries of the Taiwawe Stream drain central gullies at the property.

3.7.2 Topography

The property has a northerly aspect and is characterised by moderate to gentle hills and long-narrow gullies and broad ridges. The highest point (105 metres asl) occurs on a ridge that runs east-west along the southern property boundary. The elevation becomes progressively lower towards the north of the property, reaching 13 metres above sea level in an area of flat pasture.

3.7.3 Soils

Most of the surrounding catchment supports imperfectly drained ‘Brown Soils’. This soil type occurs in places where summer drought is uncommon and which are not waterlogged in winter. They are the most extensive soils, covering 43% of New Zealand (Landcare Research 2018). A small discrete area of well-drained ‘Semiarid Soils’ occurs on low-lying land at the northern end of the property. This soil type is characterised by weakly leached soils with high slaking and dispersion potential, moderate to high bulk densities, weakly developed soil structure, relatively high nutrients levels, and lime and salt accumulations in the lower subsoil. These soils only cover 1% of New Zealand (Landcare Research 2018).

3.7.4 Threatened Environment Classification

Approximately 6.24 hectares of the property fall within an ‘Acutely Threatened’ TEC (<10% indigenous cover left). This category contains environments where the loss of habitats for indigenous species has been greatest in the past. Approximately 31.87 hectares of the property fall within a Threatened Environment Class (TEC) described as ‘Less reduced and better protected’ (> 30% left and > 20% protected).

This category contains environments with greater than 20% of their land area legally protected and greater than 30% indigenous cover remaining. Land in these environments is generally steeper and wetter, and less suitable for settlement and agricultural development.

4. VEGETATION AND HABITAT TYPES

4.1 Overview

Seven terrestrial and wetland habitats were identified during the survey, and are described in Section 4.2 below. Aquatic habitats are described in Section 4.3. All vegetation and habitat types are mapped in Figure 1.

1. Kānuka treeland 2. Kānuka forest and scrub 3. Mānuka-swamp millet-Mexican devil shrubland 4. Kānuka scrub 5. Kānuka-gorse shrubland 6. Soft rush-spearwort rushland 7. Rye grass-rat’s tail-narrow leaved plantain grassland 8. Aquatic habitat (streams and pond)

4.2 Terrestrial habitats

Kānuka treeland (Vegetation Type 1, 1.78 hectares)

Kānuka treeland (up to 18 metres tall) occurs on the true right side of the Taiwawe Stream, along the western boundary of the property (Figure 1). Rewarewa and tānekaha occur rarely in the canopy, while in the sub-canopy ponga occurs frequently with occasional mature tī kōuka (cabbage tree; Cordyline australis), and māhoe (Melicytus ramiflorus) (Plate 1). Some of the kānuka are particularly large (50-60 centimetres diameter). The ground tier has been heavily browsed by stock, and is currently characterised by rye grass (Lolium perenne) and unpalatable species such as Coprosma rhamnoides, woolly nightshade (Solanum mauritianum), ragwort (Jacobaea vulgaris), and other exotic herb species. The adverse impacts of stock are particularly evident on the floodplain (Plate 1). A broken post and batten fence separates the floodplain from the top of the stream bank, where stock are less likely to access. The stream bank is characterised by frequent Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), māhoe, putaputawētā (Carpodetus serratus), māpou (Myrsine australis), mamaku (Cyathea medullaris), and ground ferns such as kiokio (Parablechnum novae-zelandiae) and pākau (Pneumatopteris pennigera).

Plate 1: Sub-canopy and understorey in Vegetation Type 1, with evidence of browsing by stock. 4 October 2018.

A smaller unfenced area of kānuka treeland occurs near the northern boundary of the property (Figure 1). The site is grazed by stock, and there is little vegetation in the ground tier apart from pasture grasses and occasional ragwort and Scotch thistle (Cirsium vulgare) (Plate 2). A degraded permanent stream flows along the eastern margin of the site (see Section 4.3).

Plate 2: Small, isolated patch of kānuka treeland (Vegetation Type 1) which is grazed throughout. 4 October 2018.

Kānuka forest and scrub (Vegetation Type 2, 5.66 hectares)

Kānuka forest and scrub occurs in the two central forest remnants, and is the most abundant indigenous vegetation type at the property (Plate 3). Both of these remnants are drained by permanent streams (see Section 4.3). Kānuka is abundant in the canopy and reaches c.12-15 metres in height. Tōwai occurs occasionally in the canopy, while radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is a frequent emergent species. The sub- canopy is characterised by frequent māhoe and ponga, with occasional mamaku and whauwhaupaku (five finger, Pseudopanax arboreus) (Plate 4). The understorey where stock do not have access is densely vegetated by abundant hangehange (Geniostoma ligustrifolium) and Coprosma rhamnoides, with frequent ponga, māpou, ponga, māhoe, and sword sedge (Lepidosperma laterale), with occasional Chinese privet, shiny coprosma (Coprosma lucida), and kiokio, and locally frequent wīwī (Schoenus tendo). Ground ferns such as pukupuku (Doodia australis) and rosy maidenhair (Adiantum hispidulum) are restricted to the steep stream banks. Where stock have access (e.g. southern end of the smaller forest remnant), vegetation in the understorey and ground tier is scarce, with the exception of scattered patches of panic grass (Oplismenus hirtellus subsp. imbecillis), pānako (Icarus filiformis), and Coprosma rhamnoides.

Plate 3: Kānuka forest and scrub (Vegetation Type 2) with emergent pine and woolly nightshade visible on the margins. 4 October 2018.

Plate 4: Sub-canopy and understorey vegetation in Vegetation Type 2 where stock are excluded. 4 October 2018.

Indigenous vines such as puawānanga (Clematis paniculata), akakaikiore (native jasmine, Parsonsia heterophylla), and tātarāmoa (bush lawyer, Rubus cissoides) occur occasionally in the larger, eastern forest remnant. Shade-tolerant pest plant species occur near the stream channel of the larger forest remnant, including hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla), black passionfruit (Passiflora edulis), and tradescantia (Tradescantia fluminensis) (Plate 5). Light-demanding pest plant species such as gorse, pampas (Cortaderia selloana) and brush wattle (Paraserianthes lophantha) frequently occur on the margins of the two forest remnants, together with

regenerating kānuka (Plate 6). Pest plant species that occur occasionally on the forest margins include coast banksia (Banksia integrifolia) and prickly hakea (Hakea sericea).

