AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF CULTURE PROCESS AND PROJECTILE POINT VARIABILITY IN THE SOUTHERN NORTH COAST RANGES OF CALIFORNIA
Gabriel Anthony Roark B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 1999
THESIS
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
ANTHROPOLOGY
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SUMMER 2009 © 2009
Gabriel Anthony Roark ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF CULTURE PROCESS AND PROJECTILE POINT VARIABILITY IN THE SOUTHERN NORTH COAST RANGES OF CALIFORNIA
A Thesis
by
Gabriel Anthony Roark
Approved by:
, Committee Chair M4ark E. Basgall, /TD.
Second Reader David W. Zeanah, Ph.D.
Date: #4"S /AOC2, 4-01
iii
- Student: Gabriel Anthony Roark
I certify that this student has met the requirements for fonnat contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis.
Michael G. Delacorte, hbD., Gradua oordinator ate
Department of Anthropology
iv Abstract
of
AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF CULTURE PROCESS AND PROJECTILE POINT VARIABILITY IN THE SOUTHERN NORTH COAST RANGES OF CALIFORNIA
by
Gabriel Anthony Roark
Statement of Problem
The present thesis is a study of late prehistoric projectile point morphology in the southern North Coast Ranges of California and the degree to which it reflects patterns of social interaction. Late prehistoric projectile points in the southern North Coast Ranges exhibit considerable morphological variability. This thesis explores the hypothesis that this temporal and geographic variability resulted from social and historical factors rather than functional ones. The thesis further suggests that, especially within the last 500 years, the observed morphological variability corresponds with late nineteenth-century ethnolinguistic territories of the Pomo and Coast Miwok. In addition, patterns of morphological variability shed light on the social processes attendant to the linguistic divergences inferred by historical linguists.
Specifically, the thesis addresses three interrelated questions: 1) whether the study area, encompassing the subregions Point Reyes Peninsula, Santa Rosa Plain, and Warm
v Springs-Lake Sonoma, exhibits a single regional seriation; 2) whether projectile point morphology in Point Reyes, Santa Rosa, and Warm Springs reflects historical relationships within each subregion; and 3) whether projectile point seriations from the study assemblages corroborate, falsify, or amplify the findings of previous researchers concerning exchange patterns within the study area and beyond.
The theoretical framework of the thesis is evolutionary, drawing heavily from the work of selectionist evolutionary archaeologists (e.g., O'Brien and Lyman 2000). The problems outlined above are approached by attempting to identify projectile point traditions and exchange of projectile points in the study area. The occurrence seriation method, which involves ordering archaeological phenomena according to morphological properties, is employed to determine whether such processes are identifiable in the study areas.
Sources of Data
Published and unpublished archaeological sources from the southern North Coast
Ranges were examined to identify artifact collections and documentary sources suitable for inclusion in the present study. In addition, archaeological collections at several repositories were examined. Data concerning projectile points in reports and collections were collected via photography, digital scanning, and written notes.
vi Conclusions Reached
The thesis concludes that local traditions of projectile point morphology likely have the greatest influence over artifact morphology because the regional analysis failed to produce a valid serdation. Only two valid subregional seriations were obtained, for the
Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek assemblages. The Point Reyes, Warm
Springs, and Upper Dry Creek seriations all failed to produce valid orderings. The thesis finds that projectile point seriations from the study assemblages can corroborate, falsify, and amplify the findings of previous researchers concerning exchange relationships within the study area and beyond. Evidence for exchange between the Point Reyes and the Santa Rosa Plain is identified. In addition, it was found that some serrated projectile points were exchanged after 450 B.P., contradicting Jackson's (1986) hypothesis that serrated: points were exchanged only before that time. Finally, at Warm Springs, two distinct seriation groups were found that exhibit divergent obsidian source profiles, presumably reflecting different geographic foci of social interactions.
Committee Chair Mark E. BasgaqPh.D.
,4a& 4as: 16, -4d Date
vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Numerous individuals assisted me with the research reported in this thesis. It was a gratifying experience to be the beneficiary of these persons' hospitality, goodwill, knowledge, patience, and support, which qualities commend all those concerned as scholars and human beings. Completion of the thesis would not have been possible without their aid. The order in which people and their contributions is discussed in no way reflects on the value of their contributions relative to any others'.
A key, labor-intensive element of this research was the examination of archaeological collections. The following individuals kindly assisted me with tracking down collections of interest, not only in their respective collections facilities, but in others as well. They also wrote introductory letters and e-mails to other repositories on my behalf and put the documentation concerning the collections at my disposal. Their knowledge of archaeological collections within and outside of their respective repositories turned out to be critical in my selection of assemblages for study. All were a pleasure to work with.
* Erica Gibson, Archaeological Curation Facility, Anthropological Studies Center, Sonoma
State University
* Kirsten Kvam, Point Reyes National Seashore, National Park Service
* Carola DeRooy, Point Reyes National Seashore, National Park Service
* Amanda Tomlin, Point Reyes National Seashore, National Park Service
* Jeff Fentress, Adan E. Treganza Museum, San Francisco State University
* Glenn Farris, California Department of Parks and Recreation
* Larry Felton, California Department of Parks and Recreation
* Lisa Deitz, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis
viii * Elizabeth Guerra, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis
* E. Breck Parkman, California State Parks
* Ileana Maestas, California State Parks (thanks also for the donation of bond paper!)
* Natasha Johnson, Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California,
Berkeley
* Michael Tucker, California State Parks
* Ben Becker, Pacific Coast Science and Learning Center, Point Reyes National Seashore,
National Park Service
* Leigh Jordan, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information
System
* Elizabeth Black, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources
Information System
Others, students and professional archaeologists, offered assistance in a variety of ways.
Daryl Noble and Glenn Gmoser, both archaeologists at the California Department of
Transportation, assisted me with tracking down the collections associated with CA-MEN-584 and
CA-MEN-585 (I later excluded both collections from analysis, unfortunately). Two graduate students and professional archaeologists provided me with much-needed advance information:
Matthew Russell of the University of California, Berkeley, and Micah Hale, University of
California, Davis, and ASM Affiliates, Inc. Matt shared with me the preliminary products of his research at Point Reyes National Seashore (Russell 2007) and information concerning archaeological collections at Berkeley. Micah, formerly a fellow student at CSUS, took time out to go through the then-unanalyzed and uncataloged collections from UC Davis' Hopland archaeological field schools. Thanks, Micah-too bad I had to drop the Hopland collections from
ix the analysis, also. Jeff Rosenthal (Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Inc.) generously supplied me with a working draft of his study of Napa obsidian hydration rates
(Rosenthal 2007). Tom Jackson (Pacific Legacy, Inc.) kindly assisted me with questions concerning the provenance of specific obsidian hydration and sourcing data. Tom Origer (Tom
Origer and Associates) invited me to his office in Santa Rosa and spent a couple of hours assisting me with locating obsidian hydration data. Tom also updated me on his ongoing research concerning effective hydration temperature and set me straight on critical concerns in the handling of obsidian hydration data. Similarly, Greg White (Archaeological Research Program,
California State University, Chico) was an exceedingly good host during my research trip to his office. Greg offered his observations concerning arrow point morphology in the southern North
Coast Ranges and put his library at my disposal. Erik Zaborsky (Hollister Field Office, Bureau of
Land Management), whom I worked with on the Los Banos-Gates 500-Kilovolt Transmission
Line Project, was also grappling with full-time work and his thesis. Erik's cheerful attitude in the face of similar circumstances was always a great encouragement to me. That these people aforementioned, all busy professionals, took great pains to help me out is a testament to their abiding dedication to quality scholarship. With colleagues such as these, it is a blessing to be a prehistorian in California.
My colleagues at ICF Jones & Stokes deserve my gratitude. Barry Scott, Trish Fernandez,
Dana McGowan, Christiaan Havelaar, Karen Crawford, Amy Fransen, Shahira Ashkar, Taryn
Nance, Kathryn Haley, Traci O'Brien, Coco (Andrea Nardin), Andrea Gueyger, and Stacy
Schneyder, as well as Mark Bowen and Barbra Siskin (you two can come back anytime you like) all provided a tremendous fund of encouragement throughout my graduate studies. Our late colleague, David Byrd, was especially keen on reading this thesis when I completed it. I wish I had finished it in time. We miss you, Dave. As my graduate student career spans the entirety of x my work career thus far, preparation of this thesis and coursework often compelled me to put work on hold and take unexpected leaves of absence, requiring of my colleagues much patience.
Likewise, work often conspired against my having full mental faculties in the evenings, when I most often was writing this document. Like any errors in this thesis, the blame for all schedule conflicts and delays rest with me. Thank you all for providing sources from your own (and corporate) libraries and for the sounding board also.
Pursuing my graduate studies at CSUS was not an accident of geography. While still a student at Sacramento City College and considering four-year universities for undergraduate and graduate work in anthropology, my then physical-anthropology instructor, Bruce Pierini, advised me not to turn my nose up at CSUS. I'm glad that I listened to Bruce. The professors here have great enthusiasm for their research and for instruction. I never would have hung in for two degrees were it not these qualities of the faculty. I especially wish to thank Jerry Johnson,
Valerie Wheeler, and George Rich for their time and knowledge during my undergraduate work.
I blame Mark Basgall for turning me into a prehistorian. Early on in my studies, I had planned on going into historical archaeology. Mark's course in California archaeology changed that, just as I was completely my BA degree. Through the pacing, occasional ceiling-gazing, and monotonic delivery of a person bringing order to an impressive corpus of information, Mark laid out in that class something of the complex milieu of prehistoric California. I walked away from that course with the understanding that there is no shortage of research gaps in California prehistory and that closing the gaps is not straightforward, but that there are ways to get at much of the data needed to address them-and that I could be part of that research.
My thesis committee, David Zeanah (second reader) and Mark (chair), put up with a lot of academic shoe gazing and false starts from me with respect to this research. Both professors provided much-needed advice concerning how to frame my thesis topic and conduct my research. xi I also benefited from lengthy discussions with them concerning various theoretical outlooks and methodological perils involved in my research. I am indebted to Mark for his unflinching and insightful critique of my first draft of this document. In late June of this year, David delivered a crushing blow-but simultaneously saved the document-by pointing out that I had initially misapplied an important statistical test. I find the thesis much improved for this critique and hope that Mark and David agree. Both professors, with Dr. Michael Delacorte, also crowded the final review of this thesis in the waning days of the summer semester. I have no end of appreciation for their efforts in that regard.
In closing these remarks, I think it appropriate to reflect on my family, who so often seemed to get the short end of things while I was conducting this research. While working on this thesis, my wife Celeste and I turned 30 and celebrated our tenth wedding anniversary. Our daughter Emma, now seven years old, cannot recall a time that I was not in school, not spending most evenings and nights on the computer. Celeste endured several mind-numbing data entry sessions with me to get this project done, us taking turns dictating artifact proveniences and hydration rim values and entering the same into Excel. I know that my physical presence but frequent mental absences were at times sore depredations to Celeste and Emma both. All too often, as is the case now, I find myself at a loss for expressing how much I love and appreciate them both. In keeping with the theme of absence, W. S. Merwin's poem, "Separation," evoke the sentiment well:
Your absence has gone through me Like thread through a needle. Everything I do is stitched with its color.
Celeste and Emma, thank you for your patience while I worked at this research. I'm happy to report that I have my life back and that you, once again, have me. I love you.
