British Geological Survey DFID
Overseas Geology Series
PROJECT REPORT ON VISIT TO ZAMBIA TO RAPIDLY ASSESS GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT ISSUES IN THE SIA VONGA REGION (OCTOBER 1999)
J Davies and B 6 Dochanaigh
Briti sh Geological Survey, Hydrogeology Group
InlemalionaI Di" i'i Bri tish Geological Survey Overseas Geology Series PROJECT REPORT ON VISIT TO ZAMBIA TO RAPIDLY ASSESS GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT ISSUES IN THE SIA VONGA REGION (OCTOBER 1999) J Davi es and B 6 Dochanaigh Thi s document is an output from a project funded by the Department for International D<:vclopment (DAD) for the benefit of developing countries The views e ~ pressed are not necessarily those of the OFlD. Df'1n cI""lfv:atw"_ Subsecto<: Pmj«! Title; Grwnd"''' IJ.b!w8'"f'1t;c ~J''''''-'' .. Dui.., J ~ Dd lJocb . rtai~b . R () 1'199. PmJ © NERC 1999 Keywonh, Nottingham. British GeQlogical Survey. 1999 Contents I. Introduction 2. Summary 3 Background Information on Siavonga Distrid 3 4. Groundwater Availability 13 5. Current Practice - Methods and Approaches " 6. Available Information alld Data Collection 18 7. I'roject Actions IS •• Funher (non-project) !J;,ues References 20 Acknowlcdgcmems 20 Annex A Introduction 10 the project 21 Anne~ B Iti nerary 23 Annex C People met and OI!Jt:r contacts Annex D Simplified ground water development map and summary table for the OjulObi area, Nigeria Annex E Maps and report collected during visit 29 Anne~ F Geology maps and memoirs he ld al 8GS library. Keywonh 30 List of Figur... Figure I Siavonga Dimicl Localion Map Figure 2 Geomorphological Map of the Siavonga District Figure 3 Geological map of the Siavonga District U st ofTa!>l "" Table I Tonga Farm Annual Calendar (from Reynolds and Cousins, 1991) Table 2 Tonga Calendar of Droughts (from Rcynolds and Cousins, 1991) Tahle 3 The StJaligra phic Sequence in Sia,'onga Distri ct List of Plates Platc I Highly folded Arche:tn schistic gneiss exposed north of Siavonga Plate 2 Well-bedded and jointed Precambrian IJJeta-sandstone exposed north of Siavonga l'late 3 Compact dune bedded fine -grained sandstone within lhe Lower Karoo Madumabisa Formation south CaSt of the main escarpment Plate 4 Bimodal conglomerale with a gritty coarse sand matrix within the E",arpment Grit Formation, at the main ""''''l'ment along the Chirundu - Kafue road, Platc 5 Large pieces of fossilised wood at the junction of the Escarpment Grit and the Red (Forest) Sandstone Formations at the Chirundu - Siavonga road junction. Plate 6 Fine grained aeolian sands of the Red Sandstone Formation exposed in the bank of the Lusitu R i,'er, Lusitu Platc 7 Thin basalt layers of the Batoka Basall Formation capping hi lls nonh of Chirundu Plalc 8 The ephemeral Lusitu sand river at Lus itu. The sands contain substantial quantities of water that is abSII1lCled via small depressions excavated inlO the sand surface. Plale 9 Near vertical quartz dyke inlruded inlo ?recambrian mela-S Plale JO Deeply w~ al bercd Prccambrian rnela-sedirnents along a faull 7.onc within a road culling ~~cavated along the fault. north of Siavonga Plalc II Li"CSIOC ~ being watered at borehole 2. Lusitu. A poI ~ ntial source of contamination Plate 12 Borehole 12 equipped with an India M ~ lJ hand pump. Note the broken sanit.ary slab and remna nt S of the fence. Livesloc ~ are encouraged to d ri n~ water at the wel l head forming a source of groundwatercontamination, ii List of /\ bbre\';alioDS BGS British Geological Survey DHD Depanment for International Deyelopment D·WASHE District Water Supply. Sanitation and Health Education EU European Union GIS Geographic information system GI'S Ground positioning system HeA Japanese International Co-ofl"'ralion Agency K,R Knowledge and R=arch NGO Non Go"emlOOmai Organisation ODA O,'crscas Development Administration WHO World Health Organisation '" Technical glossary Aquifer - A rock formation that contains sum,ient groundwater to he useful for water supply Borehole- A cylindrical hole, usuall)' greater than 20 m deep and 100 mm in diamctcr constructed by a drilling rig to allow groundwater to he abstracted from an aquifer_ NO(e: American use of the term 'wcll' to mean boil, borcholes and shallow wells_ Geophysia _ Tcdmiques which measure tru, physical propenies of rocks without tilt: expense of drilling boreholes_ In cemin circumstances ",suits from geophysics surveys can be used to infer the presence of groundwater. Po rmiry _ The rat io of void space in rock to the total rock vol ume - expressed as a percentage, Rocks with high porosity can store greater vol ume, of groundwater. Pameabiliry _ Rate of groundwater flow through a cros, section of aquifer, Permeability is higher wben there are interconnected fractures. T'umpinx test _ A test that is conducted to detennine the aquifer or borchole charactcristics, SmuislOm - A rock that is made from cemented ..,,,d grains - usually has a high pOIe "tial for groundw.te, Shallow wdl- A large diameter(usually greater than I-m) hole, dug to less than 20-m depth to access groundw~ter SilmoMl and mutislO"el - Fine-grained roch made of mud andlor very fine grained panicles, Usually have a low pOIential for groundwater_ SuCctS$ rIlle (borehole drilling) _ Imprecise term. normally taken as the number of successful borehole, divided by the total number of borehol~, drilled - expressed as a percentage. Different organisations have di fferent measures for denoting a successful borehole Weathered zone - A layer of rock beneath the soil ZOne that has been altercd by physical breakdown or chemical decomJXY.;ition , Yield - 1lIe volume of water discharged from a well or borehole. measured in m'ld 0, lis. L INTRODllCl' ION During October 1999 WaterAid invited a t<:am from the Brilish Gt:ological Survey (BGS) to Iravd 10 Zambia 10 assess groundwalCr development problems faced in the Siavong~ Dim;cl of Soulhern Zambia (Figure I). Wilhin the Siavonga Dislrict. WaterAid and their partncrs realise Ihat aC('"eSS to potable surface water sourceS is limited while groundwater developrnoent is constrained by difficult geological conditions. This report detail.' the key fmding~ of the vi~it. and provides a =ord of mformation galhered and people mel. This asseSSment forms part of a two-year proj Two BGS staff. kffrcy Davies (Hydrogeologist) and Brighid 6 Dochartaigh (Hydrogeologist). "isited Zambia from 2 to 9 October 1'199. WaterAid facilitated the visit. An itinerary for the visil is gi,'en in Annex B. Tenns of reference were as follows; (i) to assess problems faced by WaterAid and their partners when developing groundwaler reSOurceS in till: Siavcmga area; (ii) to ascertain the current expertise. 