Plate 5: Localised tradescantia in the stream channel (Vegetation Type 2). 4 October 2018.

Plate 6: Infestation of brush wattle, Chinese privet, and woolly nightshade on the margins of Vegetation Type 2. 4 October 2018.

Mānuka-swamp millet-Mexican devil shrubland (Vegetation Type 3, 0.68 hectares)

Two areas of fenced wetland habitat occur in shallow gullies at the property. Mānuka dominates a fragmented canopy with occasional whekī (Dicksonia squarrosa), mamaku, tī kōuka, tukituki (swamp coprosma, Coprosma tenuicaulis), and grey willow (Salix cinerea) (Plate 7). The dense understorey is characterised by

swamp millet (Isachne globosa) and Mexican devil (Ageratina adenophora) (Plate 8) with frequent Machaerina rubiginosa and kiokio, and locally common rautahi (Carex lessoniana). Patches of the creeping indigenous herb Nertera depressa occur frequently in the ground tier with occasional sphagnum moss (Sphagnum cristatum). Exotic species such as blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.), pampas, and radiata pine occur occasionally on the wetland margins.

Plate 7: A canopy of mānuka and grey willow comprises part of Vegetation Type 3 (mid-ground of photograph). 4 October 2018.

Plate 8: Mexican devil is locally abundant with swamp millet in the northern area of Vegetation Type 3. 4 October 2018.

Kānuka scrub (Vegetation Type 4, 1.23 hectares)

A partially fenced area of kānuka scrub occurs on a hillslope near the southern end of the property (Figure 1). Radiata pine is a frequent emergent species. Stock have negatively affected much of this vegetation type, and subsequently the understorey is limited to Coprosma rhamnoides, māpou seedlings, and ground ferns (Plate 9).

Plate 9: Heavily browsed understorey in Vegetation Type 4. 4 October 2018.

Kānuka-gorse shrubland (Vegetation Type 5, 1.32 hectares)

Co-dominant regenerating kānuka and gorse occur as dense, low-stature shrubland on the southwestern part of the property (Figure 1, Plate 10). Radiata pine is present as an occasional emergent species.

Plate 10: Regenerating kānuka-gorse shrubland with occasional pine (Vegetation Type 4). 4 October 2018.

Soft rush-spearwort rushland (Vegetation Type 6, 0.14 hectares)

A small wetland occurs in a shallow basin at the northern end of the property (Figure 1). This area is intermittently wet, and the vegetation is dominated by soft rush and spearwort (Ranunculus flammula), with frequent Isolepis sepulcralis, lotus (Lotus pedunculatus) and paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum) (Plate 11). The wetland is grazed by stock.

Plate 11: Degraded wetland characterised by co-dominant soft rush and spearwort (Vegetation Type 6). 4 October 2018.

Rye grass-rat’s tail-narrow leaved plantain grassland (Vegetation Type 7; 26.54)

Pasture covers most of the site and is characterised by abundant rye grass with commonly occurring rat’s tail (Sporobolus africanus) and narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata). Lawn daisy (Bellis perennis) and ragwort occur frequently throughout this vegetation type, while species such as kikuyu (Cenchrus clandestinus) and soft rush (Juncus effusus) are more localised in their distribution. Young kānuka and gorse are invading pasture in some parts of the property.

4.3 Freshwater habitats

4.3.1 Overview

Taiwawe Stream flows along the western boundary of the site and is the major watercourse in the catchment. The watercourses that drain the main gullies are all tributaries of Taiwawe Stream and are largely well-buffered and shaded by indigenous forest and scrub. A small constructed pond also occurs at the property.

4.3.2 Taiwawe Stream

Taiwawe Stream is a permanent natural stream that drains a large catchment to the west of the study site (Figure 1). Channel width ranges from 0.5 to three metres, and water depth is likely to exceed one metre in larger pools and runs (Plate 12). The dominant substrate is sandy silt, although gravels, cobbles, boulders, bedrock, and woody debris also occur frequently. The stream has excellent hydrological diversity, with runs, pools, and chutes present. The stream also contains stable habitat for fish and macroinvertebrates, including woody debris, undercut banks and boulders. Stock are unable to access the stream and it is well-buffered by indigenous vegetation. The stream banks comprise friable, sandy soil, making it prone to erosion and slumping. There was evidence at the site that water level rises significantly during heavy rainfall events, i.e. log jams and flood-damaged vegetation.

Plate 12: Broad section of channel in the Taiwawe Stream, which is well-buffered and shaded by indigenous vegetation. 4 October 2018.

4.3.3 Tributary 1

Tributary 1 occurs in the smaller remnant of kānuka forest and scrub (Vegetation Type 2, Figure 1). It is a small, hard-bottomed permanent stream that is well- buffered and shaded by topographical features and overhead vegetation. The substrate comprises bedrock, boulders, and cobbles of various sizes, gravels, and sandy silt (Plate 13). Small, shallow pools and runs are present (<15 centimetres in depth). The water was very clear at the time of the survey. This watercourse flows into a small quarry; no flowing water was observed in the channel downstream of the quarry, hence it is likely to be acting as a total fish barrier.

Plate 13: Tributary 1 is well-buffered by indigenous vegetation and cannot be accessed by stock. 4 October 2018.

4.3.4 Tributary 2

Tributary 2 flows through a larger forest remnant (Figure 1) and is well-buffered by indigenous vegetation along most of its length. The substrate is mainly soft- bottomed, comprising sandy silt with occasional cobbles and exposed bedrock (Plate 14). An orange-coloured iron floc was observed in the upper to mid-reaches of the watercourse; it is difficult to determine whether not this is a natural occurrence or it is related to a possible pollutant. There was evidence of significant bank collapse and scour in the upper reaches of the watercourse, where the channel is more incised and the soil is very soft and friable. Although most of the stream is not able to be accessed by stock, the upper ephemeral and intermittent reaches of the stream have been trampled, and stock have also caused localised damage to the downstream extent of the watercourse.

Plate 14: Upper reaches of Tributary 2. 4 October 2018.