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments...... viii
List of Tables ...... xviii
List of Figures ...... xxii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION...... 1
Background...... 3
Pomoan Linguistic Prehistory ...... 8
Archaeological Background (1500-100 B.P.) ...... 13
North Bay: Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 13
Middle Period (2300-1150 B.P.) ...... 21
Late Period (1150-150 B.P.) ...... 25
Warm Springs ...... 32
The Proposed Problem ...... 37
2. THEORETICAL ORIENTATION ...... 40
Cultural Transmission Theory ...... 41
Studies Emphasizing Stylistic Social Inforn ation ...... 44
Technological Approaches to Artifactual Style ...... 48
Darwinian Evolutionary Theory and the Archaeological Record ...... 49
Evolutionary Change and Analytical Units ...... 52
Criticisms of Selectionist Evolutionary Archaeology ...... 54
Discussion...... 57
xiii Page
Evolutionary Classification ...... 58
3. PROJECTILE POINT SYSTEMATICS ...... 61
Existing Projectile Point Classifications ...... 61
Rattlesnake Series ...... 61
Rattlesnake Variants ...... 62
Morphological Criteria and Temporal Placement ...... 63
Gunther Series ...... 69
Stockton Series ...... 73
General Description of Stockton Variants ...... 74
Morphological Observations ...... 74
Discussion...... 77
Intensional Classification of Projectile Points ...... 82
I. Notching Parameters ...... 83
II. Shape of Stem ...... 83
III. Number of Serrations ...... 83
IV. Body Proportions ...... 84
V. Presence of Barbs ...... 84
4. METHODS AND DATA SETS ...... 87
The Study Area Defined and Selection of Assemblages ...... 94
Assemblage Size ...... 96
Chronology...... 97
Assemblage Duration ...... 98
Artifact Condition ...... 99 xiv Page
Obsidian Hydration Analyses ...... 100
Napa Valley Hydration Rates ...... 102
Annadel Hydration Rates ...... 108
Borax Lake Hydration Rates ...... 109
Mt. Konocti Hydration Rates ...... 110
Estimating Effective Hydration Temperature ...... 111
5. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ...... 115
Initial Screening of Collections ...... 115
Historical Sensitivity of Point Classes ...... 117
Analysis of Sample-Size and Duration Effects ...... 119
Regional Statistical Tests ...... 120
Point Reyes Peninsula ...... 120
Santa Rosa Plain ...... 122
Warm Springs ...... 124
Statistical Tests on Interregional Pairs ...... 131
Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 131
Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek ...... 134
Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek ...... 137
Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 139
Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek ...... 142
Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek ...... 145
Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 148
Study Area (Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs) ...... 151 xv Page
Occurrence Seriation ...... 155
Study Area Seriations ...... 156
Point Reyes Seriations ...... 159
Santa Rosa Plain Seriation ...... 161
Warm Springs Seriations ...... 162
Upper Dry Creek Seriations ...... 167
Warn Springs Creek Seriations ...... 171
Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain Seriations ...... 174
Point Reyes-Warm Springs Seriations ...... 176
Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek Seriations ...... 178
Point Reyes-Warm Springs Creek Seriations ...... 179
Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs Seriations ...... 181
Santa Rosa Plain-Upper Dry Creek Seriations ...... 183
Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs Creek Seriations ...... 184
6. INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 187
Regional Scale Seriation ...... 187
Locality-Specific Seriations ...... 188
Point Reyes ...... 188
Santa Rosa Plain ...... 189
Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain ...... 190
Warm Springs ...... 192
Upper Dry Creek ...... 194
Warm Springs Creek ...... 195 xvi Page
The Pomoan Expansion ...... 195
Conclhding Comments...... 197
Appendix A. Site-Specific Data ...... 202
Appendix B. Weather Data ...... 290
Appendix C. Projectile Point Illustrations ...... 302
Bibliography...... 343
xvii LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1.1. Hypothesized California Period Characteristics ...... 15
1.2. Characteristics of Archaeological Patterns in the North Coast Ranges ...... 17
1.3. Sonoma District Emergent Period Phases ...... 28
1.4. Obsidian Projectile Point Source Profiles at Four Gualomi and Livantolomi Sites ...... 30
1.5. Obsidian Source Profiles at Seven Warm Springs Archaeological Sites ...... 37
3.1. Obsidian Hydration Data for Marin-Sonoma Narrows Corner-Notched and Serrated
Points ...... 64
3.2. Obsidian Hydration Data for Warm Springs Rattlesnake Series Points ...... 64
3.3. Summary Metrical Data on Warm Springs Rattlesnake Series Points ...... 66
3.4. Summary Metrical Data on North Bay Small Corner-Notched Points ...... 67
3.5. Summary Metrical Data on Non-Serrated Corner-Notched Marin-Sonoma Narrows
Arrow Points ...... 69
3.6. Summary Metrical Data on North Bay Serrated Points ...... 75
3.7. Summary Metrical Data on Serrated Marin-Sonoma Narrows Arrow Points ...... 76
3.8. Tests of Differences Between Means of Rattlesnake Series Point Attributes:
Warm Springs and Santa Rosa Plain (SON-120 and Origer Sites) ...... 78
3.9. Tests of Differences Between Means of Rattlesnake Series Point Attributes:
Warm Springs and the Narrows ...... 78
3.10. Tests of Differences Between Means of Rattlesnake Series Point Attributes:
Narrows and Santa Rosa Plain (SON-120 and Origer Sites) ...... 79
3.11. Tests of Differences Between Means of Stockton Series Point Attributes:
Narrows and Santa Rosa Plain (SON-120 and Origer Sites) ...... 81 xviii 3.12. Attributes and Attribute States in the Paradigmatic Classification of Projectile Points ... 82
3.13. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies ...... 85
4:1. An Example of an Occurrence Seriation ...... 91
4.2. An Example of a Frequency Seriation ...... 92
4.3. Comparison of Hydration-Radiocarbon Pairs and Hydration Models ...... 106
4.4. Comparison of Hydration Conversion and Radiocarbon Dates from Central
California Sites ...... 107
4.5. Archaeological Sites and Effective Hydration Temperatures ...... 113
5.1. Summary of Assemblage Characteristics ...... 116
5.2. Temporal Distribution of Arrow Point Classes in the Study Area (Obsidian Only) ...... 117
5.3. Distribution of Arrow Point Classes (Obsidian Only) by 200-Year (B.P.) Interval ...... 119
5.4. Variables and Summary Statistics Employed in Estimating Point Reyes
Sample-Size and Duration Effects ...... 121
5.5. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Santa Rosa Plain ...... 122
5.6. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Warm Springs ...... 124
5.7. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Upper Dry Creek ...... 128
5.8. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Warm Springs Creek ...... 130
5.9. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain ...... 132
xix 5.10. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek ...... 135
5.11. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek ...... 137
5.12. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs ...... 139
5.13. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek ...... 142
5.14. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek ...... 146
5.15. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration
Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek ...... 148
5.16. Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects, All Assemblages ...... 152
5.17. Summary. Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects, All Assemblages ...... 152
5.18. Morphological Seriation of All Study Assemblages ...... 157
5.19. Chronological Seriation of All Study Assemblages ...... 158
5.20. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes Assemblages ...... 159
5.21. Chronological Ordering of Point Reyes Assemblages ...... 160
5.22. Santa Rosa Plain Seriation ...... 161
5.23. Morphological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 162
5.24. Chronological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 163
5.25. Morphological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points ...... 164
5.26. Chronological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points ...... 166
5.27. Morphological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 167 xx 5.28. Chronological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 168
5.29. Morphological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points ... 168
5:30. Chronological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points.... 169
5.31. Seriation of Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 171
5.32. Morphological Seriation of Warm Springs Creek Assemblages, Chert
vs. Obsidian Points ...... 172
5.33. Chronological Seriation of Warm Springs Creek Assemblages, Chert
vs. Obsidian Points ...... 173
5.34. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 175
5.35. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 175
5.36. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 176
5.37. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 177
5.38. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 178
5.39. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 179
5.40. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 180
5.41. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 180
5.42. Morphological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 181
5.43. Chronological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 182
5.44. Morphological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 183
5.45. Chronological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 184
5.46. Morphological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages..... 185
5.47. Chronological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 185
6.1. Obsidian Source Profiles at Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 190
6.2. Frequency of Obsidian Sources in the Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 193 xxi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1. Location of Study Areas ...... 2
1.2. Warm Springs Rattlesnake Points ...... 5
1.3. Stockton Serrated Points from CA-SON-120 ...... 6
1.4. Gunther Series Projectile Points from the North Coast Ranges and Northern
Central Valley ...... 7
1.5. Approximate Ethnographic Boundaries on the Santa Rosa Plain ...... 31
1.6. Dry Creek Phase Site Distribution at Warm Springs ...... 33
1.7. Smith Phase Site Distribution at Warm Springs ...... 35
4.1. Dethlefsen and Deetz's (1966:Figure 3c) Graph Depicting Changing Percentages
of Five Classes of Headstones in Use in Plymouth, Massachusetts Between
1680 and 1849 ...... 93
4.2. Regression Lines, Napa Valley and Annadel Obsidian ...... 104
4.3. Rosenthal's (2007) Napa Valley Hydration Rates A (Right) and B (Left) ...... 105
4.4. White et al.'s (2002) Hydration Curve for Borax Lake Obsidian ...... 110
5.1. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes Assemblages ...... 120
5.2. Duration Effects, Point Reyes Assemblages ...... 121
5.3. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain Assemblages ...... 123
5.4. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain Assemblages ...... 124
5.5. Sample-Size Effects, Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 125
5.6. Duration Effects, Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 126
5.7. Sample-Size Effects, Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 127
5.8. Duration Effects, Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 129 xxii 5.9. Sample-Size Effects, Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 130
5.10. Duration Effects, Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 131
5.11. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 132
5.12. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 134
5.13. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 135
5.14. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 136
5.15. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 138
5.16. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 139
5.17. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 141
5.18. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 142
5.19. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 144
5.20. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 144
5.21. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 145
5.22. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 147
5.23. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 149
5.24. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 150
5.25. Sample-Size Effects, Study Area ...... 151
5.25. Duration Effects, Study Area ...... 154
xxiii Figure Page
5.10. Duration Effects, Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 131
5.11. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 132
5.12. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain ...... 134
5.13. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 135
5.14. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 136
5.15. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 138
5.16. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 139
5.17. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 141
5.18. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 142
5.19. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 144
5.20. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages ...... 144
5.21. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 145
5.22. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages ...... 147
5.23. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 149
5.24. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages ...... 150
5.25. Sample-Size Effects, Study Area ...... 151
5.25. Duration Effects, Study Area ...... 154
xxiv 1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The present thesis is a study of late prehistoric projectile point morphology in the southern North Coast Ranges of California and the degree to which it reflects patterns of social interaction. Late prehistoric projectile points in the southern North Coast Ranges exhibit considerable morphological variability. This thesis explores the hypothesis that this temporal and geographic variability resulted from social and historical factors rather than functional ones. The thesis further suggests that, especially within the last 500 years, the observed morphological variability corresponds with the late nineteenth-century ethnolinguistic territories of the Porno and Coast Miwok. In addition, patterns of morphological variability shed light on the social processes attendant to the language divergences inferred by historical linguists.
The present thesis asks three questions of projectile point variability in the late prehistoric archaeological record: 1) whether the morphology of projectile points over time and space reflect traditions of projectile point manufacture passed down within socially or ethnically distinct populations; 2) whether other factors account for the observed projectile point distributions; and
3) whether the findings of this study are consistent with, or shed new light, on current understandings of ethnic boundaries and regional social interaction.