1001, and equipment available 10 WaterAid and tlll:ir partners for the siting of boreholcs arod wells: (iii) to coll (iv) to recommend follow-up work, 2. SUMMARY Water supply is a major problem within the Siavonga area, Surface water OCCurrence in the area is usually limited to Ihe NovcmbcrlDccember and February rainy seasoos. Apart from the Kafue and Zambezi. livers in the districl are ephemeral. The seasonal rains are unrel iable and prolonged periods of drought occur, Locating ~uslainable groundwatcr reSOUKes to supply a growing POpUI~lion is therefore vital. Howeyer. development is constrained by uncertainty of geological conlrols On groundwaler availability, In the districl limiled quantilies of groundwaler occur wilhin the mostly low permeability Karroo age sediment in the Zambezi Rifl valley; near surface weathered zones and along fractures wilhin the I'recambrian cryslalline basement rocks of the peripheral highlands; and wilhin sand deposits lhat fill the lower reaches of ephemeral rivers. These resources need to be de>'eloped using properly constructed boreholes and hand-dug wells. Borehole sites are localed using information derived from geophysical surveys. geological observations and aerial photogr~ph inlcrpretution. The main aim is 10 minimise the dislance travelled by women and ~hildren collecting water, Therefore surveys are designed to locate borehole-drilling siles dose 10 village~. The district has nOl been geologically sUTveyed in detail. Geological information is obtained from the national I I COO COO scale geological map and 1,100 COO scale maps. and accompanying geological memoirs. for areas adjacent 10 Siavonga district. • 6 > •< ~ i , ..: Q:l , -::; i ..: , N , ... • 0 , =-..: . ! 1 III . ::; • • 1 The Department of Water Affairs is (he national depository for h)'drogeological data and the main :;ourcc of hydrogcologi~al expc:;rti~ within Zambia. Rocent drilling programmes have ~en funded by tile Japanese Imernational Co-operation Agency (IICA) and the European Union (EU). Hydrogeological data colluted during tlle<;e drilling programmes have been pas<;ed to the Department of Water Affairs district office in Monu. DflD funded the WaterAid inputs into these proje<.1S. Horehole drilling success ratcS lm: often the only criteria used 10 evaluate and compare drilling programmes. These rates need to be trealed with caution. The benefits of drilling in more difficult =ali need to be considered: a drilling programme wilh a lower ruMive s~ccss nl!c in areas where water is panicularly scarce may rea lise greater benefits than a more successful programme in already well-supplied areas. These benefits will only be realised if ad<' Water Aid and ilS partners within the local 0 -W ASHE organisations co-ordinated the installation of 15 hand-pumped horeholes in the area around Siavonga in 1998 (EU-funded) and 24 rncxe during 1998 and 1999 (JICA-funded). The drillillg programme is expected to continue Ihrough the 2{o) dry season, This programme could be a source of high value geological and hydrogeological data if the techniques pmf'O""d hy the KaR project"", adopled. 11>e KaR project resources dictate that only two countries can he <;elected for more detailed follow-up wor~. The Siavonga District would make a good ~a", study. nOl leas{ be<;ause of the ,upport off~red by local organisations and government departments. WaterAid, their NGO partners and government organisation. 10 which the project's aims and groundwatcr asSeSSment methods were oUllined showed much interest. All wanted 10 participate in the project. There was particular interest shown in the groundwater development map of the Oju/Ohi area in Nigeria. The D·WASHE cornmiu,,<, has yet to formally request WaterAid to continue 10 Overst-e the preparation of village communities as part of this planned progr~rrune . 3, BA C KGROUI\'D INFORMATION ON SIA VONGA DI STRICT The Siavonga District is located in the Southern Province of Zambia within the mid- Zamhezi Valley. between latitude 15°45" - 16"45" south and longitude 28"0)' . 29°00· east. The district is .bout 3 bOO km' and lies hetw,,<,n 450 and 1350 m ahove sea level. The main topographic components are the wide NE-SW trending Zambezi rift valley. partly occupied by Lake Kariba. whose floor lies a1450- 550 rn, and highlands of the Gwernbe Plateau to the nOl1h (Figure 2). The 8(()m high Zambezi Es<:arpmem marks the houndary betw,,<,n these units. The topography within the Zambezi Rift is undulating 10 flat, with isolaled elongate nOl1heast-southwest trending ridges composed of outcrops of more resistant ba<;ement rocks. Siavonga is located on the southern side of a prominent hill formed of lTecamhrian Ba<;ement rocks up to 9(X) m abo,·e mean <;ea level. The Nyanzara Plateau is a flat topl"'d hill capped with. more resistant basal! b)'cr located n()l'1h of Chirundu The climate is hot .nd dT)'. with temperatures re.ching their peak in Ocwbcr and November. JUSt hefore the onset of tile rainy <;eason, Mean annual teml"'ratu,"" is around 25"C. Rainfall is seasonal. falling betw,,<,n mid NovemberlDecember and FebruaT)'/Mareh, Even within the rainy season. rdinf.1l pallems are often erratic. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 300 w 800 mm. The local rainfall pallcrn is des<:ribed in the annual Tonga farm calendar (Table I). Periods of prolonged drought occur frequently; =orded within Tonga oral tradition as • series of ·'starvation" years for 1910-1987 (fable 2). , I, ~ , >. ,• "" ~ , • , I , , '-- , Table 1 Tonga fann Annual Calendar (from Reynolds and Cousins, 1991). Month Tonga Mean;ng English Tonga Virgin fields a .... cleared Augult Mukulampumba Wild fruil.' begin to flower CI~aring fields of old stalks September Jowcla The noise of bims suc bng ne<;tar Field preparation o':lober Lw~nza First planting Noytmber Siclllllnbi The rai" is promising Planting and/or w""ding December NaJupalc Working in hard soil (planting or weeding) Weeding while living at the January Mukamaziba The month of many pools fi~ld Rip"ning of crops February Mulumi The month of new crops First harvest- millet and March Muyobo The head of millet forms shon-season sorghum Harv.. st April M uk ubwibwangala The riP" head of mi lIet Harvest of late-season May Chiyumu The mi lIet is dry in the sorgh um field Return from fields to villag~ 1une Tyatyamonzi People come home from homes harvesting Off-season July lbupupa The month of wind The Kafue and Zambezi Rive~ form the northern and eastern boundaries of Siavonga District. while Lake Kariba forms the southern boundary_ The area is drained by streams flowing to Lak~ Kariba and by tributari~s of the Kaf"" and Zambezi Rivers. The main rivers. that includ~ tbe Lusitu. Melango and the Lufua, rise in the Basement hills to the nonh. t[dversing the Zambezi Escarpment via d~ep gorg~s before passing across the floor of the rift . These rivers are ephemeral with courses choked wilh alluvial sediment 10 form ",and rivers", The confluence of the Ka fu~ and Zambezi Rivers marks the nonh ... astern comer of the District The natural vegewlioo co"er over most of the region 11 dominantly Mop~l1Ie and Acacia ..... oodbnd. Much of lhe eastern pan of the district has been cleared for farming. O"ergrazing has degraded the adjacent nalural forests, Ar~blc land comprises about 15% of the district, The people are dependent upon rain-fed crops and hestock. During the dry season call le are moved to the lakeshore and lhe bordering rivers_ Farmers often ha,'e 10 sell liveslock 10 buy staple f s Table 2 Tonga CHlendar of Drought. (frmn Rcynolds and Cousins. 1991). Year Name 1910 N·... la Va P~naam a fu",' a (ll1e starvation People gathered bones (mnfuwa) in the vdd, year of the eating of bones) ground lhem to JXlwder and COOked them up 1918 N7,ata Y. Siampay. (T"" .'ta ..'ati on yur or Goat s k in~ (mapaya), even those u",d as ~ating ski ns) matS Or loin·skins. were stcwed and eaten 1922 Nulla Va Kambula (The SLlrvation year f'eople raided each others fires. s(ealing of raiding cooking pms) their cooking pms and ea(ing the contents 1939 Nzala Ya I\IpaOlllba (The starv.tion year Mp'1mba is." area in Siabuwa_Peopk of visiting Mpamba) tre kked there to obtain food Nulla Ya I\h,w'omba (The SLlrvation year Mu .... ornba is an =a in Zambia near the of going to Muwomba) Victoria F~lIs where people obtained food N7.aln YII Cbagwrdela (The .tarva(ion Chagwcdela · the nickname of a white store year of Chagwedela who providcd food owner in Gokwe who provided maize meal Nzala Yn Chiso.; (The .(arv.tion year of Chisazi. the locum destroyed crops "" (he locusQ 1952 Nzala Yeku Bhombo (The starvation year The Negande people obtained food from the when we visited Bhombo) Mol~ people in the OIIlilY otfC~ 1956 Nuda Va SiktD y ~ne (The starvation year Sikenyanc was ti1c nickname of the District Sikenyane brought food) Commissioner ofGokwe who provided maIze Nzala Ya Ka>i)'oni (The star.'ation year An area in Gokwe where food was """'ined "" we went to Kavioni for food) '%5 Nzala Ya Karoi (The starvation year of During lhis year all able·bodied men went Karoi) 10 Karoi to find work on the fann, Nzala Ya Kingi (The starvatioo year of I'eople obtained their food from Kin g'~ King'sCamp) Camp '%8 Nula Ya Gwambo (The s(arva(ion year Gwambo was a DistricI AssiS(ant al Gokwe when Gwambo brough( food) who brought mai7.c for sale (0 (he people 1978 Nzala Ya Nkondo (The . Llrvation year of The drought was blamed on the war w'ar) Nzala Ya L.waangunuko Lawn)' ikw (The The year of Independence followed by a s(arvation year oflndependence) drought year in the Zambezi Valley 1985 Nzala Ya Buyon; (l1Ie starvation year of After 3 years of drought. quelea birds ale the quelea birds) much of (he grain in lhe good 1984-5 season 1987 Nzala Va Kubula Kwamo'Ula (l1Ie starvation year of no rain The solid geology of the Siavonga District comprise.! twO main geological divisions (Figure 3 and Table 3): (i) Fluvial sediment' of the Karoo Supergroup crop out within the mid-Zambezi Rift Valley (Nyambe and UUing. 1997)_ (ii) Ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks of trn, Arcrn,an Crystalline Basement Complex crop out within trn, Gwembe PI.te.u ."d Si.vong•• "'." as well.s ridges within the rift. where tl",y are faulted against and uncon forrnably u nderli~ trn, Karoo sediments. The geological structu", of the area is dominated by northeast-southwest trending rift faulting. The noorn,m boundary of tbe rift is fonned by a prominent fa ult escarpmem. the jun<;tion between the Gwentlle Highla,lds and the Zambezi rift. The Southern boundary is a smaller fault scarp of parallel trend that OCCUI"'> along the nonhern side of the Siaw"'ga hill area. Within the rift valley. northeast southwest trending fa ulting ha, produced several ridg<'s of Basement rocks. Rock exposure within tbe valley floor is g<'nerally poor except along river courses. A brief inspection of rock exprn;ures along the main Siavonga . Chirundu . K.fue rood was underta ken . High grade. tightly folded gneissic and schistic metamorphic rocks of the l'recambrian Basement crop out around and to the north of Siavonga town and at the northern escarpment (Plate l). Further nooh of Si"·OIlga town lower grade Precambrian metasediment, crop OUt (Plate 2). Dune bedded sandstones within the p"'dominantly argilaceous Lower Karoo Madimabisa Formation were noted along the Kafue road cast of the main escarpment (Plate 3). Coarse gntined sandstones and conglomerates of tl", Escarpmcnt Grit Formation. forming the basal pan of the Upper Karoo sequence. were seen to crop out along the main escarpment. deposited as a series of fanglomerates (plate 4). At the Siavonga road junctiOll. large pieces of fossilised wood were secn at the junction of the Escarpment Grits and the younger Red (Forest) Sandstones (Plate 5). Fine grained aeolian sandstones and mudstones of the Upper Karoo Red Sandstone Formation are wen exposed at Lusitu (plate 6). Karoo ba.