4.3.5 Pond

A small constructed pond occurs in the southwestern part of the site. The pond is reported to be spring-fed (Clients, pers. comm.), and is currently being used to water stock (a pump house is located on its margin). The pond is well-buffered and shaded by a mixture of kānuka, gorse, pampas, and ferns (Plate 15). Ferny Azolla (Azolla pinnata) dominates the more shaded northern half of the pond, while red pondweed (Potamogeton cheesemanii) is a common surface emergent species in the southern half (Plate 15). Stock are not able to access the pond, and the water was clear at the time of the survey. It was difficult to estimate the depth of the pond, although it is like to exceed 1.5 metres in some parts.

Plate 15: Small pond with surface macrophytes ferny azolla (background) and red pond weed (foreground). 4 October 2018.

5. FLORA

Fifty-eight indigenous plant species and 50 naturalised plant species were recorded during the survey (Appendix 1). Two of the indigenous vascular plants recorded at the property haves a national-level threat classification: kānuka (Kunzea robusta) is ‘Threatened-Nationally Vulnerable’, and mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium agg.) is classified as ‘At Risk-Declining’ by de Lange et al. (2018). These plants are Myrtaceae species which are at risk of infection by myrtle rust (Austropuccinia psidii), a potentially devastating rust which has no known treatment. Along with other species in the Myrtaceae family, the threat status of kānuka and mānuka has been elevated as a precautionary measure based on the potential threat posed by myrtle rust. However, the presence of kānuka and mānuka at this site does not increase the significance of the site. These species are otherwise common and widespread in the local environment.

6. FAUNA

6.1 Avifauna

Nine indigenous bird species were seen or heard during the survey (Appendix 2). One species, North Island kākā (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis) is classified as ‘At Risk-Recovering’ by Robertson et al. (2017). The site supports common forest birds such as tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae), riroriro (grey warbler; Gerygone igata), kōtare (kingfisher; Todiramphus sanctus vagans), and pīwakawaka (North Island fantail; Rhipidura fuliginosa placabilis). Kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) were not recorded during the survey, which may indicate the lack of seasonal food resources at the property, i.e. large-fruited plant species. Nine exotic bird species were recorded.

6.2 Aquatic fauna

A spotlighting survey was undertaken for fish in the Taiwawe Stream and the main tributary that flows through the centre of the property (Tributary 2). Good numbers of juvenile and adult banded kōkopu (Galaxias fasciatus) were observed throughout the Taiwawe Stream, together with occasional unidentified eels (Anguilla sp.) and one common bully (Gobiomorphis cotidianus). Numerous banded kōkopu and freshwater shrimp (Paratya curvirostris) were observed in the lower reaches of Tributary 2. During the daytime survey, banded kōkopu were observed in the headwaters and mid-reaches of Tributary 2. Banded kōkopu were frequently seen in the pond, which indicates the pond has connectivity with downstream habitats. Fish were not observed in Tributary 1, although only a small portion of the stream was assessed.

The New Zealand Freshwater Fish Database does not hold records for aquatic fauna in the Taiwawe Stream or nearby watercourses.

6.3 Reptiles

A targeted survey for reptiles was beyond the scope of this report. Vegetation types such as kānuka treeland, kānuka forest and scrub, and mānuka-swamp millet- Mexican devil shrubland have the potential to support arboreal geckos such as Auckland green gecko (Naultinus elegans elegans) and forest gecko (Mokopirirakau granulatus), particularly given that the site is contiguous with other significant areas of indigenous vegetation. Similarly, there is an abundance of suitable habitat for indigenous skinks such as copper skink (Oligosoma aeneum) and ornate skink (O. ornata), including open forest margins, shrubland, and rank grass. Auckland green gecko, forest gecko and ornate skink are all classified as ‘At Risk-Declining’ by Hitchmough et al. (2016).

There are no recent records of indigenous lizards in the locality held by the Department of Conservation Bioweb database. Moko skink (Oligosoma moco) has been recorded from Cook’s Beach (DOC Bioweb 2018) and Maramatōtara Bay (N. Goldwater, pers. obs. 2016), which are eight kilometres and 10.8 kilometres from the study site, respectively. Shore skink (Oligosoma smithi) has also been recorded from Maramatōtara Bay (N. Goldwater, pers. obs. 2014), but is very unlikely to be present at this site as it is a shoreline species Moko skink has a threat status of ‘At Risk- Relict’ and shore skink has a threat status of ‘At Risk-Naturally Uncommon’ as per Hitchmough et al. (2016).

6.4 Long-tailed bats

Long-tailed bats (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) occur in the Waikato Region within treed farmland and forests dominated by both indigenous and exotic trees. This species is classified as ‘Threatened-Nationally Critical’ by O’Donnell et al. (2018). Mature trees - both indigenous (e.g. large kānuka) and exotic (large pines) - are plentiful at the site and have the potential to contain bat roosts. A targeted bat survey was beyond this scope of this report.

7. ECOLOGICAL VALUES

7.1 Terrestrial values

The site is contiguous with an extensive tract of indigenous forest and scrub that covers most of the Coromandel Peninsula. Despite the presence of pest plants and stock, the vegetation provides good quality habitat for a range of indigenous bird species and is highly likely to support indigenous geckos and skinks. Large trees at the property, including pines, have the potential to support the ‘Threatened- Nationally Critical’ long-tailed bat.

Floristic diversity is relatively low and very few mature forest species were observed at the site, which is likely to be a result of past forest clearance, and browsing by stock and possibly possums. The site contains two small but good quality examples of freshwater wetland. These are characterised by mānuka, swamp millet and sedges, both of which have the potential to support threatened wetland bird species such as fernbird (At Risk-Declining) and spotless crake (Porzana tabuensis, At Risk-Relict).

The site also contains a representative example of an ecological sequence: mānuka- dominant wetland grading into kānuka forest and scrub. Such sequences are nationally uncommon ecosystem types.

With the exception of wilding pines, and to a lesser extent woolly nightshade and tree privet, pest plants are generally limited in diversity and abundance.

7.2 Aquatic values

The best quality aquatic habitat occurs in the Taiwawe Stream, the largest and least modified of the watercourses at the site. This stream has an abundance of high value habitat which is likely to support a good range of indigenous fish, including threatened species such as longfin eel (Anguilla dieffenbachii) and giant kōkopu (Galaxias argenteus). There is also abundant stable habitat such as logs and boulders for aquatic macroinvertebrates.