To acquire and analyze statistically significant sample populations of projectile points and control for time, the study area encompasses the Point Reyes peninsula (hereafter Point
Reyes), the Santa Rosa Plain, and the Warm Springs Dam-Lake Sonoma locality (hereafter Warm
Springs). Figure 1.1 depicts the study areas. Archaeological research in these areas has produced robust collections of projectile points from well-dated contexts and reasoned explanations of culture process. Spatiotemporal variation in point morphology is examined using the occurrence seriation method, informed by selectionist evolutionary archaeological theory. Occurrence seriation is employed because of its long, productive history within archaeology as a method for 2 identifying temporally sensitive artifact types, a potentially useful tool for the elucidation of social interaction and the transmission of artifact manufacturing traditions (e.g., Lyman and
Figure 1.1. Location of Study Areas (adapted from Jackson 1984:Figure 1) 3
O'Brien 2000). Use of the occurrence seriation method is also used here because it is less sensitive to sample-size effects than frequency seriation. Occurrence seriation involves placing artifacts into a sequential order based on formal (morphological) similarities. Independent chronological data are used to determine whether the seriation is chronological. Through occurrence seriation of study area arrow points, the goal of this study is to determine whether distinct traditions of arrow-point manufacture characterize Point Reyes, the Santa Rosa Plain, and
Warm Springs. Approaches to artifactual variation not employed in the thesis, such as cultural transmission theory and social communication theories, are also discussed in the thesis.
The thesis consists of six chapters. The balance of this chapter describes the problem in detail and summarizes the analytic approach and expected results. Chapter 2 explicates the theoretical orientation guiding the thesis. Chapter 3 treats projectile point systematics. Chapter 4 details the data selected for analysis and methods of examination. Chapter 5 presents the serdation analyses and Chapter 6 summarizes the findings.
Background
Archaeologists working in the southern North Coast Ranges typically assign projectile points from the last 1500 years B.P. to a handful of projectile point groups: Rattlesnake series,
Gunther series and Stockton serrated points (Basgall 1993; Baumhoff 1985; Beardsley 1954a,
1954b; Fredrickson and Origer 1995; Jaffke 1997; Jobson 1991). Examples of these point forms are depicted in Figures 1.2-1.4. Although these groupings have shown utility as coarse time- markers over decades of research, a few archaeologists have commented on the possible existence of type or sub-type variability within the currently recognized projectile point series and types
(Basgall 1993; Jaffke 1997; Jobson 1991:232; White 2003:95). The extent, nature, and spatiotemporal ramifications of morphological variability in late prehistoric projectile points 4 remain poorly understood in the southern North Coast Ranges. Studies of projectile point morphological variability have much to offer in the way of testing and explicating the culture history of the study area. In particular, an examination of projectile point variability over time and space has the potential to identify distinct social groups or patterns of interaction implied by historical linguistics.
Archaeological discourse over the reality, timing, and nature of the Pomoan expansion is intimately tied to the history of the Pomoan language family. It is no accident, then, that many archaeologists working in the North Coast Ranges approach the Pomoan expansion through a method called linguistic archaeology or linguistic prehistory (Basgall 1982; Foster 1996; Hughes
1992; Jackson 1989; Moratto 1984). Archaeologists working on this problem from the linguistic archaeological approach use models of Pomoan linguistic divergence to independently generate and falsify hypotheses through archaeological analyses (Layton 1990). The goal of linguistic archaeology is to relate archaeological manifestations to prehistoric language shifts inferred via historical linguistics (Basgall 1982:3). Here it is important to distinguish historical linguistics from linguistic archaeology. Historical linguistics is the study of the history and development of individual languages, as well as such phenomena among languages generally (Shaul and Furbee
1998:253). Linguistic archaeology, in large measure, comprises the use of historical linguistic data (or, more usually, the hypotheses generated by the data) marshaled by linguists to develop questions for archaeological research. In short, the linguistic archaeological methodology formulates archaeological research problems from hypothetical linguistic trajectories. The approach to the Pomoan expansion that this study employs differs from applications of linguistic archaeology in that the concern is less with identifying assemblages that may be characterized as
Pomoan than with determining whether a particular aspect of the region's archaeological record exhibits qualities consistent with hypothesized historical relationships. Such an approach 5 g QC0 %40
Q ~~~~~~~~i 0
A
$'~~~~~~0
Ii cm
Figure 1.2. Warm Springs Rattlesnake Points (adapted from Basgall 1993:Figure 5) 6
IgI
, I , I " I , I
II a b C d
I.
I I IAI% I' IS
I' I _
e f 9 h
A\ 1\ I I I I D !- - I I II j I'% 6 i An, k
0 1 2 3 I I I- A cm
Figure 1.3. Stockton Serrated Points from CA-SON-120 (adapted from Jones and Hayes 1989:Figure 27) 7
a b C d
0 f q h
.iJ 1 kI i J
0 i2 3
Figure 1.4. Gunther Series Projectile Points from the North Coast Ranges and Northern Central Valley (adapted from Jobson 1991 :Figure B-2) 8 requires an understanding of the processes by which particular material culture traditions spread temporally and geographically and how these transmissions are manifest in the archaeological record. The remainder of this section summarizes Pomoan linguistic prehistory and the prehistoric social processes described or implied by previous archaeological investigations.
Pomoan Linguistic Prehistory
The Pomoan language family consists of seven mutually unintelligible languages, to which Barrett (1908) assigns the directional appellations that anthropologists use today: Central,
Eastern, Northeastern, Northern, Southeastern, Southern, and Southwestern (or Kashaya).
Although Barrett, his contemporaries, and his immediate successors had some interest in classifying and estimating the relative age of Pomoan languages (Barrett 1908; Dixon and
Kroeber 1919; Kroeber 1976), anthropologists focused on the linguistic stock or phylum as the unit of analysis until after World War II (Bright 1964:vii-viii; Whistler 1988:71); the age and classification of Pomo was only incidentally addressed via discussion of California Hokan.
Post-World War II studies of Native Californian languages differed from previous work in that linguists trained outside of the Boasian-Sapirian-Kroeberian school of anthropological and linguistic scholarship carried out most of the research (Whistler 1988:71). These more recent efforts focused on comparative linguistics, homeland studies, and lexicostatistical problems; researchers disseminated their results principally through the University of California
Publications in Linguistics series (this tradition of publication on California Indian languages continues in the InternationalJournal ofAmerican Linguistics). The availability of this corpus of technical reporting and synthesis sparked an interest in historical linguistics among California prehistorians and linguists, and eventually led to the development of linguistic archaeology.
Research conducted by William W. Elmendorf, Abraham M. Halpern, Sally McLendon, Robert 9
L. Oswalt, Nancy M. Webb, and Kenneth W. Whistler has been most influential to archaeological studies of the Pomoan expansion. These linguists are largely responsible for hypothesizing the relationships among Pomoan languages.
In summary, the lineage and history of the Pomoan language family is as follows. The
Pomoan language family as known to anthropologists and linguists has its roots in a Proto-Pomo language spoken in the Clear Lake Basin (Halpern 1964; McLendon 1973). At some point in time (favored estimates range from ca. 2500 to 3500 B.P.), Proto-Pomo diverged and spread in a fan-like radius from Clear Lake Basin to the northwest and southwest, into the Russian River
Valley (Basgall 1982:12; Dunning 1996:236; Whistler 1988:90). By this time, the Western
Branch of Pomoan languages (ancestral to the modem Central, Kashaya, Northern, and Southern
Pomno languages) is thought to have diverged significantly from an eastern branch of Pomoan languages (ancestral to modem Eastern, Northeastern, and Southeastern Pomo) (Basgall 1982:12-
13). The Western Branch of Pomoan languages diverged, forming northern (Proto-Central and
Proto-Northern Pomo) and southern (Proto-Kashaya and Proto-Southern Pomo) groups ca. 1380
B.P. (Basgall 1982:12). Basgall (1982:12) estimates that the Kashaya and Southern Pomo separated ca. 910 B.P. Estimates have not been made for the separation of Central and Northern
Pomo or the divergence of eastern Pomoan languages (including Northeastern Pomo), although
Central Pomo speakers may have resided on the Mendocino Coast for fewer than 500 years
(Dunning 1996:236). McCarthy (1985) hypothesizes that the Pomo moved into the southern
Clear Lake area late in time, owing to the marked differences in northern and southern Clear Lake sites.
The foregoing summary represents the hypotheses accepted as most reasonable by most researchers working in the North Coast Ranges; some researchers present contrary views.
Dissenting views on Pomoan linguistic prehistory have relatively little representation in the 10 literature on Native Californian anthropology, though their proponents have been at times ardent
(i.e., Olmsted 1985; Webb 1971). Levy (1979, cited in Basgall 1982:12), for instance, offers a different hypothetical chronology from that of Basgall (1982):
* Initial divergence of the Pomoan languages in Clear Lake Basin (ca. 1465 B.P.).
* Divergence of the Western Branch of Pomoan languages from the Clear Lake
group (ca. 975 B.P.).
* Divergence of proto-Southern Porno from other Western Branch languages (ca.
590 B.P.).
Disagreement is not limited to the timing of Pomoan linguistic divergence. Webb (1971) and Olmsted (1985) dispute the popular placement of the Pomoan homeland at Clear Lake, though they do so for different reasons. Webb (1971), for instance, uses the Worter und Sachen technique to argue for a Russian River Valley homeland for Proto-Pomo. Worter und Sachen is a comparative linguistic method that identifies the homeland of a protolanguage by reconstructing its original vocabulary for various environmental phenomena: plants, animals, topography, weather, and specialized tools and food-preparation terms. Following reconstruction of the proto- vocabulary of interest, linguists compare the vocabulary with known distributions of plants, animals, and other environmental features, starting with the area in which the descendents live and moving outward as necessary (Shaul and Furbee 1998:62-63). Whistler (1988), on the other hand, strongly advocates a Clear Lake Basin homeland for the Proto-Pomo, also based on Wbrter und Sachen analysis. Whistler's (1988) analysis became favored among linguists (and later among archaeologists) in part because the point of greatest linguistic divergence in the Pomo language family is between Eastern and Southeastern Pomo, both of which occupy the Clear Lake area. Olmsted (1985), however, takes exception with an earlier, but effectively identical version of Whistler's (1988) homeland analysis (Whistler 1980, cited in Olmsted 1985:221), but does not I1 support Webb's (1971) analysis, either. Olmsted (1985:219) states that the distribution of plant and animal terms used by Webb and Whistler is too widespread in the North Coast Ranges to distinguish between Clear Lake and the Russian River Valley as likely homelands for the Proto-
Pomo. Indeed, overlapping, widespread floral and faunal distributions and lexical imprecision hinder all applications of the Worter und Sachen technique in environmentally homogenous areas
(Shaul and Furbee 1998:64-65).
I will not attempt to resolve differences in competing models of Pomoan linguistic divergences in this thesis, for a few reasons. In terms of temporal estimates of linguistic change, competing models may result from the methods of linguistic analyses employed by different researchers and weaknesses in the methods themselves. The primary flaw in competing linguistic histories of the Pomoan language family is reliance on glottochronology, a lexicostatistical technique that measures rates of divergence in core vocabularies among related languages. Based on research among written languages in the Indo-European language family, linguists derived purportedly universal decay constants. That is, all languages change at a measurable and consistent rate as a function of time. Decay rates hinge on lists of hypothetically universal core vocabularies that linguists consider conservative lexical elements subject only to gradual change.