<;alts of the Batoka Formation cap ,eyeraJ flat-topped hills of the Nyanzar~ Plateau. nooh of Chirundu (Plate 7). Recent alluvial sediments incl ude sands derosited along the course of the ephemeral Lusitu Ri,·er. to form a sand river{1'late 8). The population of the Siavonga District in 1998 was estin);,ted at 65 000. According IQ 1995 estimates. some 85% of the population live in rural ar~as. A large proponion of the population comprises valley Tonga people. who were "'settled 011 higher ground away from the flooded area of Lake Karioo. formed by construction of the Kariba Dam ,n the late 1950s The basic conununity unit in Zambia is the village. The average village populatiOll in the Siavonga District is M. with a ma~imum population of up to 2000. Villages may he spread over large areas. The two main areas of settlement are around the townships of Chirundu and Siavonsa. The rural area of the Lusitu Va lley formed a major resettlement WIle for people displaced from lhe mid-Zambezi Valley in the late J950s. Population density in Lusitu is estimated to be lOO per square kilometre. Access to water supplies in rural areas is poor. The Siavonga D-WASHE progranune estimated that 0Il 1y 30 percent of the rural populatiOll of the Siavonga District had access to safe, reliable and adequate water supplies in J996. Rural waler supplie, in Siavonga District comprise boreholes (in,taned by the Go,·emment. Churches a,ld international agencies). shallow well •. and seasonal streams. Of 85 shallow hand-dug wells and boreholes listed in 1994.60 percent we", boreholes and 40 percent ,hallow well,. At that time 60 percent of the boreholes and 50 percent of the hand-d ug wells were operational. A significant number ofhoreholes produce poor quality water. Up to 35 percent of children visiting health centres , uffer from malnutrition. Water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea and dysentery are cOJIlIJlOn. especially during dry years. Cholera cases may occur at the beginning of the wet season. • Figure 3. ' Geological Map of Siavonga District Key N Karroo Basalt IlliI!IlIl t IT! Upper Karioo ~ Lower KarTOO Basal Karroo ~ •a Precambrian Basement ."...... Escarpment ~ Fault scarps ,/" Faul ts ~ Rivers y Tracks and roads Metres 10- --.;,;;;-0 10- 20 30 40 50 Kilometers Plate I. High ly folded Archean schistic gneiss exposed nonh ofSiavonga Plate 2. Well bedded and jointed Precambtian meta-sandstone exposed north ofSiavonga 9 Plate 3. Compact dune bedded fine grained sandstone within the Lower Karoo Madumabisa FonnatiOIl south east of the main escarpment Plate 4. Bimodal conglomerate with a gritty coarse sand matrix within the Escarpment Grit Fonnation, at the main escarpment along the Chirundu - Kafue road. > • -.....~~ 1- 10 Plate 5. Large pieces of fossilised wood at the junction of the Escarpment Grit and the Red (Forest) Sandstone Formations at the .: iJ. Chirundu - Siavonga road junction. Plate 6. Fine grained aeolian sands of the Red Sandstone Fonnation exposed in the bank of the Lusitu River, - ..- .. 11 Plate 7. Thin basalt layers of the Batoka Basalt Fonnation capping hills north ofChirundu Plate 8. The ephemeral Lisutu sand river at Lisutu. The sands contain substantial quantities of water that is abstracted via small depressions excavated into the sand surface. 12 l 'oblr 3 The Stratigraphk s,,'1u encr in Siovonga ()jstrkt, DMSIOl'.'S STAGE G ROUP FORMATION LlT HOI.OGY Bato\:a Basalt Jurassic Karoo basal! Basal! Fcrmation Triassic to Upper Karoo Sandstun.. and Red Sandstone Early J urassic Group mudstooe Escarpment Grits and Triassic Grit conglomerates ~ustrine Mudstone Ma4umabisa Rift Valley Karoo Lo,,'er Karoo Cakilutite Super Group Late Permian Mudstone G~, Sandstone & diments and Formation Basal! Concretionary calcareous beds Coal searm. Gwembe CooJ Early Permian Sandstones and F<:nl'Iation Mud510nes ",<0 Siankondobo carboniferous Basal Karoo Sandstone to Early Fcrmation Permian Gwembe Highlands Precambrian Meta-..,diments. Archean Crystalline granites. gneis..,. Basement Rocks Basement and schisLS 4. GROUNDWATER AVAILA8ILlTY Except at the edge of Lake Kariba and along the two maj(J" rivers. surface water supplies in the Siavonga District""" ephemeral. Groundwater may fornt a signifIcant. alternative sustainabl<: water resource. However. groundwater occurrence within underlying strata is dependent upOll hydrogeologicaJ characteristics of the rocks and the weatbered carapace. 11Ie hill s north of the Zantbezi Escarpment and at Siavonga are coml"""'d of J'recambrian age granitic and metalOOlphic compl."es and meta-..,dimems. all with very low porosity and intrinsic permeability, Groundwater is found in the.., rocks where they . re fractured (Plate 9) and/or weathered to signirocant depths (Plate 10). The floor of the Zambezi Rift i. underlain by shales. mudstones. sil LS. r,ne to coarse-grained sands and conglomerates of the Karroo System. These rocks have low to moderate primary permeabilities and porusities enhar.ced by weathering and faulting. Imercoosu lt(l985) sulItlIllUised groundwater occurrence within [he Karoo formations of the Zambezi valley in Zimbabwe. (i) Small amounts of groundwater can be produced from subordinate sand510nes in the Madumabisa Mudstone Formation. that oo.herwise forms an aquac\ude confining {he Gwembe Coal Formation. Plate 9. Near vertical quartz dyke intruded into Precambrian metasediments, north of Siavonga Plate 10. Deeply weathered Precambrian metasediments along a fault zone within a road cutting excavated along the fault, north of Siavonga 14 (ii) n.e Escarpment Grits Formation possesse~ some primal}' porosity and permeability_ Drilling records in (iii) n.e Red (or Forest) Sandstone is composed of fine sands and silts with transmissivities as IQW as 1 rTIl;d~y_ Fracturing can enhance this low groundwater potential. (iv) Springs sometimes occur at the junction of the Red Sandstone an The above agree with limited data on grOllndwater occurrence within Karoo sediments within Siavonga district. Rest water levels of 20 to 70 m below groun Summary data from 24 boreholes drilled by JlCA during 1997- 1999 indicate grOllndwater yield s up to 2 Vs_ Of these, more than 30% had yields less than 0.3 lis and tr~nsmissi vities of less than I ml,lhy_ Observations made during field visits an (i) Hydrog ~ n sulphide was noted at several boreholes. possibly derived from gypsum within the fine_grained UPl"'r Karoo deposits. (ii) POS.!ible high dissol"ed iron coocentratiOllS were noted at several boreholes (ii;) High fluoride levels (up to 5 mg/I) were recorded from 5 boreholes. (iv) Significant amounts of amlTlOflia (4 boreholes), nitrite (5 boreholes) and nitrate (8 boreholes) were d~ermined: indicative of possible groundwaler contamination with human and/or animal effluent There are insufficient data to describe groundwatCT quality variations across the diS(rict_ The aoove des S, CU RRENT l'RAc n CE - METHODS AND APPROACHES The traditional sources of water in the Siavonga District in the rniny season are rivers and hand4g wells and pits. These sou..:es are likely to be frequenlly cootaminated by surface runoff of effluent. and diarrlJocal diseases are common in the region. During lhe dry season surface waler virtually disappean. and the majority ofhand- Curn:nl Zambi.n Government policy on rural water supplies emphasises community participation and coot sharing of borehole installation under the W ASHE framework. W ASHE and WaterAid policy require that a survey of a village and its existing water situation is undertaken. to involve the village community in the selection of pOIenlial sites for a new borehole and preparation for the installation of a pump. The aim is to impart a feeling of ownership of the Ixlrehole to the local community_ This " prcpanuion includes sanilalion and hl::ahh educalion. The vi llage is upec«:d 10 conlribule pan (up 10 25 percent) of IhI:: C<):lll of lhe provision of a new waler poim and all of lhe unskilled labour involved in cons!rUClion and inslallalion. The local O-WASHE commiue:e. wilh IhI:: advice of WalerAid. is pbnning Ihe neXI slage of ils aclivilies. including a survey of villages to up..()ale GIS dala on populalion and infraSlruclure. 10 include waler supply and sanilalion. Ooser conlacl wilh villages prior 10 lhe provision of ncw waler poims should be eSlablished. The EU ure funding u series of waler supply microprojecll. whl::rc 25% of lbe COSIS an: mel by IhI:: communily and 75% comes from IhI:: EU fund via local government. JlCA was requesled 10 inSUlII 220 boreooles wilh pumps wilhin Ihe Soulhem Province of bmbia. As part of Ihis programme JlCA funded IhI:: inslallation of 24 borcholes wilhin !he Siavonga Dislricl during 1998·99. JICA employed Nissa~u 10 undertake borchole siling. drilling. conslruction and leSling as well as pump inuallalion. The melhods used by Nissaku and some of lheir findings are ou!lined below. Borelloles were drilled 10 m.l~imum depths of 120 to in lhe Karoo sedimenls and I~O m in l'recambrian Basemenl using lhe down lhe hole haJTUTJer drilling method. Collapse problems were experienced in Lower Karoo sandstones between 46-80 m depth. when drilling Ihrough allemaling bands of hard and soft fine 10 coarse sand andsravels. Lilllolosical sample s werc IlIken al 5 m inlervals and al significanl chanses in rock Iype. The boreholes were logged using long and shon normal resistivily. single poinl rcsislivily and nalUral gamm.a geophysical down-hole logging equipment. The boreholes were driUed al 6.25"' (159 mm) diameler and conSlructed wilh 4" (iOZ mm) ID pVC casing and Imm slOl sereen. large enough for inlilallalion of India Mkll pumps. Borehole developmenl by surging for 3 IIours and lhen pumping unlil lhe waler produced is de~r. WIS undenaken. A minimum yield of iO Vmin (0.17 Vscc) was reqoired. Boreholes were test pumped using an eleclrical submersible pump. The leSI regime ineluded a step lesl of 4xZ hr sleps. a conSlam yield teSI of JO Ilours durali()ll followed by 2 hours recovery. Limiled hydrochemical analysis of waler samples was undertaken. The final rcpon has yel 10 be produced boul logs from all 24 borelloles drilled in Siavonga will be included. Details of boreholes inslalled by Nissaku will be senl 10 Mr Murengwa al Department of Water Affairs. Monze. Summary rcport sheelS for lhese boreholes werc obtained by BGS from lhe Departmenl of Waler Affairs. LUSJka. As pan of the EU funded O·W ASHE borchole..()rilling programme 15 hand-pumped boreholes in Siavonga were installed by Lusaka·bas-ed Aquanova in 1998. The methods used by Aquanova and some of lheir findings are outlined below. AI each village Ihree Sill'S. selcc!ed by the CQmmu nily. were assessed using geophysical survcying. Si!es found 10 be acceptable were ru.nked according 10 lheir potenlial. If all rnre<': were unacceptable lhen lhe geophysicisls would selecl Ihree It"IOfl: siles. AI leasl Ihree siles in each villagc were surveyed. wilh each survey being undertaken done over an area of some 100 m'. Aquanova. who have be<:n in exiSlence since 1996. localed the drilling si les using aerial phologrJphy, geophysicII ~urvcys (resistivity and EM) and GPS equipment. 200 mm (S·inch) diameler borcholes were drilled using truck-moumed air driven rotary percussion rigs using down lhe-Ilolc hammers and rock roller bits. nip samples were taken al 3 m inlervals and al liloology changes during drilling. but neither sample colour nor drill penetration ru.le were recorded. Aquanova use Soulh African Rock GilUll down·lhe-hole hammer driUing rigs mounled on Inlemalional and Nissan 6x4 !ruck chassis. outfined wilh 4S' (liS mm) diameler API drill pipe in 20 fl (6.09 m) lenglhs. None of !heir rigs are fined wilh mud or foam injection pumps but they do have core barrels. In Siavooga borclloles were drilled to 85 m in the Karoo sediments. The boreholes were compleled wilh 100 mm diameler sleel cuing. stainle$! 51eel $Crcen. and gravel pack. Tesl pumping was carried out using a InIlle, moumed 5O-mm (Z-inch) mono pump. Slep drawdown pumpi!l8 IC5IS were undertaken on compleled boreholes, al yields of 05. 1.0 and 1.5 Vsec where possible. A " 1lle BGS hydrogwlogislS visited four village areas in Siavonga District with members of the D· WASHE commiuee. Six low yielding o!",rati • Borehole l. located near Lusitu village. waS installed by the local government a, a source of domestic water. The borehole is fitted with an India Mark IT pump and produces biner tasting water. The yield is low. • Borehole 2. located about 200 m from bore hole l. was installed by the Agricultural Depanment to provide iJTigatiQfl water for a small valley. Crops are grown dUriDg the cooler post·rainy season from April to September. Out of season water is pUIflPC'd for the watering of livestock into a nearby unlined pool that could be a source of contamination (Plate 11 ). • Borehole 3. fined with an India Mk [] pump. had been installed adjacent to the Catholic Church at Kapululila. near Chirundu. This was on. of four or five boreholes recemly constrllCted by the church in Siavonga District The sites of four dry lx>reoole drilled .... arby were visited. • The h • Borehole 4. located weSt of the road junction and south oflhe Siavonga Road is fined with an India Mark 11 pump. The water produced ap!",ars 10 have a high iron content and smells of hydrogen sulphide. At this s ite t!