Tributaries 1 and 2 are smaller permanent streams that both contain good quality aquatic habitats. Both streams are well-buffered and shaded along most of their lengths, except for the downstream extent of Tributary 2 which is accessible by stock and generally lacks riparian buffering. Even degraded stream reaches at the northern end of the site support good numbers of banded kōkopu. The removal of stock, together with appropriate mitigation planting, would significantly improve the ecological values of these reaches.

The pond currently supports good numbers of banded kōkopu, and it is likely that eels are also present. The water quality is considered to be good, which is largely a result of stock exclusion and suitable buffering from surrounding vegetation.

8. ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE ASSESSMENT

Terrestrial and freshwater habitats at the study site meet at least four of the 11 criteria for significance of indigenous biodiversity in the Waikato Regional Policy Statement (Table 2). Using the Waikato Regional Council (WRC) guidelines for the assessment of indigenous vegetation and habitats (WRC 2016), terrestrial vegetation and aquatic habitat within the site are of regional significance. This is primarily due to the high likelihood of the site supporting ‘At Risk’ fauna species and the presence of freshwater wetland habitat.

Table 2: Significance assessment of indigenous vegetation and habitats at 790c Hot Water Road. Criteria are from the Waikato Regional Policy Statement.

Criteria Assessment Comments Previously Assessed Site 1. It is indigenous vegetation or habitat for No All forest will be covenanted indigenous fauna that is currently, or is in the future. recommended to be, set aside by statute or covenant or by the Nature Heritage Fund, or Nga Whenua Rahui committees, or the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust Board of Directors, specifically for the protection of

Criteria Assessment Comments biodiversity, and meets at least one of Criteria 3- 11. Ecological Values 2A In the Coastal Marine Area, it is indigenous N/A vegetation or habitat for indigenous fauna that has reduced in extent or degraded due to historic or present anthropogenic activity to a level where the ecological sustainability of the ecosystem is threatened. 3. It is vegetation or habitat that is currently habitat Yes At Risk fish and reptile for indigenous species or associations of species are almost certain to indigenous species that are: occur at the site given its  classed as threatened or at risk, or size, quality of habitat and  endemic to the Waikato region, or connectivity to large forest  at the limit of their natural range. tracts and waterways. 4. It is indigenous vegetation, habitat or ecosystem Yes Mānuka-swamp millet type that is under-represented (20% or less of its wetland. known or likely original extent remaining) in an Ecological District, or Ecological Region, or nationally. 5. It is indigenous vegetation or habitat that is, and No prior to human settlement was, nationally uncommon such as geothermal, Chenier plain, or karst ecosystems, hydrothermal vents or cold seeps. 6. It is wetland habitat for indigenous plant Yes Indigenous wetland of communities and/or indigenous fauna natural origin. communities (excluding exotic rush/pasture communities) that has not been created and subsequently maintained for or in connection with:  waste treatment;  wastewater renovation;  hydro-electric power lakes (excluding Lake Taupō);  water storage for irrigation; or  water supply storage; unless in those instances they meet the criteria in Whaley et al. (1995). 7. It is an area of indigenous vegetation or naturally No occurring habitat that is large relative to other examples in the Waikato region of similar habitat types, and which contains all or almost all indigenous species typical of that habitat type. Note this criterion is not intended to select the largest example only in the Waikato region of any habitat type. 8. It is aquatic habitat (excluding artificial water Likely The site forms an important bodies, except for those created for the part of the Taiwarere Stream maintenance and enhancement of biodiversity or catchment. Streams in the as mitigation as part of a consented activity) that catchment act as migration is within a stream, river, lake, groundwater pathways for diadromous system, wetland, intertidal mudflat or estuary, or fish species between the any other part of the coastal marine area and harbour and freshwater their margins, that is critical to the self- habitats upstream sustainability of an indigenous species within a (particularly for banded catchment of the Waikato region, or within the kōkopu, īnanga, and eels). coastal marine area. In this context “critical” means essential for a specific component of the life cycle and includes breeding and spawning grounds, juvenile nursery areas, important feeding areas and migratory and dispersal pathways of an indigenous species. This includes areas that maintain connectivity between habitats.

Criteria Assessment Comments 9. It is an area of indigenous vegetation or habitat No This criterion will be met that is a healthy and representative example of its once stock are excluded and type because: pest plant and animal control  its structure, composition, and ecological is implemented. processes are largely intact; and  if protected from the adverse effects of plant and animal pests and of adjacent land and water use (e.g. stock, discharges, erosion, sediment disturbance), can maintain its ecological sustainability over time. 10. It is an area of indigenous vegetation or habitat Yes The site also contains a that forms part of an ecological sequence, that representative example of is either not common in the Waikato region or an an ecological sequence: ecological district, or is an exceptional, mānuka -dominant wetland representative example of its type. grading into kānuka forest. Such sequences are nationally uncommon ecosystem types. Role in Protecting Ecologically Significant Area 11. It is an area of indigenous vegetation or habitat No for indigenous species (which habitat is either naturally occurring or has been established as a mitigation measure) that forms, either on its own or in combination with other similar areas, an ecological buffer, linkage or corridor and which is necessary to protect any site identified as significant under Criteria 1-10 from external adverse effects.

9. THREATS TO ECOLOGICAL VALUES

9.1 Stock

Stock are currently having adverse effects on both forested and aquatic habitats. Stock grazing suppresses indigenous regeneration, and trampling by cattle damages the understorey and roots of large trees. Grazing of the understorey also allows non- palatable pest plant species such as woolly nightshade to establish. Stock are currently adversely impacting the hydrology, morphology, and water quality of the lower reaches of Tributary 2, which in turn greatly reduces the quality of in-stream habitat for aquatic fauna. In addition, inputs of effluent into streams on the property will likely affect downstream receiving environments beyond the boundaries of the property, i.e. mouth of Taiwawe Stream at Hot Water Beach. It is acknowledged that the issue of stock access to streams and effluent run-off is not restricted to the study site; it is an issue that occurs on other properties within the catchment.