Linguists compare lists of core vocabularies from different languages to determine their degree of relation and, through the application of the decay rate, attempt to estimate dates of divergence.
Core vocabulary lists vary in the number of words included. The predictive power of glottochronological approaches suffer because they do not monitor how decay rates may vary because of social processes such as formal trade relationships and other forms of interaction between language groups. Furthermore, linguists today largely discredit glottochronology as a viable method of dating linguistic divergences (Hill 2004:45). Glottochronology is clearly plagued with a number of significant weaknesses, rendering its use perilous. 12
The hypothesized sequence of Pomoan-language divergence only addresses one part of culture history in the North Coast Ranges. Other significant aspects of prehistory in the study area include the degrees of relatedness among modern Pomoan languages, the attendant implications for past relationships among Pomoan-language speakers, and how these relationships might manifest in the archaeological record. There is great divergence, for instance, between Eastern and Southeastern Pomo, intuitively supporting the notion that these languages differentiated early in prehistory (McCarthy 1985:24; Whistler 1988:87). Central, Southern, and
Kashaya are more similar to one another than any one of these languages is to Northern Pomo
(McCarthy 1985:24). Central and Kashaya Pomo share 76 percent of the vocabulary contained in the 100-word lexicostatistical list, suggesting lexical similarity on the order of that between
French and Spanish. Kashaya is more phonologically archaic than Central Pomo (Oswalt
1964:149, 150). Southern Pomo retains the greatest number of archaic features (Halpern
1964:90). Northeastern Pomo is the most divergent, least understood Pomoan language, but shares features with Northern Pomo (Halpern 1964:91).
The linguistic history of the study area becomes more complicated as linguistic evidence from adjacent non-Pomoan (Penutian and Yukian) languages is considered. Linguists consider the Yukian language family to be the oldest linguistic unit native to California largely because its constituent languages are unrelated to any known languages (Shipley 1978). The Yukian construct typically encompasses Coast Yuki, Huchnom, Wappo, and Yuki; linguists sometimes refer to Coast Yuki, Huchnom, and Yuki as northern Yukian and Wappo as southern Yukian
(McCarthy 1985:Map5; Shipley 1978). Sawyer (1980), however, considers Wappo and Yuki to be distant relations at best. Elmendorf estimated the time of the Yuki-Wappo divergences to be ca. 1500 B.C., or ca. 3450 B.P. (McCarthy 1985:26). As will be seen later in this chapter, 13 archaeologists sometimes, in full knowledge of the linguistic complexity of the North Coast
Ranges, attribute assemblage shifts to Wappo or Pomo incursions into new territory.
Archaeological Background: 1500-100 B.P.
North Bay: Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain
The histories of archaeological research in the Point Reyes Peninsula and the Santa Rosa
Plain are linked, particularly in their early years, requiring a joint treatment to summarize archaeological systematics in the area and to frame the discussion of more recent developments specific to the two study areas. The synopsis of archaeological units provided in this section focuses on those units dating to the last 1,500 years. Similarly, discussions of research findings and proposals most relevant to this thesis, such as exchange and mobility patterns, concentrate on the same 1,500-year interval.
Archaeological investigation of the North Bay and southern North Coast Ranges started in 1907 with Nels C. Nelson's (1909) coastline survey from the mouth of the Russian River to and within portions of the Point Reyes Peninsula. Through 1939, archaeological research on
Point Reyes peninsula was characterized solely by surface reconnaissance (Beardsley 1954a:20).
The University of California (Berkeley) conducted the first archaeological excavations on the peninsula in 1940 and 1941. These excavations were conducted on Drakes Bay and Estero,
Olema Valley, and at the southern end of Tomales Bay. A total of 14 sites was excavated. Four were considered principal sites, from which Beardsley (1954a:20-24, 1954b) used data to construct the first taxonomic framework specific to Point Reyes peninsula: the Mendoza site (P-B
275 and 275a [CA-MRN-275]), the Cauley site (P-B 242/MRN-242), the Estero site (P-B
232b/MRN-232), and the McClure site (P-B 266/MRN-266). Although it is not the aim of this 14 section of the thesis to exhaustively critique or analyze previous taxonomic schemes, Beardsley's is a seminal construct, portions of which continue to be useful to some researchers in characterizing local archaeological manifestations, albeit typically subsumed under Fredrickson's
(1973, 1974, 1984) taxonomic system (see Milliken et al. 2007:103).
Beardsley's taxonomic system consists of components, facies, provinces, horizons, and zones. A component is "an archeological record of human occupancy at a single locality at a specific time." Beardsley states that, although the components discussed in his paper happen to be "entire settlements or communities," they need not be so. Components provide actual assemblages of material culture traits used for classification, for building larger classificatory units. A facies consists of a group of closely related components. Several facies were grouped together based on cultural similarities to form a province. Beardsley's province carried geographic and archaeological meaning. It therefore consists of a distinct set of traits that are demarcated temporally and geographically. The provinces of different periods are separately named because "provincial culture boundaries" can change from period to period. Temporal periods are termed horizons and have archaeological meaning. Finally, Beardsley's zones are geographic units in which cultural differences appear to be environmentally correlated (Beardsley
1954a:6-7).
Beardsley's (1954a, 1954b) taxonomic framework underwent considerable revision in the
1960s, spurred by archaeological research at the University Village site (CA-SCL-77), where application of his taxonomic units proved problematic to Gerow (Gerow with Force 1968).
Further revisions were made by Fredrickson (1973, 1974, 1984), whose proposals are still in use, albeit modified by subsequent research and sometimes rejected by other researchers on grounds that "Fredricksonian" taxonomic units were at times not empirically demonstrated and prone to misuse in the archaeological literature (Basgall 1993:167-168; Gerow 1974; King 1974). 15
Fredrickson's (1973, 1974) taxonomic system differed most dramatically from Beardsley's
(1954a, 1954b) not by eschewing mortuary goods as temporal and cultural markers, but by
F including subsistence and settlement criteria in building archaeological units.
The units employed in Fredrickson's (1973, 1974) taxonomy are period, pattern, aspect, phase, component, locality, district, subregion, region, and area. Fredrickson's taxonomy employs three periods: Paleoindian, Archaic, and Emergent periods (Table 1.1). The Archaic
Period is typically divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper subdivisions, whereas the Emergent
Period contains Lower and Upper subdivisions (Fredrickson 1974:Figure 3; White et al.
2002:Figure 15). Some researchers do not use Fredrickson's patterns and periods altogether (in name, at least), as well as Lillard et al.'s (1939) horizons, instead substituting the terms "Early
Period," "Middle Period," and "Late Period" for "horizon" (Basgall et al. 2006; Milliken et al.
2007). The period is taken to be an arbitrary span of time uncoupled from archaeological units to facilitate comparison of archaeological manifestations from different areas, although Fredrickson
(1974) makes observations concerning cultural developments common to the periods spanning
Central California prehistory, as summarized in Table 1.1 below. This thesis employs
Fredrickson's periods as arbitrary, comparative units. Periods preceding the Upper Archaic are only discussed in passing, as they are not germane to the thesis.
Table 1.1. Hypothesized California Period Characteristics (adapted from White et al. 2002:Figure 15)
Period Dates Characteristics First demonstrated entry and spread of humans into California; lakeside sites with a probable but not clearly demonstrated hunting emphasis. No evidence for a developed Paleoindian 12,000-8000 B.P. milling technology. Exchange was probably ad hoc, with the extended family as the primary economic unit not heavily dependent upon exchange; resources acquired by changing habitat. 16
Table 1.1. Hypothesized California Period Characteristics (adapted from White et al. 2002:Figure 15)
Period Dates Characteristics Ancient lakes dry up because of climatic changes; millingslabs found in abundance; plant food emphasis, little Lower Archaic 8000-5000 B.P. hunting. Most artifacts manufactured of local materials; exchange similar to previous period. Primary social unit remains the extended family. Climate more benign during this time interval. Mortars, pestle, and inferred acorn economy introduced. Hunting important. Diversification of economy; sedentism begins to Middle Archaic 5000-2500 B.P. develop, accompanied by population growth and expansion. Technological and environmental factors seem to be the primary impetuses; changes in exchange or social relations appear to have had little impact. Growth of sociopolitical complexity; development of status distinctions based on wealth. Shell beads gain importance, possibly indicators of both exchange and status. Emergence of Upper Archaic 2500-950 B.P. group-oriented religious organizations; possible origins of Kuksu religious system at end of period. Greater complexity of exchange systems; evidence of regular, sustained exchange between groups; territorial boundaries not fully established. Bow and arrow replaces dart and atlatl. Territorial boundaries LowerEmergent950-450 B.P. well established. Distinctions in social status linked to wealth Lower Emergent 950-450 B.P. increasingly common. Regularized exchange between groups includes more, and more varied, materials. Clam disk bead economy appears. More goods moving Upper Emergent 450-150 B.P. farther. Growth of local specializations involving production and exchange. Interpenetration of southern and central Californian exchange systems.
The pattern is a general mode of life defined by technological similarities, shared subsistence practices, similar mortuary treatments, ceremonial traits, exchange systems, and specific artifact styles among archaeological manifestations in a given geographic area
(Fredrickson 1994:77; White et al. 2002:47, 48). Patterns relevant to southern North Coast
Ranges prehistory-Mendocino, Berkeley, and Augustine-are summarized in Table 1.2.
Reference is made to these patterns to discuss trends in prehistoric settlement, subsistence, exchange, and projectile point morphology inferred for the last 1,500 years.