>e sanitary slab has fractured and the prolective fence has collapsed. resulling in acces, of livestock to the top of t!>e borehole and contami,ation of t!>e waler !ource (Plate 12). • Boreoole 5, localed in Hiyumbu Village nortb of the SiavQflga road. i, fined with a mini B~sh pump. This borehole was originally used 10 supply water for livestock. The origi:l.al windmill used to operate the pump i, ,till standing. The villagers using this borehole have reponed stomach pains. possibly dye to tbe presence of magnesium sulphate in tbe waler Highly corroded pump riser pi!",s were recently rempved from this borehole and replaced. • Borchole 6. localed at Siavonga New Town near the lakeside. produced water that smelt of hydrogen sulphide. Issues arising from lhe above indude: • l TCA have taken on board the D·WASHE principals and are now using WaterAid a, advisors. • There <. no current map of boreoole siles. Boreholes that are dry Qfl drilli ng are abandoned and nO( recorded. To fully understand the spatial distribution of geological and hydrogeological paramelers data must be obtained from all boreholes. Only t!>en Can patterns of groundwater occurrence be recognised and borehole siting improved. The GlS database establilhed by GTZ should incorporate such data. • Detailed geological data are vital if our understanding of how groundw.ter e~i>1s within weat~ and non·weathered rock systems is to be improved. Therefore the sampling inlervals practised by Aquanova (3-m interval) and JICA (S-m interval) should be increased to O.5 -m interval. .' . .'. , :;. ?-: -'.- ,. '. Plate 11, Li vestock being watered at boreholc 2, Lusitu. A potential source of contamination Plate 12. Borehole 12 equipped with an India Mk 11 hand pump. Note the broken sanitary slab and remnants of the fence. Livestock are encouraged to drink water at the well head fonning a source of groundwater contamination. 1e 6. AVAILABLE INFORI\IATIO N AN D DATA COLUX:flON W~tuAid facilitaled a $eries of meetings be\wetn BGS and their loc~l partners. associated government organisation! Snd international aid agencies active in the Siavon"a District. as listed in Annex C. At each meeting the nature of the teaR pl"oject waS described. uscng pllotographs of the methods and equipment used in the OjulObi project in Nigeria (Oavies and MacDonald. 1999). The concept of the groundwater development map was also introduced (MacDonald and Oaviel. 1998). A summary ground water dnelopment map and table for the OjulObi area in Kigeria are presented in Anne~ O. Where available. representative data were collected during these ,isil.';. A field visit was undenaken to the area between Oirundu and Siavonga with members of the O·WASHE committee to villages where WaterAid and its partner organisations have undertaken recent works. Published topographical nlaps at 1:50 O(X) scale are available from the Survey Department. Lusaka. TI>ose obtained are listed ~ n Annex E. The Geological Survey Depanment carried out geological mapping of area! adjacent to Siavonga District at a scale of 1:250 (XI() and I: lOO The Department of Water Affairs, with local councils. is responsible for water supply provlSton withi n rural areas. The sit'"g. drilling and construction of boreholes has recently been privatised. with local companies such as .'\quanova undertaking the work. providing hydrogeological information to the De panment of Water Affair.; data bases held at district level offices. WaterAid are ~um.:ntly ~1e lead NGO fO'r water resource development at community level in the Siavonga Disuict. Their .ctivities are 50% funded by ono. WaterAid's involvement in the Disuict began in 1997. WaterAid facilitated the BGS visit to Zambia and arranged (01 a number of meetings with relevant organisatiOlls in Lusaka and Siavonga. as well as field visits to some of the villages where work had been und~rtaken. WalerAid currently have two programs in Zolmbia. lbe OIher. longer establi shed programme Ixing based in Monxc, also in Southern Province. where the WaterAid country representative is based. The WaterAid engineer in Siavonga works with a Oistricl Waler. Sanitation and Health Education (D. WASHE) committee. D-WASHE groups form the ha,i, of current insti tutiooal water supply and sanitation frame ....·orks for rural areas in Zambia, The W ASHE approach is =n as an appropriate strategy towards achieving sustainable rural water supply and sanitation. and is based on community panicipation. operation. maintenance and management It is an inter-sectoral approach. with the membcl'$ of the SiavOl'lga O·W ASHE drawn from the local council . departn-rnts of agri~u l ture and health. and an NGO invol"ed in nutrition work. A GIS database. that incorplr~tes a wide range of rural infrastructure data. was established by GTZ but apparently this has nO( been updated for some time. 7, PROJECT ACTIONS The Siavonga area is a good location for a case study, Much benefit would he deriv<:d from detai led hydrogeologic.al studies. as envisaged by the KaR project, being undertaken there as q uickly as possible. Keen interest in the project was expressed by the Siavonga D-wASHE commiuee and the O iefWater Engineer. Depanrnent ofWaler Affair.; in Lusaka .. The main limitatiOll is the lack of D WASHE commiuee com!:litment to a continuation of WaterAid involvement ... ith rural water supply projects within the disuicl The geology/hydrogeology of Siavooga District is poorly understOCld. The project would have a loog tenn impact if strong links were developed with all sta keholders identified in this report. Contact between villages and D-W ASHE penonnel would be enhanced by the planned re-survey of village infrastructure. To achieve the necess.ary level of inputs the D-W ASHE need to request the continued support of WaterAid. DfID has funded WaterAid input into the D_WASHE activities. JlCA only support provision of capital equipment. drilling "'orks and hydrogeologieal surveys via consultancies. They do not support health and water supply education prior to installalion al village level. for which they wanl to use the expel1ise of Water Aid. AJasdair Wardhough. 