9.2 Pest animals

Pest animal control is not currently being undertaken at the site, and it is likely that a number of mammalian pest species are present, including brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), ship rat (Rattus rattus), Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) house mouse (Mus musculus), mustelids (Mustela spp.), and hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). Feral cats (Felis catus) are likely to visit the site occasionally (one cat was seen on the night of 3 October, although it may have been a domestic cat). All of these species have adverse effects on indigenous fauna and flora. Feral pig (Sus

scrofa) rooting was observed in Vegetation Type 4 and droppings were seen in Vegetation Type 3, although extensive damage in the understorey was not evident.

9.3 Pest plants

Wilding pines are widespread across the property, although it is feasible to control them via basal spraying in the short-term. However, the diversity and abundance of other environmental pest plant species is low and as such are not currently affecting ecosystem function. Shade-tolerant pest plants such as black passionfruit and tradescantia currently occur in low quantities in the larger remnant of Vegetation Type 2. Both species have the potential to spread throughout the understorey.

9.4 Barriers to fish migration

Many of New Zealand’s most widespread fish species (e.g. whitebait and eels) undertake significant migrations as part of their life-cycle. The purpose of these migrations is to access the range of habitats necessary to support different life- stages, e.g. reproduction and rearing, and ecological functions, for example feeding or finding refuge. Instream infrastructure, such as culverts, weirs and dams, can delay or prevent fish movements when adequate provision for fish passage is not provided in their design, installation and maintenance. The consequence is a reduction in the distribution and abundance of some of our freshwater species, including those classified as ‘Threatened’ or ‘At Risk’ (Franklin et al. 2018).

With regards to the project site, the quarry presents a total fish barrier within Tributary 1 (Figure 1, Plate 16), and it is unlikely that fish are present in the stream’s upper reaches. A perched culvert occurs at the downstream extent of Tributary 1, just beyond the northern property boundary (Figure 1, Plate 17). While climbing species such as banded kōkopu and eels can negotiate this culvert, it is likely to act as barrier for poorer climbers such as īnanga (Galaxias maculatus) and bullies (Gobiomorphis spp.). In addition, there is a blocked culvert in a small watercourse that drains into the lower reaches of Tributary 2. Numerous banded kōkopu were observed upstream of the block culvert, which suggests that fish are able to migrate above this point during high flows. However, during summer when the water levels are more likely to decrease, there is the likelihood that fish could be trapped.

Plate 16: Water from the blocked permanent stream (Tributary 1) appears as pooled groundwater near the quarry. 4 October 2018.

Plate 17: Perched culvert at the downstream extent of Tributary 2. 4 October 2018.

10. POTENTIAL ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT

10.1 Overview

The potential effects described below are intended to be broad-ranging, and can be assessed in more detail once the design and extent of the proposed development have been finalised.

The potential adverse effects of the proposed development include:

 Sedimentation of aquatic and marine habitats.  Effects of stormwater and wastewater on aquatic and estuarine habitats.

 Predation of indigenous fauna by domestic pets.  Bird mortality and/or injury from window strike.  Introduction of pest plant species.

The potential positive effects of the proposed development are:

 Removal of stock and the subsequent improvement in terrestrial and aquatic habitats.  Retention of existing indigenous vegetation, particularly along riparian margins and providing additional buffering and enrichment planting.  Connecting isolated forest remnants.  Planting steep eroding land.  Controlling pest plants and animals.

Each potential effect is addressed in more detail below.

10.2 Sedimentation of aquatic and marine habitats

Sediment-dwelling organisms are a major component of broader estuarine, harbour and coastal ecosystems, providing food for birds, fish, and humans, and affecting water quality, nutrient cycling, and productivity. Increased siltation or sedimentation caused by earthworks can adversely affect these organisms and the animal communities that feed on them.

It is not anticipated that any of the dwellings will be constructed in close proximity (i.e. closer than 20 metres) to existing watercourses, which greatly reduces the chances of sediment entering aquatic and estuarine receiving environments.

10.3 Stormwater and wastewater

10.3.1 Stormwater

Surface run-off from impermeable ground can greatly increase the amount and rate of stormwater flow. After heavy rainfall events, large amounts of fast-moving water flows into streams, creating a scouring effect that is harmful to aquatic fauna and can result in streambank erosion and sedimentation. Roofs, roads, and driveways are the main contributors to surface run-off. Stormwater can transport a range of contaminants such as heavy metals, which accumulate in estuarine receiving environments.

Heavy metals such as zinc (commonly used in roofing) can persist in the aquatic environment for considerable periods of time, particularly in sediment. As a consequence, metals can accumulate in the tissues of benthic organisms and their predators at higher trophic levels. Zinc is toxic to aquatic plants and animals (Widianarko et al. 2001). Zinc is one of the most common contaminants found in estuarine receiving environments and from the largest source is galvanized surfacing used in residential and industrial roofing. In residential areas, contamination by other pollutants can also occur through seemingly innocuous activities such as washing cars on impermeable surfaces, whereby cleaning chemicals and detergents are

readily transported into drains and into aquatic and estuarine receiving environments.

It is acknowledged that the proposed development will only marginally increase the area of impermeable surfaces on the property (with dwellings spread across the property), hence precluding the likelihood of large volumes of run-off entering watercourses.

10.3.2 Wastewater

It is proposed at this stage to install systems for each dwelling so that wastewater is treated on-site, e.g. using a vermicomposting system. This would preclude the need for communal wastewater treatment fields and dispersal into vegetated areas.

10.4 Predation of indigenous fauna by domestic pets

Although there are few laws or regulations in place in New Zealand to restrict cat behaviour or penalise cat owners, concern is often expressed about the effects of predation by domestic cats on urban wildlife. Some new sub-divisions are cat-free, but there has not been research to show that this results in any beneficial effects for wildlife (van Heezik 2010). It has been suggested that cat predation may have a relatively greater impact in newer suburban developments nearer to unmodified natural areas (Jones 2008). A study by Morgan et al. (2007) suggests that domestic cats will exploit local wild areas, usually if a cat’s home-site is adjacent or very close by. The close proximity of the proposed development to large areas of indigenous forest means that a range of indigenous fauna species are at risk of predation by cats, including birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and potentially long-tailed bats.

It is not unreasonable to assume that resident cats would enter surrounding indigenous vegetation given their propensity to roam. Domestic cats are also predators of birds’ eggs, indigenous reptiles (predominantly skinks), frogs, bats, fish, and invertebrates (King 2005). The characteristics of many New Zealand fauna (large size, terrestrial foraging or breeding habitat, isolated in indigenous habitat fragments) makes many species vulnerable to cat predation (Jones 2008). In addition, there is the potential for new feral cat populations to establish when domestic cats that are introduced to previously low-cat or cat-free areas (van Heezik 2010).