Two final taxonomic units warrant mention here: the aspect and phase. Aspects are considered sub-patterns and are defined primarily on time and space distributions-essentially 17
Table 1.2. Characteristics of Archaeological Patterns in the North Coast Ranges
Pattern Dates Characteristics Mendocino Pattern sites are found on the Sonoma coastal terrace, where they manifest as lithic scatters. Inland, sites ascribed to this pattern are located increasingly in marsh and lacustrine environs, although grasslands and oak woodlands also contain Mendocino Pattern sites. Inland sites comprise lithic scatters and middens. Cemeteries and even single burials are unknown on the coast and rare in Clear Lake Basin. Coastal subsistence apparently focused on hunting and seed processing, as evidenced by large projectile (spear or spear thrower) points, blood residue analyses, and a lack of mortars and pestles. Characteristic artifacts include wide- Mendocino-4000-1000 B.P. stemmed, contracting-stemmed, and concave-based points; Mendocino -4000--000 B.P. handstones; and milling slabs. Trade among coastal groups is hypothesized to reflect informal exchange between family bands. Represented on the Santa Rosa Plain as the Black Hill Phase. Typical artifacts include large, side-notched points, concave-base points, milling slabs, handstones, drilled schist charmstones, obsidian biface blanks, and obsidian cores. The Black Hill Phase represents occupation of grasslands and, increasingly, oak woodlands, although seed processing rather than acorn processing was the apparent focus. The Upper Borax Lake Pattern has not been identified on the Point Reyes Peninsula (Dowdall 1995, 2002; Jones and Hayes 1989:226; 1993:209, 210; White 2002:550). Berkeley Pattern sites have been identified on the Marin and Sonoma coasts, interior Marin County, and the Santa Rosa Plain (Laguna Phase). Sites are typified by deep midden deposits, suggesting intensified occupation. The abundance of millingslabs, mortars, and pestles indicates a dietary emphasis on vegetal resources-especially the acorn, as evidenced by the greater frequency of mortars and pestles relative to millingslabs and handstones (Basgall 1987). Fishing technology improved and diversified. Artifacts similar to Mendocino Pattern items include types of mortars and millingslabs, quartz crystals, charmstones, projectile point Berkeley 3500-1000 B.P. styles, shell beads and ornaments, and bone tools. New material culture items include steatite beads, tubes and ear ornaments, and slate pendants. The dead were buried in flexed positions with variable orientation or cremations accompanied by fewer grave goods. Laguna Phase indicators consist of shouldered lanceolate points and bowl mortars. With the onset of the Late Archaic Period, Black Hill Phase settlement focused on wetland and lacustrine contexts. Subsistence focus was on fish, waterfowl, shellfish, and large and small terrestrial game (Beardsley 1948, 1954a, 1954b; Dowdall 1995, 2002; Fredrickson 1973, 1974; Jones and Hayes 1989:226; Jones and Hayes 1993:2 10; Moratto 1984). 18
Table 1.2. Characteristics of Archaeological Patterns in the North Coast Ranges
Pattern Dates Characteristics Represents peoples engaged in intensified hunting, fishing, and gathering subsistence strategies. An even greater number of sites than in the previous 1600 years imply that regional population was large, with people participating in highly developed trade networks. Augustine Pattern sites have been identified on the Marin (Estero Aspect) and Sonoma coasts, as well as the Santa Rosa Plain (Rincon and Gables phases). Ceremonial and mortuary practices reach their height of elaboration and mortuary treatments evince social Augustine 1000-100 B.P. stratification. The base technology and specific manufactures of the preceding patterns are retained, but new elements appear in the material record: shaped mortars and pestles, bone awls for basketry, bone whistles and stone pipes, clay effigies, small notched and serrated projectile points-the latter evidence for the introduction of the bow and arrow, which occurs at this time throughout the western United States. Burials were flexed with variable orientation and generally lacked grave goods (Beardsley 1948, 1954a, 1954b; Dowdall 1995, 2002; Fredrickson 1973, 1974; Moratto 1984). patterns at a finer level of resolution. A phase is a subset of an aspect, "representing a full
cultural-historical entity" (White et al. 2002:48). Those researchers that find Fredrickson's constructs.useful for characterizing the archaeological record employ the aspect and phase as a means of capturing and describing cultural variation at smaller geographical scales. They are employed in this thesis to the extent necessary for elucidation of variation observed by previous researchers; it is not the object of this thesis to assign projectile point forms to any of
Fredrickson's taxonomic units, and the thesis should not be construed as doing so.
At Point Reyes, Beardsley (1954a:Table 1) identifies two horizons (Middle and Late), two provinces (Marin and Coastal), and three facies (McClure, Mendoza, and Estero). Beardsley regards the differences between facies in the Marin and Coastal provinces to be non-evolutionary
(that is, non-genetic) in nature. For instance, he equates the lesser quantities of "food and camp 19 residues" as indicative of, perhaps, lower rates of deposition and smaller populations than in subsequent facies (comparing Middle and Late Horizon facies) (Beardsley 1954a:57-58).
Beardsley characterizes the lifeways represented by each Marin County facies as generally, if not overwhelmingly similar. In his analysis, Marin County facies are characterized by small, sheltered villages situated near drinking water and beaches. These sites exhibit dietary reliance on fish and shellfish, although wild seeds and acorns were also gathered. In addition, land animals and sea mammals were exploited. The usual burial mode was flexed and grave goods were placed with no apparent regard to sex or age. Burial orientation was head-to-west.
Chert was obtained from east of Tomales Bay, whereas obsidian was procured either by trade or direct access from the interior [Annadel and Napa Valley] (Beardsley 1954a:58).
Subsequent to Beardsley's (1948, 1954a, 1954b) research on the Point Reyes Peninsula, most archaeological work focused on the search for evidence for Sir Francis Drake and Captain
Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeho landings, to the exclusion of focused, problem-oriented research in prehistoric archaeology (see Moratto 1970; Polansky 1998:33; Russell 2007:3-4). The creation of Point Reyes National Seashore in 1962 under the National Park Service brought archaeological resources and other cultural resources on the peninsula (within the seashore boundaries) under the authority of federal cultural resource management regulations. The regulations provided a context amenable to broader archaeological research designs, moving the focus of research away from questions solely aimed at the Drake and Cernefo landings. Nevertheless, relatively little problem-oriented research has been conducted within Point Reyes National Seashore since the
1960s. Among this handful of studies are an early synthesis of Point Reyes archaeology (Schenk
1970), three settlement pattern studies (Compas 1998; Edwards 1968, 1970; Polansky 1998), excavation and hydration studies at CA-MRN-230 (Origer 1981, 1982a, 1982b, 1987), a geoarchaeological assessment and research design (Meyer 2003), the present thesis, and a study 20 of Coast Miwok use and response to Euro-American artifacts obtained from the ship, San Agustin
(Russell 2007).
Numerous archaeological excavations, obsidian studies, and ethnohistoric investigations have been conducted elsewhere in Marin County beyond the national seashore boundaries. The more influential studies have typically concerned one or a handful of prehistoric sites in a cultural resource management context (see citations in Middle Period below); other studies aimed at ethnographic and contact-era research issues (Dietz 1976; Duncan 1992, cited in Stewart
2003:199; Lightfoot and Simmons 1998, cited in Stewart 2003:195-196; Slaymaker 1977, 1982).
Few synthetic treatments of Marin County prehistory have been published and almost no attempts to organize the corpus of chronological data collected through the early twenty-first century.
Viewed in this light, archaeological test excavations conducted by the Archaeological
Research Center at California State University, Sacramento, stand out for the acquisition of additional chronological data and its detailed consideration of regional research questions.
Basgall et al. (2006) investigated 10 archaeological sites along State Route (SR) 101 between SR
37 and Old Redwood Highway in Petaluma, an area termed the Marin-Sonoma Narrows (the
Narrows). The chronological data obtained because of the investigation are not, however, without complication: the Narrows sites tend to have complex use histories, most locations having been occupied for extended intervals and display important functional differences over time (Basgall et al. 2006:411). Midden accumulations were sometimes superimposed or overprinted on more ephemeral, specialized processing sites or tool production loci (Basgall et al.
2006:388). All of these characteristics of the Narrows sites indicate a high potential for temporal mixing and complex interpretational problems. The Narrows investigation revealed an occupational history commencing ca. 8000 B.P. and extending into the historic period (Basgall et al. 2006:388). 21
Early archaeological research into the prehistory of the Santa Rosa Plain has much in common with the Point Reyes and Marin County research. Nelson's (1909) reconnaissance and excavation of shell mound sites in the greater San Francisco Bay area marked the first professional investigation of the coastal portion of Sonoma County, west of the Santa Rosa Plain.
Jesse Peter (1923, cited in Stewart 2003:95) surveyed portions of Sonoma County, including the
Santa Rosa Plain, from 1911 to 1913. Peter and a group of high school students excavated CA-
SON-84 in 1921, recording the results only on a site record form (Peter 1921, cited in Origer
1987:20). Subsequently, no further archaeological research was done on the Santa Rosa Plain until the advent of more encompassing federal cultural resource legislation in the late 1960s, at which time the first published archaeological excavations were conducted (see Jones and Hayes
1989:Table 1).
Environmental impact legislation increased the number of archaeological excavations conducted on the Santa Rosa Plain as well as adjacent areas, such as the Sonoma coast and Warm
Springs, increasing the comparative archaeological database. A number of archaeological studies conducted west of the Santa Rosa Plain contributed significantly to chronology building and the elucidation of culture process in the Santa Rosa vicinity. The Sonoma coast studies are discussed under the Middle Period and Late Period headings below; the Warm Springs archaeological record is discussed subsequently in a separate section.
Middle Period (2300-1150 B.P.)
The Middle Period is marked by an expansive occupation of northern Marin County, as evidenced by archaeological investigations at several sites (Basgall et al. 2006:29; Bieling 1998,
2000; King 1967, 1970; King et al. 1966; McGeein and Mueller 1955; Melander and Slaymaker
1969; Moratto et al. 1974; Origer 1982a; Roop et al. 1981); archaeological sites of this age were 22 once considered rare in northern Marin County, in contrast to several sites of Middle Period vintage reported along the northern San Francisco Bay margin (Beardsley 1954a, 1954b). The
Narrows investigation adds six significant Middle Period components and traces of a seventh to the regional record, bringing the total of firmly dated Middle Period sites in north Marin to 17
(Basgall et al. 2006:390).
During the Middle Period, strong evidence for marine resource procurement emerges in the southern part of the Narrows. Middle Period sites such as MRN-192 and MRN-196 show intensive occupation of near-bay contexts used to exploit diverse vertebrate and invertebrate fauna, as well as plant foods. Abundant fish and shellfish remains were present at four sites, suggesting that productive bay shore habitats were present by 2500 B.P. After 1850 B.P., wide diet breadth includes many species of fish and mammals, shellfish and plants. Ground stone and projectile point frequencies are still low. Middle Period components, like those of the Early
Period, show evidence for on-site flaked stone reduction, consistent with a more centralized settlement pattern and regularized importation of cores/blanks (Basgall et al. 2006:392-393, 398).
Resource intensification is perhaps indicated by widened diet breadth during this interval: regular consumption of fish, waterfowl, small and large terrestrial game, and marine animals.
The greater frequency of mortars and pestles in Middle Period deposits compared to Early Period contexts implies greater reliance on acorns in the diet (Basgall et al. 2006:28). Some researchers assert that Middle Period shell mounds functioned mainly as cemeteries for high-status individuals and that ceremonial complexity was highly developed at this time, although some shell mounds certainly served residential purposes as well (Lightfoot and Luby 2002:276, 277;
Millikenetal. 2007:110, 111).
At the Dominican Site (MRN-254), Annadel obsidian became more abundant than Napa
Valley obsidian toward the end of the Middle Period, suggesting a change in exchange routes or 23 raw material availability. Ground stone tools had limited representation in all periods, indicating that seed and acorn processing was never prominent at this location. Shellfish, especially bay mussel, was important in all periods (Basgall et al. 2006:29). At MRN-27, King (1970) identifies burials with differential distributions of grave accoutrements consistent with variation in social status. He cites this as evidence for a move toward social complexity prior to the ascendancy of
Late Period culture (Basgall et al. 2006:29).
On the Sonoma coast, Dowdall (2002:282, 291) identifies two distinct, partially contemporaneous lifeways during the Middle Period, characterized as belonging to the
Mendocino Pattern (4000-1000 B.P.) and Berkeley Pattern (3500-1000 B.P.). The Mendocino
Pattern represents mobile groups living on the Sonoma County coast, whereas the Berkeley
Pattern was produced by relatively sedentary social groups on the southern Sonoma coast.
Mendocino Pattern assemblages are heavily curated and contain several dart point forms and contrasting toolstone source profiles (North Coast Ranges obsidian, Franciscan chert, and
Monterey chert). Typical artifact types include wide-stemmed, contracting-stem, and concave- base points, handstones, and milling slabs (Dowdall 2002:291).