1- sec DevlEcon at SHC Lus.aka. suggested that a vehicle could be made a,'ailable for project use al the normal DflD hiring rates from the project suppol1 unit given sufficient notice. He also offe,..,d assistance with the cJeantnce of project equipment through customs if necessary. 8. FURTHER (I'.;QN-PROJECT) ISSUES n.e UNDP maybe poised to inject a large amount of finance into the Tonga-Gwembe areas (S3(}'50 million?) 10 fund development of the district infraSlructure A drought mitigation projoxt is being formulated for Southern Province. In addition, irrigation schemes using l>oreholes as sourceS of supply are planned for lhe north of Zambia. REFERENCES Davies. J and MacDonaJd. A M. 1999. Final Repon: The grouoldwater poIC:ntial of the OjulObi area. eastern Nigeria. British Geological Survey Technical Report. Overseas ~ology &ries. WC199132. Interconsuit. 1985. National Master Plan for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (Zimbab"..,), volume 212 - Hydrogec>logy. JICA. J999. The Southern Province Waler Supply Project. Briefing Material (March 1999). MacDonald, A M and Davies, J. 1998. Groundwater development maps of Oju and Obi local government areas. eastern Nigeria. British Geological Survey Technical Report. Overseas Gec>logy Series. WC/98153. Nyambe. I A and Uning. J. 1997. Stratigraphy and palynostra(igraphy. Karoo Supergroup (permian and Triassic). mid-Zambezi Valley. southern Zambia. Journal of African Sciences. vol 24. pp 563-583. Reynolds. P and Cousins. C C, 1991. Lwaano Lwanyilta; Tonga Book of the Earth. Save the Child,..,n Fund. Siavonga District Council. 19<)6 . Waler. Sanitation and Health Education; Development Plan 1996- 1998. A CKNOWLEOGE ~ I.ENTS The authors of this report a,.., indebled to John KeJJeher and Vinceot Munene of WaterAid for organising their first visit to Zambia. The members of the British ~ologica l Survey mapping team in Lus.aka and their families are thanked for their kind hospitality. 20 ANNEXA II\TRODUCI'I ON TO T HE PROJECf ~P:O.~ f""",::.·...,ods 'or -'f,eg ';:0 SI ,., ::>,.1 ,1_ 5 BritiSh '1.. ' e Br Geological gr'Jundwater @'.. , Survey In many parts of Africa groundwater is difficult to find. In these areas, wells and boreholes sited using orlly social criteria or simple hydrogeotogical rules of thumb are often dry. Using highly sophisticated methods of borehole siting, however, may bypass local government or NGOs and alienate local communities. The British Geological Survey (BGS), in conjunction with WaterAid, are investigating simple hydrogeological tools that could increase the success of water supply projects in geologically difficult areas. The importance of groundwater resources The main lesson learned from ru"3.1 wate r su~y projects OVer Itle past 2() years is that rural water supply is best managed and Orgatl:sed by the local communities who will use the ",ater. For this approach to worl<. sustainable water resources have to e ~ ist within wa lki ng distances of commun~ i es. Hence the importance 01 rocks t~at conta,n even small amounts of grounctwater. If these resources can be accessed and developed. commun ities can manage them without being reliant on external agencies or funds. Borehoies and ",ells, w'th sufficient yield 10r a few hundred people. can be sned with relative ease in many env;ronments. SUcc8ssIuI villagIJ supply ... Cl<;;.J/;)w(). _fen! Njgeria. However. problems arise when communities are surrounded by more difficu lt geological conditions where grounctwater resources are lim~ed and hard to find. In these areas. s'mpje rulEs of thumb are not sufficient to site wef ls and OOreI>oles. Fol lowing a social science approach. with m'rirnal technical input, can lead 10 many dry wells and OOre~es. Financial resources are wasted and disilluSlQ(lment and project lailure cart follow. Alternatives. such as rainwater harvest'ng and small dams are often technically difficult. expensive and difficu~ for local communities to manage. Therelore. ~ simple rules of thumb fail 10 aeate groundwater. community members are ohen Icrced to fall back on trad itional sources. that may be c:>ntaminated and far lrom thei r village. Wh In these complex areas, whereijroundwater is difficult 10 find, a thoroogh il1llestigation 01 the hydrogeoklgy can help locate where groundwater might exist Dri lli ng and coring, pumping tests, satellile interpretation and geophysics are all standard metnods used in hydrogeoklgical investigations. However, these sophisticated methods can often have the effect of alienating commun~ies and mystifying the process of finding groondwateL Ewerier.ce from a joint WalerAidlBGS prOject in Nigeria has shown that, with careful thought, eHeetive borehoie and well s~ing lechniques can be designed wttiCh do rIOt compromise participatory approaches. Akhough the hydrogeology was h i gh~ complex in this area, sim~e groundwater development maps were Ihmbers frrn> tile Wa"" and Sanitation Unit of Obi produced !hat coukj be easi~ interpreted and Local (>OV"""""",", NigtJria V$ This current project is looking at four WaterAid projects in Ghana, Etliopia, Tanzania and Zambia. These projects are located in areas where it is hard to find groondwater. The techniques first deve~ in Nigeria will be further developed and their appropriateness tested. Tile techniques will be used to study the hydrogeok>gy d two of these areas in detail to prodlJCe sim~e grourldwater development maps, The research is beiog funded by the U.K, Department for International Dev~opmen!. ~ gsoIogicallltCM;qo- can ~ local -gov~,"""",1 staff idenlily _and ..." Further information British Geological Pleb$/) contact - Survey A toA toAacDonald +44 (0) 131 650 0389 ~ J Oavies +44 (0) 1491 838 !lOO 8ritish GeologICal Su",,", Crowmarsl1 GiffOfd , WallingfO Fax; +44 (0) 1491 692345 E·"""I; amm Obgs.ac.uk DFID (> NEllC 1\199 --- ITI N ~; RA RY Oclober 2. Flew from Oar eS Salaam 10 Lusaka on TC763. 