Although domestic dogs pose less of a risk to indigenous fauna within forested habitats, uncontrolled dogs have the potential to disturb feeding birds and/or kill ground-nesting birds and burrowing birds. North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli) is present within the wider area (e.g. Whenuakite Block), and this species is particularly vulnerable to dog attacks.

10.5 Bird mortality or injury from window strike

Clear and reflective windows in human structures of all sizes in urban, suburban, and rural settings are unintentionally killing vast numbers of birds the world over (Klem 2006; Klem 2008; Klem 2010). The annual toll of bird deaths from striking windows range from 100 million to 1 billion (latest quantitative estimate based on available

data is 365–988 million) in the United States, and from 16 to 42 million in Canada (Klem 1990; Dunn 1993; Loss et al. 2014). Forty years of detailed observation and experimentation has revealed that birds behave as if sheet glass and plastic are invisible to them (Klem 1989; Klem 1990). Birds strike clear panes while attempting to reach habitat seen through corridors, or where windows join in the corner or are oriented one behind the other to create an illusion of a passageway through a dwelling (Klem 2014). In a Canadian study, Bayne et al. (2012) found that per building mortality rates at individual residences were higher in rural than urban areas, and at residences with bird feeders than those without feeders.

Birds can die instantly when flying into windows or sustain multiple soft tissue injuries and fractures to bones around the chest area. Other types of injuries include crop rupture and bleeding around the heart. Although no studies to date have been undertaken on bird window strike in New Zealand, there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that species such as kererū and ruru (morepork; Ninox novaeseelandiae) are vulnerable to window strike. Migratory species such as shining cuckoo (Chrysococcyx lucidus lucidus) have also been killed by window strike (N. Goldwater, pers. obs.).

The proposed subdivision at 790c Hot Water Beach Road may result in up to 45 dwellings being constructed in open pasture, many of which would be located between areas of indigenous vegetation. There is the potential for birds travelling between forest remnants to collide with windows, particularly if the dwellings occur in existing flight paths. The probability of bird strike at the proposed subdivision will likely be positively correlated with the number of dwellings.

10.6 Introduction of pest plant species

Residential gardens are potentially a major source of invasive plants for adjacent areas of indigenous habitats (Sullivan et al. 2005). The presence of up to 45 new residences in close proximity to existing indigenous vegetation presents a risk of introducing pest plant species into indigenous habitats.

10.7 Removal of stock

All farming activities will cease if the proposed development proceeds. The removal of cattle will significantly benefit watercourses and the understorey of forest and scrub remnants. Any grazing animals that may remain, including horses and sheep, must be excluded from all streams and natural areas if the development proceeds. It is noted, however, that grazing elsewhere in the catchment has the potential to adversely affect the water quality of the Taiwawe Stream and its tributaries, particularly in the absence of stock-proof fencing.

11. OPPORTUNITIES TO AVOID, MINIMISE OR MITIGATE POTENTIAL ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS

11.1 Stormwater

New dwellings will include household water tanks to capture roof water for domestic use and to provide for the temporary storage and controlled release of roof run-off. Stormwater should not be discharged directly into streams, and any excess run-off should be dispersed across the land or into constructed wetlands. In addition, permeable surfaces should be maximised wherever possible, including the use of permeable material for pavements and driveways. In order to prevent zinc entering the local watercourses, galvanised paint should not be used in the proposed development.

11.2 Riparian and terrestrial setbacks

As a minimum, all permanent water courses should have a 15 metre buffer of indigenous vegetation on each side. In order to minimise the amount of noise, light and garden waste entering good quality forested areas, it is recommended that dwellings and other buildings are setback a minimum of 20 metres from the forest edge.

11.3 Management of cultivated pest plants

In order to control the spread of pest plants from domestic gardens, no plant species listed in the National Plant Pest Accord (NPPA) or the Waikato Regional Pest Management Strategy (2014-2024), in any category, should be permitted to be planted or cultivated within any of the lots, either in the ground or in pots. This should be a condition of consent, although it is acknowledged that it will be difficult to enforce. Many species not listed in the NPPA or RPMS can also establish from dumped garden refuse, for example fruit salad plant (Monstera deliciosa) and hydrangea, and some species cultivated for food, for example black passionfruit2, can establish within indigenous forest.

11.4 Management of domestic pets

The client recognises the vulnerability of certain species of indigenous fauna to domestic pets and is therefore keen to implement a ban on domestic cats at the site (J. McDermott & J. Coates, pers. comm.). It is noted that cat bans are becoming an increasingly common component of subdivision applications in New Zealand, particularly where ecologically sensitive environments are concerned3,4. It is recommended that a ban on domestic cats be implemented at the site as a condition of consent. A ban on dog ownership is considered to be onerous, although it is

2 Hydrangea and black passionfruit were observed in close proximity in Vegetation Type 2. 3 The Western Bay of Plenty District Council made a landmark decision in November 1996 to ban cats and dogs from the Five Jems subdivision at Waihi Beach. 4 Harbourside Development took up Forest and Bird’s suggestion of making their Kaiwharawhara (Wellington) subdivision wildlife-friendly by prohibiting cats to protect a bird corridor close to the ‘mainland island’ Karori Sanctuary.

strongly recommended that dogs are kept on leashes to prevent them from wandering into forest and wetland habitats.

11.5 Reducing likelihood of bird window strike There are options that can be implemented to reduce the likelihood of birds striking windows, and for minimising injury to birds involved in collisions. For rural residences, mitigation techniques could include reducing vegetation near windows, angling windows to reduce reflection, applying closely spaced UV light-reflecting decals to windows, or installing UV light-reflecting glass (Klem et al. 2004; Klem 2006, 2009). In addition, a structural design that has proven to protect birds by deflecting the force with which the bird strikes the pane is angling windows inward by 20 to 40 degrees; the greater the angle the greater the protection (Klem et al. 2004).