The Berkeley Pattern is evident on the southern Sonoma coast at large residential middens such as SON-292, SON-293, SON-298, SON-299, SON-300, SON-320, SON-321,
SON-324, and SON-347. Berkeley Pattern traits include shouldered lanceolate projectile points, clamshell fishhooks, notched-stone net weights, bone awls, bone spatulae, stone bowl mortars, and stone pestles. The assemblages at these sites are similar to Berkeley Pattern sites on the
Marin coast and particularly San Francisco Bay (Dowdall 2002:291-292).
The coastal Mendocino Pattern is a foraging pose (sensu Binford 1980). The coast was used for seasonal hunting with atlatls and for seed processing. Blood residue analysis on tools from Mendocino Pattern sites suggests that birds, fish, rabbits, and bear were hunted with darts. 24
As no mortars or pestles have been identified in Mendocino Pattern contexts, it is unlikely that a well-developed acorn economy was present. Lithic scatters are associated with the Mendocino
Pattern, based on the broad-spectrum results of the residue analysis and site constituents (dart points, low debitage frequencies, and few handstones and milling slabs). Obsidian hydration profiles indicate occupation from before 4000 B.P. to ca. 500 B.P. Debitage occurs only as resharpening debris and both Annadel and Napa Valley obsidians are evenly represented.
Dowdall interprets the degree of lithic curation and variability as informal exchange between family bands in an overall setting of permeable social boundaries (Dowdall 1995:86; Dowdall
2002:294-296, 302, Table 5.14).
The Berkeley Pattern is a more sedentary adaptive pose than either the Mendocino or
Augustine patterns. Mortar and pestle use suggest a well-developed acorn economy. Subsistence also included year-round reliance on bay shore and other wetland environs (Dowdall 2002:295).
Stewart (1993:166) suggests that Berkeley Pattern peoples spread from the margins of an already- crowded San Francisco Bay to find similar environmental settings to the north and east. Berkeley
Pattern sites on the Sonoma coast therefore are not seen as an in situ cultural development, although the possibility of rapid acculturation by earlier coastal residents must be considered
(Dowdall 2002:295).
Sonoma coast residential sites are associated with the Berkeley Pattern. Sites attributed to this pattern are typically large, often stratified shell middens with human graves and other features, shell beads, bone tools, food processing and cooking tools, dietary refuse, and obsidian tools and debitage. Napa Valley obsidian dominates obsidian source profiles by about 2500 B.P.
Assemblages suggest heavy reliance on marine resources, although acorn and other seed processing, as well as terrestrial game hunting, are evident. Dowdall interprets Berkeley Pattern 25 sites on the Sonoma coast as reflecting sedentary tribelet organization with formalized exchange alliances and multiple-family villages (Dowdall 2002:298-300).
Two discrete phases are recognized on the Santa Rosa Plain: Black Hill and Laguna. The
Black Hill Phase is interpreted as a local subsistence-settlement system, whereas the Laguna
Phase appears to represent an intrusive occupation. The Black Hill Phase is characterized by large, side-notched points, concave-base points, and milling slabs. Jones and Hayes (1989:Figure
37; 1993:203) attribute the Black Hill Phase to the Upper Borax Lake Pattern, whereas some researchers term the phase the Black Hill Culture (apparently an aspect-level construct) of the
Mendocino Pattern (Stewart 2003:Figure 11.6). Laguna Phase indicators consist of shouldered lanceolate points and bowl mortars, and bear some resemblance to the Dry Creek Phase at Warm
Springs and the Houx Aspect of the Berkeley Pattern at CA-LAK-261 and LAK-510. The
Laguna Phase is thought to span 1450 to 750 B.P., falling within the Upper Archaic and
Emergent periods (Jones and Hayes 1993:203, Table 3).
Major settlement changes during the Upper Archaic Period are reflected more clearly at marsh and lacustrine environs than at sites in oak woodlands. In wetland contexts, major semi- permanent villages were established at SON-299 and SON-979 and intensified use of marsh and lacustrine resources is inferred from fish, shellfish remains, and waterfowl, as well as small and large terrestrial game. At SON-120, there is an increase in the number of formal versus expedient tools, suggesting longer seasonal use as a residential complex, possibly articulated with lacustrine and/or bayside sites (Jones and Hayes 1993:210, 212, Table 6).
Late Period.(I 150-150 B.P.)
In the Narrows investigation, seven sites contained Late Period components, seven with
Phase 1 indicators and six with Phase 2 signatures. Moderately developed Phase 1 deposits were 26 widespread in the Narrows, whereas intensive Phase 2 occupations were only observed at two sites. Late Period assemblages are characterized by greater sedentism, resource intensification, and greater social elaboration. Attendant to these cultural trends were higher population density in the North Coast Ranges and San Francisco Bay area. In both areas, settlement shifted from the lakes and estuaries to riparian zones in oak woodlands. The collection and storage of acorns achieved primacy during this period and hunting increased in importance. The proliferation of sociotechnic artifacts evinces increased social complexity, perhaps resulting from the arrival of the Coast Miwok in Marin County (Basgall et al. 2006:28, 30).
King et al. (1966) defined the Veronda Phase along San Antonio Creek as an inland variant of the Estero and Fernandez facies. They associate the Veronda Phase with the arrival of a new population group, possibly the Coast Miwok. Oceanic shellfish increase in abundance, especially Saxidomus, which is made into disk beads. San Antonio Creek during the Late Period is more intensively occupied than in previous intervals and habitation areas are clustered (Basgall et al. 2006:30).
Late Period sites tend to have the same suite of resource remains as Middle Period components, but are typically smaller, more ephemeral, and are less likely to overlie earlier deposits. The deposit at MRN-194 suggests that a broad-spectrum subsistence regime was emerging in the Narrows, indicated by mortars, pestles, and net weights. Late Period acorn intensification appears absent; bay nuts constitute most of the nutshell sample (Basgall et al.
2006:393, 396).
Late Period occupation is aerially more extensive than previous periods, but, with the possible exception of MRN-327, exhibits less intensive midden accumulations and possibly represents shorter occupations. It is possible that the Narrows sites of the Late Period are satellite 27 communities of larger settlements in the interior or to the north or south of the Narrows. No evidence to support this hypothesis has been obtained, however (Basgall et al. 2006:398).
Late Period patterns have low tool-to-debitage but higher core-to-debitage ratios. Late
Period projectile points are frequently made on severely curved biface thinning flakes via margin retouch. Napa Valley obsidian is dominant in earlier Late Period contexts, with the quantity of
Annadel obsidian increasing in later intervals, consistent with the findings of Jackson's (1986) study (Basgall et al. 2006:398, 399).
The composite obsidian hydration profile for the Narrows suggests that occupational intensity remained constant from ca. 5000 to 450 B.P. The drop in obsidian frequency after 450
B.P. suggests reorganized settlement patterns. The near-lack of a significant Phase 2 presence in the Narrows may represent Mission-era depredations on indigenous populations in Marin County
(Basgall et al. 2006:390, Figure 22).
On the Sonoma coast, Dowdall characterizes the Augustine Pattern (1000-150 B.P.) as an adaptive pose intermediate with respect to the Mendocino and Berkeley patterns, representing extended residential use of the northern coast, though it cannot be classified as characteristically sedentary. Augustine Pattern traits include small, corner-notched points, shaped stone pestles, bowl mortars, and grooved-stone net weights. Augustine Pattern occupations are represented at
SON-250/H, SON-256, SON-458, SON-473, SON-1455, and SON-1896 (Dowdall 2002:282,
291).
Obsidian source and hydration data from 25 coastal sites reveal patterns of source frequencies reflective of ethnographic interaction spheres. In Kashaya territory (fronting the ocean from the Gualala River to the Russian River), obsidian hydration profiles from ca. 1000 to
150 B.P. exhibit only obsidians from the North Coast Ranges (n = 355), with Annadel and Napa
Valley (in order of abundance) comprising nearly 90 percent of the profile. From the Russian 28
River south to Salmon Creek, Clear Lake obsidians are absent altogether and Napa Valley comprises 65 percent of the obsidian from sites along this portion of the coast (n = 20). South to
Estero Americano, no Clear Lake obsidian is present and Napa Valley again dominates the source profile (62 percent; n = 62). The latter two stretches of coastline are within ethnographic Bodega
(Coast) Miwok territory. The source profiles suggest that the peoples living between the Russian
River and Estero Americano had stronger social ties to purveyors of Napa Valley obsidian, even though it is 35 km farther away than the Annadel source (Dowdall 2002:293-294, Table 15.3).
The Augustine Pattern represents temporary residence on the northern Sonoma coast, possibly by the Kashaya, whose permanent settlements were in the interior. There was reliance on rocky shore marine resources, acorns, deer, and sea mammals, as well as hunting with bow and arrow. Seasonal use of the coast for specific purposes may have allowed Augustine and
Mendocino pattern peoples to coexist. Camp sites are associated with the Augustine Pattern, as is tribelet-level organization in a seasonal, extended family expression (Dowdall 2002:295, 302).
Two phases are postulated for the Late or Emergent Period in the Santa Rosa Plain locality: the
Rincon and Gables phases (Table 1.3). The former phase is absent from immediate Santa Rosa environs and is known only in the southern part of the Sonoma District. SON-1269 is the type site for the Rincon Phase. Rincon Phase sites are characterized by serrated, corner-notched arrow points, hopper mortars, and Olivella sequin (MI) beads (Jones and Hayes 1993:Table 3; Roscoe
1981).
Table 1.3. Sonoma District Emergent Period Phases
Phase Date Range Hydration Range (Napa Valley) Hydration Range (Annadel) Rincon Phase 950-450 B.P. 1.7-2.5 pm 2.4-1.3 pm Gables Phase 450-150 B.P. 2.1-0.9 pm 1.7-0.9 pm Source: Jones and Hayes 1993:Table 2 29
The Gables Phase type site is SON-455 (possibly also SON-860), yielding small, non- serrated corner-notched points, hopper mortars, and clamshell disk beads. This interval marks the appearance of recognizable, semi-permanent villages in oak woodlands (Jones and Hayes
1993:212, Table 3).
Materials from SON-120 suggest the presence of two "distinct functional components" in the Emergent Period: a task-specific component dominated by Annadel obsidian (possibly a
Pomoan group) and a residential component with mostly Napa Valley obsidian, thought to represent a Wappo presence. Jones and Hayes (1993:212) postulate a struggle between the two groups for use of the Valley of the Moon over the last 500-1000 years of prehistory and sporadic use of SON-120 by each group for varying periods. Jones and Hayes (1993:212, Figure 3) hypothesize that the near-doubling of the frequency of Annadel obsidian between the Late
Archaic and Emergent Periods is linked to Pomoan incursions into the Santa Rosa locality.
Increasing hostility may be reflected by the marked increase in the proportion of projectile points in Emergent Period assemblages: 68 percent of the Napa Valley (Wappo) and 96 percent Annadel (Pomo) flaked-stone tool assemblages are projectile points, compared to < 37 percent in preceding periods. Differential loss of projectile points and hunting intensification could also explain the large number of points, however (Jones and Hayes 1993:212).
Emergent Period occupation at SON-120 sees Napa Valley obsidian dominant in the midden area, whereas Annadel obsidian is most frequent in off-midden contexts. The Late
Archaic Period pattern is one of prevalent Napa Valley obsidian throughout southern Sonoma and
Napa counties prior to the Late Archaic-Emergent period transition (Jones and Hayes 1993:212).