3 Rest day. Visited memhers of the BGS ITLlpping learn. 4. AI IIle Geological Survey Department met the BGS ITLlpping learn and oblained aeroITLlgnetic maps. Oblained topographic maps al the Survey Department. At Aquaoova discussed borehole siting and drillin.': in lhe Siavooj;:a area. Allhe British High Commission "",t Mr Alasdair Wardaugh, 1st sec economic development. 5. Met representatives of J ICA and Nissaku with who discussed borehole siting. drilling and testing in Siavooga District. Met tile Chief Water Enginttr, Department of Water Affairs who supplied borehole data from Siavooga. Drove from Lusaka via Kafue and Chirundu 10 Siavonga. At Siavonga met the WoterAid progurrune officer Vincent MuncDe. 6. Met the Siavooga Council secretary and the council D-W ASHE commiUe<:. Inspected the district GlS data base. Visited four village areas in Siavonga District with the D-WASHE committee to inspect ground water . 7. Undertook a geologicaltraversc along the road from Siavonga (0 Chirundu and thence up the main escarpment lowards Kafue 8. To Monze for discussions with John Kellehcr the WaterAid cooDlry rep 9. In Lusaka met head of Aquaoova. Rew from Lusaka 10 London on flight BA2052 10. Arrived in London. travelled by train 10 Reading and car 10 Oxford ANNEX C Pro"LE M ET AND OTHER CONTACfS Lusaka Geological SU"'''Y lkl'anmml James Michelo - Technical Records Officer. Geological Sorvey Depa"",ent PO Bo~ 50135. Lusaka J5101. Te!. (260-1) 254485125157(/{25151), ~ - mail. mjaJtlt!s@lan"' ~ I.zm Davis Muungo - Technical Records & Sales. Geological Survey AquaMva Lld Lloyd J. Tembo- Sales Engineer. Aquanova Lld. PO Box 33637. L=aka 10101 1'101 5195. Luanshya Road. Td, 2270701221149. Fax. 13226/ JICA Mr E. Yoshimura - Assiswnt Resident Representative. HCA Zambia Plot No. 59B. MurlllUl",a Road, Roma. l1naka. PO Box 3()()17. Lu~akn. 10101 Zambia T~I. 1910751192778/294433. Fax. 292619. ~-mnil. jica @wmnn"" NISSAKU CO.. Lld Hitoshi ¥uasa - Administrali,'e Manager. N1SSAKU CO, Ltd, No. 4·/2, Kyalxuhi 2·COO=. ChUIJ·ku, Tokyo. Japan, TeI. 01 (3246) 2391. Fax. 03 (3246) 239Q Mr N. Kameyama Depart"~nI ofWOIU Affairs Mr Swnsheus F. Shisala - Chief Water Engineer. Department of Water Affairs - Headquarters PO Box 50188. Lusakn. Tel. 151570, e_mail. [email protected] Brirish High Cammission Alasdair Wardhaugh - First &Cretary (Oe""lopmentlEconomic), British Iligh Commission PO Box 50050, InMfH'lIlk"c ~ Ave" ..... Lulaka. T~I. 251133, FOJC. 153798 e·mail. oj· ...o,dhaugh@>djid .gov.uk Siavonga Sio"""ga District Council, D-WASHE Commirue Mr Vincent Munene _ Engineer. WaterAid. Advisor Mr Sleven Ngwane · District Health lnspe.:tOJ. Chairman Mr Anderson Mut;ma • &niOJ Agricultural Officer. Member Mr E Muzyamba · Acting District DirectOJ Department of Health, Member Mr K Si kazwe· Actin8 Dislrict Director of Works, Vice-Oiairrnan Mr Gabriel Mushinge • Deputy Planning Officer. Advisor Mr Jack Zimba· NUlritiOll Group (Rep), Member Mr John Ndoti - Zambian lnforrnatiOll &rvice. Member Monu WarerAid John Kelleher _ Country RepreSt'ntative. Wat"rAid. ~ - mail: [email protected] Dtpmrmml o/Worn Affai,. Mr Murenga _ Department of Water Affairs. Monze offic;., ANNEX [) SIl\IPUHED GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMEI'I'T MAP AND SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE OJUIOBI AREA, NIGERIA ) • E •-'j ~ ~ - I 1 1 ;, • ... • g ! If , ! III i I ! !I I ~! ii h , , , h • I; I; • • I; ! i f ! i i I,tj J .f . 1 ·tIf I l int ii .. rli i h rH i t,lt II ~ J i ~ I~ I~ J ! IfI ~il I IU I II I It • It It! {j I 11 il !!! iU III f it III if d fif t 1. J1 ~I ;1 ANNEX E MAPS AND REPORT COL. L.ECTED DURING VISIT 1;4 O!X!OOJ scale Republic ofz.ambi •. Photo Lay downs inde>; map I; I 5W (XX! scale national tooornpltic !!IilP of Zambia 1:250 OOJ scale [OJlmmphic roaps SO-35 -1 5 Lusaka SE-35·3 Monu SE·354 Kariba S£·35-6 L.ivingSlqne 5E-35 -7 Sinarongwe 1;50 !XX) scale topographic maPS 1528 03 152804 1628 A3 1628 A4 1628 BI 1628 B2 1628 B3 1628 B4 1628CI 1;50.!xx) KJlle aeromagnetic survey maps 1628 A2 1628 Ai 1628 13 1 1628 B3 SjaVQnga District wllld OOulllhties 1?99 maP Aguanon Whole site: location map. Sia"onga Districl ANNEX F GEOLOGY MAI'S AND MEMOIRS HELD AT BGS LIBRARY, KEYWORTII 1:250 (XX) scale geolQgical roam and memoirs Sheet I61S0-35- 16 for Rufunsa. 1984. Barr. M W C. 1971. Description Qf the Geological Map Qf the Rufunsa Area. Shoet SO-35- 15 for Lusaka. 1984. I: 100 MO scale geological maDS and memoirs GeQ1Qgical map Qfthe Chezya area (sheet 1627SE). 1964. Newton. A R. Memoir NQ. 8. GeolQgical map Qf the Chikenl • t:ffr1~~"~~~j===:;~~~ts~--- ~ i )l!-----t , -0-- U , 0.- ~ 1S1 ~g c :Eo!!"'- -0 • ~ ~ • H "'", ! ! ! ) .. o 2", en I: .!! oo.c 10010 O>E CP .!! IQ (!lOON j . . · . . ~ • b••.~ r• o ill Cl r he A t eam t tr u o t ~ s n wa ~ n i nt. u up . ng Lus , me K e ni dug i org at ver U i nk Burn) s . id R ll 545 am u obta Hous 4 l d i we Wa 4539 mba I 7UB Nick E a ort r us t - ow ..... L , ll 7793 .. sand , SE 7793 bert n M l ~ . a dq Women the Cons L A sha n .. ""- - Aid r e 020 of 01 020 c 4 - 4 : l n om 1 a!efa fr bed w Wate Te 27·29 (AMntio Londo Pri Fax: Qr uk DFID tu i ac , f Lus Or . f s rlw o and , . eqUIPped a u y ,,( amme l h" r . Survey C , Davie l v ,UK og m"r r ll ed B 00" ll P or ) Systems f Je II n 38800 8B i r su 6~2345 ty ,i ogica 8 . l er li n rr n 0 M I 1 d a e 1 r P n o l eholc "Kl M 4~ f 491 Geo Qu io 1 t ", t or 0:( 1 r 0 h ndwat ng • 0 hydrooeoloo li : . Phi : tiS l ou ~ i th r i ont.,( 3 -3 B 1 Fox Wal Wate T e (lUShPUn Oxon "' G (AMn bgs Br Mr C a an k f g te h t o n i r toc , w No ments and i rth cavated x formi no e , Lives , dwate slap pped tion i n ealhered pump. water y ng i r w na ll a head wne equ . t ly grou meta·sed mi t lence. cu el RESULTS 2 1 hand ta 1 0 w ol an sani Siavonga 11 i Groundwater faul oad Doop obtain con he r o1e a - t en h - Mk a e to at 0 r a i n sour(:e 1 brok ecambr r nk along nd ·Bo I SURVEY ri remnants P withi d 12 used ZAMBIA al , a s r methods t e f ng i dyke DISTRICT, ered t z and rt ga aqu wa n f showi on GROUNDWATER i sedimen o l , qua ng i ta l tu avo i i na ce r S be me f ~ ami Lus o sou systems l oc h vertica 2. t ont into a rt i c e SOUTHERN l es , no v ent t Near li mded - - po 9 1 boreho inl 1 occurrence RECONNAISSANCE SIAVONGA