12. OPTIONS FOR ECOLOGICAL ENHANCEMENT

12.1 Overview

Once stock have been removed from the site, a range of options for ecological restoration can be implemented. These include controlling pest plants, planting riparian buffers, and planting appropriate indigenous species. All of these actions will benefit terrestrial and aquatic habitats at the site. The Structure Plan provides for an Ecological Management Plan (EMP) to be prepared and submitted as part of the application for subdivision of the areas identified as Development Areas. The EMP will provide detailed recommendations for the mitigation and enhancement measures outlined below. 12.2 Riparian planting

There is an opportunity to restore the riparian margins of watercourses in the north of the property, together with degraded areas of wetland. Riparian buffers should be planted at a minimum width of 15 metres on both sides of the watercourses. Riparian planting will deliver a range of ecological benefits such as increased shading of water, improved habitat for in-stream fauna, greater inputs of woody debris and leaf litter, and filtration of surface flows. If successfully implemented, the restored riparian margins will, over time, also provide important linkages between small isolated forest habitats and larger areas of indigenous vegetation.

12.3 Revegetation and enrichment planting

The applicants are intending to undertake extensive planting into pasture to increase the area and connectivity of existing forest habitats (see concept plan in Appendix 3). Greater connectivity will assist the movement of indigenous fauna throughout the landscape, while increase buffering on the margins of the forest remnants will protect against edge effects and improve overall resilience. The relatively low floristic diversity of the vegetation is underscored by the near absence of mature forest species at the site and in neighbouring properties. As such, it is recommended that species such as pūriri, kohekohe, and kahikatea are planted in the understorey following the removal of stock.

12.4 Pest plant control

The removal of pest plants will significantly improve the terrestrial and wetland values of the site. The applicants are currently undertaking control of wilding pines, which will allow a wider range of indigenous plants to establish.

12.5 Pest animal control

The control of possums, stoats, rodents and feral pigs would deliver significant ecological gains for the property, particularly in terms of understorey regeneration and reduced predation of indigenous birds, lizards, and invertebrates. Hares and rabbits are both present at the site, and they should be controlled prior to the commencement of revegetation planting.

12.6 Remediating barriers to fish migration

All perched and blocked culverts should be retrofitted to facilitate fish passage upstream. Doing so will allow non-climbing species such as īnanga and bullies to reach suitable habitat in the mid to upper catchments. Retrofitting perched culverts can usually be done simply and inexpensively, although the works should be carried out by a suitably qualified contractor. Wildlands often works with ATS Environmental Ltd with regards to retrofitting perched culverts, and we can provide liaison and indicative costs if requested. It is acknowledged that remediating the quarry to facilitate fish passage along Tributary 1 would be a significant undertaking; however, doing so would deliver considerable ecological benefits by restoring the connection between Tributary 1 and Taiwawe Stream.

12.7 Legal protection of natural areas

The clients intend to legally protect existing and planted natural areas through the use of statutory mechanisms such as protective covenants. Covenants, such as QEII Open Space Covenants, are designed to protect ecologically significant parcels of land in perpetuity, and can include financial contributions towards fencing and ongoing pest control. Areas planted in indigenous species should also be protected in perpetuity, although such areas will most likely require a Council covenant rather than a QEII covenant.

13. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The site covers c.38.12 hectares and largely comprises grazed pasture and kānuka forest, scrub and treeland, with smaller areas of wetland habitat. Overall, the vegetation provides good quality habitat for a range of indigenous bird species and is highly likely to support indigenous geckos and skinks, and potentially long-tailed bats. High quality permanent streams occur throughout the property, although reaches in the north of the property have been adversely affected by stock and perched culverts. Good numbers of banded kōkopu were recorded during the survey, together with a few unidentified eels and common bully.

Potential adverse effects of the proposed subdivision include:

 Stormwater and wastewater effects on aquatic habitats.  Sedimentation of aquatic and marine habitats.  Predation of indigenous fauna by domestic pets.  Bird mortality and/or injury from window strike.  Introduction of pest plant species.

Potential positive effects of the proposed subdivision include:

 Removal of stock.

Given that all building sites will be located in pasture, direct effects on indigenous habitats will be less than minor. All dwellings will be self-sufficient in terms of water and wastewater treatment. The overall increase in impervious surfaces will be negligible. Each dwelling will be situated more than 20 metres from the nearest watercourses and will have on-site stormwater attenuation systems; this means that t adverse effects on aquatic habitats are likely to be less than minor. Similarly, all dwellings should be set-back from forest and scrub margins by a minimum of 20 metres. Potential effects can be assessed more precisely once the design and extent of the proposed development have been finalised.

The Conservation Area identified in the Structure Plan provides an ecological framework with a range of opportunities for ecological restoration, the most important of which include:

 Revegetation planting to link isolated forest and scrub habitats with larger tracts of indigenous forest and scrub.  Enrichment planting.  Pest plant control.  Pest animal control.  Remediation of barriers to fish migration.

The removal of stock will significantly benefit the terrestrial and aquatic values of the site, whilst also improving the quality of water that drains into the lower Taiwawe Stream,

The applicants have expressed their intention to apply a complete ban on cat ownership at the property. Doing so will provide benefits for indigenous lizards, bats, and other bird species. There are several precedents in New Zealand for banning domestic cats (and in some cases, dogs) from rural subdivisions that are located near areas of ecological value.

If the restoration and mitigation measures outlined in this report are successfully implemented, a net ecological gain is likely to result from the proposed subdivision. For ecological restoration to be successful, the project will require long-term commitment and an appropriate legal mechanism such as a QEII covenant to ensure ecological viability. All ecological restoration works will be guided by a comprehensive Ecological Management Plan.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to John McDermott and Jeremy Coates (Clients) for providing useful site information and for their enthusiasm in the field. Kerstie van Zandvoort (Consultant Landscape Architect and Ecologist) provided initial client liaison and background information. Graeme Lawrence (Lawrence Cross Chapman & Co Ltd) provided useful planning input and report review.