During the Upper Emergent Period (450 B.P.-historic period), much of the North Bay shifts from serrated to non-serrated corner-notched projectile points. Unnotched projectile point preforms also appear in the archaeological record about this time. Jackson (1986:91) argues that 30 the simpler, non-serrated projectile points were produced for trade, citing as corroborating evidence the conterminous appearance of the clamshell disk bead trade with non-serrated arrow points. Obsidian profiles in the North Bay are dominated by Annadel and Napa Valley obsidian
(Jackson 1986; Stewart 2003:179). Jackson (1989:73, 91) posits a simplification of Upper
Emergent Period (Jackson uses the term "Phase 2 of the Late Period") projectile point production after 450 B.P.: the serrated corner-notched points of the Lower Emergent Period are replaced by simple, non-serrated corner-notched points, which Jackson notes "could be modified easily to accommodate the aesthetic/stylistic demands of a range of consumer societies." However appealing on intuitive grounds, Jackson's (1986) trade scenario presently has minimal support; there is no necessary connection between the archaeologically simultaneous appearance of non- serrated points and clamshell disk beads.
Jackson (1986:79, 83, Table 2) describes the source profiles for obsidian projectile points from four archaeological sites in the Gualomi and Livantolomi tribelet (both Southern Pomo) territories: SON-159, SON-455, SON-456, and SON-860 (Table 1.4). The Annadel obsidian source is located in Gualomi territory (Figure 1.5). The Gualomi sites (SON-455, SON-456, and
Table 1.4. Obsidian Projectile Point Source Profiles at Four Gualomi and Livantolomi Sites
Site Total Ethnographic Percent Percent Napa Percent Points Territory Annadel Valley Borax Lake SON- 16 Livantolomi 69 (n = 11) 31 (n = 5) 0 159 SON- 80 Gualomi 74 (n = 59) 26 (n = 21) 0 455 SON- 44 Gualomi 70 (n= 31) 30 (n= 13) 0 456 SON- 30 Gualomi 63 (n= 19) 33 (n= 10) 3 (n= 1) 860 Source: Jackson (1 986:79, -83, Tables 1, 2) 31
Figure 1.5. Approximate Ethnographic Boundaries on the Santa Rosa Plain (adapted from Jones and Hayes 1989:Figure 36)
SON-860) all show evidence for projectile point manufacture, and taken together with other artifact classes, Annadel obsidian occurs in similar proportions across sites and assemblages.
Jackson (1986:82) suggests that social mechanisms regulated raw material procurement and artifact manufacture and distribution. The proportions of obsidian sources in Gualomi sites and 32
SON-159, within Livantolomi territory, are similar. These two tribelets were frequently in conflict with one another, indicating that similar obsidian source profiles do not necessarily suggest close or amicable relations between groups. (Jackson 1986:83.)
Warm Springs
Researchers studying the prehistory of Warm Springs have postulated a three-phase culture history of the study area that spans approximately the last 5,000 years (Basgall 1982,
1993; Basgall and Bouey 1991:Tables 6, 7; Bouey 1986:Table 4.1). The earliest known human occupation of Warm Springs is referred to as the Skaggs Phase (5000-2500 B.P) and succeeding occupations are termed the Dry Creek (2500-900 B.P.) and Smith (900-100 B.P.) phases
(Basgall 1993:190-191). Although Basgall (1993:187, 189) provides evidence supporting an exclusively Smith Phase assignment for Rattlesnake series projectile points, a discussion of the
Dry Creek Phase archaeological record is beneficial for two reasons. First, this thesis will use a continuous timescale when analyzing projectile point data in order to side-step difficulties inherent in drawing data from study areas with divergent cultural chronologies. For purposes of this thesis, therefore, it is more important where a given projectile point (or other analytical unit) falls along a continuous timescale than which of Basgall's (1993; Basgall and Bouey 1991) phases the points are ascribed to. Second, because late prehistoric projectile points outside of
Warm Springs may relate to a very different chronology, contextual data on adjacent phases are required to facilitate interregional comparison.
The Dry Creek Phase (2500-900 B.P.) at Warn Springs consists of 22 components
(Figure 1.6). The hub of occupation during this interval, like the preceding Skaggs Phase, was 33 probably the Dry Creek drainage, with perhaps a secondary cluster in the Warm Springs drainage
(Basgall and Bouey 1991:200, 201). Mortar and pestle technology became significant at this
Figure 1.6. Dry Creek Phase Site Distribution at Warm Springs (adapted from Basgall and Bouey 1991:Map 5) time, possibly reflecting the intensification of acorn exploitation, although the increase in the number of mortars and pestles from the Skaggs Phase appears rather modest (Stewart 1993:160).
Abraders are overrepresented in Dry Creek assemblages, probably reflecting intensive biface reduction. Projectile points (mainly Excelsior series), drills, and casual flake tools are scarce in
Dry Creek assemblages. Reworked bifaces occurred at peak frequencies during the Dry Creek
Phase, perhaps designed for maximum use of imported obsidian. That obsidian debitage tends to 34 occur as late-stage reduction debris suggests that most projectile points were imported as preforms or blanks and finished at Warm Springs (Basgall and Bouey 1991:117). Extensive obsidian use characterizes this interval as well, with 50 percent of most flaked stone tool categories and 75 percent of projectile points made of obsidian. Mt. Konocti was the most common obsidian source. Napa Valley obsidian was common in projectile points but rare in debitage, suggesting the import of finished products. Borax Lake obsidian occurred most commonly as debitage, though tools of this material were rare. Annadel obsidian is nearly absent altogether (Basgall and Bouey 1991:201).
Three indicators of craft specialization in biface technology are evident at Warm Springs during the Dry Creek Phase. First, the majority of bifaces recovered from the Warm Springs sites came from CA-SON-571. Second, obsidian bifaces formed over 90 percent of the non- projectile point tool assemblage at that site. Finally, as noted in the previous paragraph, Dry
Creek Phase obsidian bifaces are heavily reworked, a common phenomenon in contexts where conservation of toolstone and manufacturing intensity are important considerations (Bouey
1986:92).
During the Smith Phase (900-100 B.P.), the Warm Springs archaeological record suggests a more centralized settlement-subsistence system compared to that of the Dry Creek Phase (Figure 1.7).
Obsidian as a raw material disappears, except for projectile points. Early in this phase, Mt.
Konocti was the dominant obsidian source, though a marked shift to Napa Valley obsidian occurred later in the Smith Phase. Clamshell disk beads and green chert enter the economy at this time, indicating increasing ties to the west, possibly with ancestral Kashaya. In the latter part of the Smith Phase, the quantity of green chert and shell disk beads increases significantly, indicating a shift from exchange with Clear Lake populations to greater participation in the
Central California money economy (Basgall and Bouey 1991:187-188, 203-204). It is also 35 noteworthy that shell beads and historic artifacts, though relatively scarce, suggest the presence of three subphases within the Smith Phase. Basgall and Bouey (1991:98, Table 27) provisionally date these subphases as follows: Subphase A (9001-180 B.P.), Subphase B (180-130 B.P.), and
Subphase C (130-100 B.P.)
Figure 1.7. Smith Phase Site Distribution at Warm Springs (adapted from Basgall and Bouey 1991 :Map6)
Smith Phase sites exhibit a more centralized subsistence-settlement system than that of the Dry Creek Phase, comprising 28 components. Broad-spectrum resource exploitation is evidenced partially by a diverse ground stone tool assemblage. Projectile points are abundant and
' Basgall and Bouey (1991) originally set the beginning of the Smith Phase at 700 B.P.; Basgall (1993) subsequently revised this estimate to 900 B.P., which is the date of inception followed here. 36 principally conform to the Rattlesnake series description (Basgall and Bouey 1991:203-204). In fact, the ratio of plant-processing ground stone implements to projectile points increases from
0.76 to 0.28 from the Dry Creek Phase to the Smith Phase (Bouey 1986:Table 5.9). Chert drills are very common whereas reworked bifaces are nearly absent (coincident with a decline in obsidian availability). Obsidian dominates only projectile points. Early in the Smith Phase, cores increase in frequency relative to bifaces (Basgall and Bouey 1991:203-204; Bouey 1986:127).
Concomitantly, early Smith Phase debitage exhibits cortical material in significant frequency.
Late in the Smith Phase, Warm Springs occupants appear to have obtained all obsidian as small cores, flakes, or finished tools (Bouey 1986:137). Mt. Konocti is dominant in the early part of the phase but Napa Valley obsidian gradually replaced it. Napa Valley obsidian was reduced using the bipolar technique. Annadel and Borax Lake obsidians are only minimally present in Smith
Phase components (Basgall and Bouey 1991:203-204).
By the late 1700s or early 1800s, indigenous Warm Springs populations felt the effects of
European contact (Basgall and Bouey 1991:205; McCarthy 1991:40). Most or all of the population moved to SON-593-I (Basgall and Bouey 1991:205). Colonial activities had many deleterious effects, but also likely stabilized inter-ethnic relations and changed trade patterns
(Jackson 1986; cf. McCarthy 1991:40).
Jackson (1986) examines obsidian source profiles of five Warm Springs sites (Table 1.5).
He observes two distinct obsidian source profiles between sites that he attributes to the
Mahilkaune and Makalmo (Southern) Pomo. Makahmo sites exhibit a preponderance of Mt.
Konocti obsidian, whereas Napa Valley obsidian is prevalent in Mahilkaune sites. The Makahmo shared a border with the Habenapo (Southeastern Pomo), who controlled a portion of the Mt.
Konocti obsidian flow. The Makahmo also had direct access to the Clear Lake area, possibly including the Borax Lake flow. The Makahmo could have obtained Napa obsidian from the 37
Lil'ek Wappo, who seasonally resided in the eastern portion of Habenapo territory. (Jackson
1986:88-91, Table 2.)
Table 1.5. Obsidian Source Profiles at Seven Warm Springs Archaeological Sites
Site Ethnographic No. of Percent Percent Napa Percent Percent Mt. Territory Points Annadel Valley Borax Lake Konocti SON- Mahilkaune 19 10.5 63.2 10.5 15.8 553 SON- Mahilkaune 22 18.2 68.2 4.5 9.1 556 SON- Mahilkaune 17 11.8 58.8 0.0 29.4 568 SON- Makamotcemei 15 0.0 26.7 0.0 73.3 571 SON- Mahilkaune 36 11.1 75.0 8.3 8.3 593-1 Source: Jackson (1986:88-9 1, Tables 1, 2)
A likely economic relationship between the Southern Pomo and Coast Miwok is evident in the exchange of Annadel obsidian (under Southern Pomo control) for clamshell disk beads
(Coast Miwok control). Both sites MRN-216 and MRN-298 at Point Reyes represent shell procurement and bead manufacturing areas. The Coast Miwok traded clamshells, clamshell disk beads, and Haliotis shells to the Wappo as well, receiving obsidian in return. The eastern Coast
Miwok sites in Jackson's study contain obsidian and debitage, indicating that some obsidian arrived unworked (Jackson 1986:86-87).
The Proposed Problem
This thesis assumes that speakers of the reconstructed Proto-Western Branch of Pomoan languages departed from Clear Lake between 3500 and 2500 B.P. and arrived at Warm Springs 38 ca. 2500 B.P. or later. In addition, it is apparent from obsidian acquisition patterns (namely frequent use of Mt. Konocti obsidian) that colonists at Warm Springs maintained social ties with
Clear Lake populations (Basgall and Bouey 1991:201). Colonization need not have required martial competition with previous inhabitants. Families and small communities from Clear Lake could just as likely have interacted with and married among previous populations, gradually blurring ethnic distinctions.