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APPENDIX 1

VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES AT 790C HOT WATER BEACH ROAD, WHENUAKITE

INDIGENOUS SPECIES

Gymnosperms

Phyllocladus trichomanoides tānekaha

Monocot. trees and shrubs

Cordyline australis tī kōuka, cabbage tree Rhopalostylis sapida nīkau

Dicot. trees and shrubs

Carpodetus serratus putaputawētā Coprosma lucida karamū, kāramuramu, glossy karamū Coprosma rhamnoides Coprosma robusta karamū, kāramuramu Coprosma tenuicaulis hukihuki, swamp coprosma Geniostoma ligustrifolium var. ligustrifolium hangehange Knightia excelsa rewarewa Kunzea robusta kānuka Leptecophylla juniperina var. juniperina prickly mingimingi Leptospermum scoparium agg. mānuka Leucopogon fasciculatus mingimingi Melicytus ramiflorus subsp. ramiflorus māhoe Myrsine australis māpou, matipou, māpau Olearia rani var. colorata heketara Piper excelsum subsp. excelsum kawakawa Pittosporum eugenioides (Pl) tarata; lemonwood Pseudopanax arboreus whauwhaupaku, puahou, five finger Weinmannia silvicola tōwai

Monocot. lianes

Freycinetia banksii kiekie

Dicot. lianes

Clematis paniculata puawānanga Metrosideros perforata aka Parsonsia heterophylla akakaikiore Rubus cissoides agg. tātarāmoa, tātaraheke , bush lawyer

Ferns

Adiantum hispidulum huruhuru tapairu, maidenhair fern Asplenium bulbiferum mouku, hen and chicken fern Asplenium flaccidum makawe, ngā makawe o Raukatauri Austroblechnum membranaceum Cyathea dealbata ponga, silver fern Cyathea medullaris mamaku Deparia petersenii subsp. congrua Histiopteris incisa water fern Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum piripiri, filmy fern Icarus filiformis pānako Microsorum pustulatum kōwaowao, hound’s tongue fern Paesia scaberula mātātā Parablechnum novae-zelandiae kiokio Pneumatopteris pennigera pākau Pyrrosia eleagnifolia leather-leaf fern

Grasses

Isachne globosa swamp millet Microlaena avenacea bush rice grass Microlaena stipoides pātītī, meadow rice grass Oplismenus hirtellus subsp. imbecillis

Sedges

Carex lambertiana Carex lessoniana toetoe-rautahi Isolepis prolifera Isolepis reticularis Lepidosperma laterale Machaerina rubiginosa Schoenus maschalinus Schoenus tendo wīwī

Dicot. herbs (other than composites)

Centella uniflora Haloragis erecta subsp. erecta toatoa Nertera depressa Oxalis exilis Potamogeton cheesemanii red pondweed

NATURALISED AND EXOTIC SPECIES

Gymnosperms

Araucaria heterophylla (Pl) Norfolk Island pine Pinus radiata radiata pine

Dicot. trees and shrubs

Banksia integrifolia banksia Hakea sericea prickly hakea Hydrangea macrophylla hydrangea Ligustrum sinense Chinese privet Paraserianthes lophantha brush wattle Rubus sp. (R. fruticosus agg.) blackberry Solanum mauritianum woolly nightshade Ulex europaeus gorse

Dicot. lianes

Passiflora edulis black passionfruit

Ferns

Azolla pinnata ferny azolla

Grasses

Anthoxanthum odoratum sweet vernal Axonopus fissifolius narrow-leaved carpet gras Bambusa oldhamii Oldham’s bamboo Cortaderia selloana pampas Dactylis glomerata cocksfoot Lolium perenne rye grass Paspalum dilatatum paspalum Paspalum distichum Mercer grass Sporobolus africanus ratstail

Sedges

Isolepis sepulcralis

Rushes

Juncus articulatus jointed rush Juncus effusus var. effusus soft rush, leafless rush

Monocot. herbs (other than orchids, grasses, sedges, and rushes)

Tradescantia fluminensis tradescantia

Composite herbs

Ageratina adenophora Mexican devil Bellis perennis lawn daisy

Carduus sp. thistle Cirsium vulgare Scotch thistle Erigeron sumatrensis broad-leaved fleabane Jacobaea vulgaris ragwort Leontodon taraxacoides hawkbit

Dicot. herbs (other than composites)

Cerastium fontanum subsp. vulgare mouse-ear chickweed Daucus carota wild carrot Hypericum humifusum trailing St John's wort Lotus pedunculatus lotus Lotus suaveolens hairy birdsfoot trefoil Ludwigia palustris water purslane Modiola caroliniana creeping mallow Phytolacca octandra inkweed Plantago lanceolata narrow-leaved plantain Plantago major broad-leaved plantain Prunella vulgaris selfheal Ranunculus flammula spearwort Ranunculus repens creeping buttercup Ranunculus sceleratus celery-leaved buttercup Verbena bonariensis purple-top Veronica persica scrambling speedwell Veronica plebeia Australian speedwell Veronica serpyllifolia turf speedwell

APPENDIX 2

FAUNA SPECIES RECORDED AT 790C HOT WATER BEACH, WHENUAKITE

* = animal sign observed

MAMMALS

Introduced (feral)

Felis catus feral cat Lapis europeaus hare Mus musculus house mouse Oryctolagus cuniculus cuniculus European rabbit Sus scrofa* feral pig

BIRDS

Indigenous

Gerygone igata riroriro; grey warbler Hirundo neoxena neoxena welcome swallow Nestor meridionalis North Island kākā Ninox novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae ruru; morepork Porphyrio melanotus melanotus pūkeko Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae tūī Rhipidura fuliginosa placabilis pīwakawaka; North Island fantail Tadorna variegata pūtangitangi; pari; paradise shelduck Todiramphus sanctus vagans kōtare; sacred kingfisher; New Zealand kingfisher Vanellus miles spur-winged plover

Introduced

Acridotheres tristis myna Callipepla californica bunnescens California quail Emberiza citrinella yellowhammer Fringilla coelebs chaffinch Gymnorhina tibicen Australian magpie Phasianus colchicus common pheasant Platycercus eximius eastern rosella Sturnus vulgaris common starling Turdus philomelos song thrush

FISH

Indigenous

Anguilla sp. unidentified eel Galaxias fasciatus banded kōkopu Gobiomorphus cotidianus common bully

AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES*

Paratya curvirostris freshwater shrimp Archichauliodes sp. dobsonfly

OTHER

Apis mellifera bee Eriophora pustulosa orbweb spider Cambridgea spp. sheetweb spider

APPENDIX 3

CONCEPT PLAN FOR 790C HOT WATER BEACH ROAD (Prepared by Kerstie van Zandvoort)