The Proto-Western Branch of Pomoan languages diverged, later forming northern (Proto-
Central and Proto-Northern Pomo) and southern (Proto-Kashaya and Proto-Southern Pomo) divisions. Linguists judge Kashaya to retain the most archaic qualities of the Pomoan languages, suggesting a high degree of linguistic conservatism and perhaps less interaction with non-
Pomoans at Warm Springs than typified the ancestral Central and Northern Pomo. The Kashaya and Southern Pomo languages diverged afterward.
Based upon the linguistic history and regional archaeological research outlined above, a number of research questions present themselves, each of which is approachable at least in part through the study of projectile point variability during the last 1500 years B.P.
1. Does the study area, consisting of the subregions Point Reyes, Santa Rosa, and
Warm Springs, exhibit a single regional seriation?
2. Alternatively, does projectile point morphology in Point Reyes, Santa Rosa, and
Warm Springs reflect historical relatedness within each subregion?
3. Can projectile point seriations from the study assemblages corroborate, falsify, or
amplify the findings of previous researchers concerning exchange relationships
within the study area and beyond?
This thesis examines these questions with recourse to archaeological collections from the
Point Reyes, Santa Rosa, and Warm Springs localities. Archaeologists can use historical 39 linguistic and 'archaeological data from the southern North Coast Ranges to generate reasonable expectations regarding variability within particular artifact classes, such as projectile points.
Artifact manufacture is constrained and informed by myriad factors: enculturation, exertion of group solidarity and differences, experimentation and self-expression, quality and availability of raw materials, other demands on time, intergroup relations, history of interactions, and current relations with other groups. Selective pressures also condition diachronic patterns in projectile point variability with fitness-enhancing and selectively neutral traits exhibiting divergent distributions in the archaeological record (Dunnell 1978:199). These factors are not equally approachable via the archaeological record. Indeed, numerous researchers have proposed other, non-selectionist 2 approaches to artifactual style, artifactual variability, and social interaction (see
Bettinger et al. 1996; Carr 1995a, 1995b; MacEachern 1998; Wiessner 1983). This present study employs evolutionary theory and empirical data to determine whether patterns of projectile point variability are consonant with or expand current reconstructions of regional prehistory.
2 "Selectionist" refers to a particular brand of evolutionary archaeology and is discussed in Chapter 2 of this thesis. Competing perspectives are also discussed in Chapter 2. 40
CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL ORIENTATION
This chapter explicates the theoretical orientation of this research and its pertinent limitations. The outlook of this thesis is evolutionary: the theory and methods employed herein acknowledge material culture as part of the human phenotype, and therefore susceptible to selective forces operating in complex physical and social environments. Material culture is also subject to non-selective evolutionary forces, such as drift. Before detailing the theoretical framework of this thesis, common approaches to the study of the Pomoan expansion and artifactual variation are briefly reviewed.
Theoretical and methodological shortcomings beset archaeological and linguistic prehistory studies of the Pomoan expansion to date. Many studies of the Pomoan expansion are principally synopses and self-professedly purposed to generate hypotheses for more rigorous testing (i.e., Moratto 1984:Chapter 11). Linguistic prehistory studies tend to suffer from circular reasoning: prehistorians use unverified linguistic hypotheses to support unverified archaeological ones, and vice-versa. Frequently, they are also fraught with misguided attempts to identify appropriate linkages between archaeological and linguistic classificatory units; since language has no archaeological correlates, it is futile to correlate such units (Hughes 1992). Typically, studies following the linguistic prehistory approach take the ascription of archaeological assemblages to historic ethnic groups and their antecedents as a principal goal (Crossland 1973:634), focusing on what Rouse (1986) terms site-unit intrusions, or the abrupt appearance of a constellation of archaeological traits in an area formerly characterized by archaeological homogeneity.
Archaeologists usually explain site-unit intrusions as the advent of outside influences, whether they take the form of conquest, assimilation, or intensified exchange; archaeologists rarely hypothesize that a site-unit intrusion might represent in situ cultural developments. Early treatments of the Bell-Beaker phenomenon in Europe and Whistler's self-professedly tenuous 41 linguistic culture history of the North Coast Ranges are good examples of studies that correlate assemblage changes with the migration of ethnic groups (Jones 1997; Renfrew 1987:86-93;
Whistler 1977, 1988).
Archaeologists have also published numerous discussions of artifact style and variation
(Carr 1995a, 1995b; MacEachern 1998; Wiessner 1983, 1997), taking style and morphological variation to reflect a range of phenomena: function, explicit signification of social and personal identity, boundary maintenance, learning a craft, consequences of marital residence patterns or other aspects of social organization, craft specialization, and stages of use-life of certain artifacts 3.
Although it is not the purpose of this thesis to provide an exhaustive review of this literature, the major views on artifactual variability and style are summarized below. The perspectives covered include cultural transmission theory, context-contingent schools of thought such as chaine operatoire, and various approaches to artifact style as a means of communicating social information.
Cultural Transmission Theory
The transmission of artifact designs encompasses a variety of processes. It includes learning from family members, general enculturation, the interaction of artisans, and deliberate attempts at morphological or functional emulation of forms employed within or outside a given social unit. The effects of each of these processes on metrical variation can be modeled using cultural transmission theory, an explicitly evolutionary way of explaining variability in human
3 For comprehensive and influential treatments of artifactual style see Barton (1997), Carr and Neitzel (1995), David and Kramer (2001:Chapter 7), Gero (1989), Sackett (1985) and Wiessner (1983, 1985, 1997).
For studies concerned with artifactual variability, sometimes with little regard for style, consult Bettinger and Eerkens (1997, 1999), Christenson (1997), David and Kramer (2001), Eerkens and Lipo (2005), Knecht (1997:203), MacEachern (1998), Plog (1978), Rondeau (1996), Shott (1997), Wiessner (1983, 1997), and Zeanah and Elston (2001). 42 behavior. Like all neo-Darwinian theories, cultural transmission theory holds that human culture can have adaptively beneficial or detrimental consequences-that culture can increase or reduce
Darwinian fitness (Bettinger 1991:183; Winterhalder and Smith 1992:7; Winterhalder and Smith
2000:52). Cultural transmission theory works from the premise that culture is understandable as a system of inheritance on which Darwinian evolution operates, albeit with different mechanisms of transmission or inheritance. The reason for this difference in working principles is simple to explain. Genetic information is passed from parents to offspring: there are only two direct contributors of genetic information in biological evolution (the parents' ancestors are indirect or filtered contributors). By contrast, the transmission of cultural information can be effected by almost any number of cultural parents, depending upon the social context (Bettinger 1991:182-
183; Boyd and Richerson 1987:65).
Evolutionary principles, applied to human culture, might predict a reduction in variability because of the quest for greater fitness-after all, why would a "losing" element of culture be selected by individuals who wish to maximize their genetic fitness? Strangely, the leveling of variation is not at all what archaeologists see in the archaeological record (Lyman and O'Brien
2000:59-69, Figures 8 and 10), nor what cultural anthropologists observe in their areas of purview. Were it not for the deep time depth perspective that archaeology brings to our study of the human story, one might dismiss the cultural variability (and perhaps genetic variability) observable today as an amalgam of fit and unfit traits that have not yet played out to their
Darwinian conclusion4. Immediately posing the question of whether a particular cultural trait is fit or unfit, however, somewhat puts the cart before the horse. The first-order question for the present problem is how culture is transmitted in such a manner that variability emerges or is
4Although one could argue for a greater degree of genetic homogeneity when considering the hominin line as a whole, which in former times displayed greater taxonomic and, therefore, genetic diversity than the lineage exhibits today (see Brown et al. 2001:29). 43 constrained. Humans have an innate drive to increase genetic fitness and even tend to conduct daily affairs with reference to conscious or unconscious goals (which may or may not bear directly on fitness). In other words, humans attempt to optimize their behavior in respect to fitness and other goals. In choosing cultural models on which to optimize, however, our ability to correctly measure fitness-enhancing or optimal traits and what actions will enhance fitness is not complete or accurate in every given circumstance and can and does result in variable patterns of cultural inheritance (Bettinger 1991:184-185; Eerkens and Lipo 2005).
If cultural transmission theory is neo-Darwinian, then it must concern itself with matters that are central to Darwinian evolution. Chief among these is the need for variability on which selective processes act. This principle has powerful implications for archaeological analysis: it suggests that mode, mean, and median trends (measures of sameness)-hallmarks of typological constructs-are perhaps less informative than are measurements of attribute dispersion or variability. Cultural transmission theory advances four models of behavioral acquisition, which contain expectations for cultural variation: guided variation, direct bias, frequency-dependent bias, and indirect bias (Bettinger and Eerkens 1997:179; Shott 1997:198).
According to the model of guided variation, individuals acquire behavior by estimating the "average" behavior of one or more models then attempt to improve the behavior by independent trial and error (Bettinger and Eerkens 1997:179; Shott 1997:194). Cultural traits acquired by guided variation are much more strongly correlated than traits acquired by direct bias
(see "Direct Bias" below; Bettinger and Eerkens 1999:237). Guided variation ultimately results in greater variability at the population level (Bettinger and Eerkens 1997:179).
Directly biased cultural transmission is similar to guided variation, except that two alternative behaviors are tested, and the variant deemed best is retained unmodified. Directly 44 biased cultural transmission results in less population-level variability (Bettinger and Eerkens
1997:179).
Frequency-dependent bias is a variation-reducing model in which behavior is acquired socially but not field-tested. Individuals examine the local cultural pool and adopt the most common variants, resulting in reduced population-level variability (Bettinger and Eerkens
1997:179; Shott 1997:194).
Indirectly biased transmission involves individuals evaluating a pool of cultural and behavioral variants using selection criteria gained earlier through enculturative processes. The selection criteria, true to evolutionary expectations, are based on the premise that the model chosen is selected because of demonstrable (or perceived) proficiency in a particular activity
(Bettinger and Eerkens 1999:236). Cultural models matching the individual's preferred profile are then copied for the desired behavior. Functionally unrelated, but useful cultural traits associated with the new profile are adopted as well. Indirectly biased transmission depends upon population variability to operate, namely in the form of multiple, preferably exotic, models of behavior. The result of indirect bias, however, is reduction of population variability (Bettinger and Eerkens 1997:179; Shott 1997:194).
Studies Emphasizing Stylistic Social Information
Numerous researchers view artifactual style as a vehicle for conveying social information, although some acknowledge that style may have other functions as well (Wiessner
1983:256; Wobst 1999:120). The arguments promulgated by Sackett (1985) and Wiessner (1983,
1985, 1997) are among the most prominent in archaeological discourse concerning the meaning of material culture style, being cited by numerous researchers (see Ames 1996:120-121; Barton
1997; Bettinger et al. 1996:137-140; Shackley 2000; Stark 1999:25-26, 28-29; Wobst 1999:118- 45
119, 122). The Sackett-Wiessner debate (Sackett 1985; Wiessner 1985) on artifact style and variation focused on the fit between Wiessner's (1983) theory of artifact style and the results of her study as well as the conditions under which deliberate signaling of social information via artifactual style could be invoked. Although other researchers have since identified and explored numerous aspects of material culture style and its potential to communicate social messages
(Bliege Bird and Smith 2005; Carr 1995a, 1995b; Carr and Neitzel 1995), the Sackett-Wiessner debate raised the core issues of style and artifactual variation taken up by subsequent researchers, in a deliberate, critical review of one another's research. Their debate is summarized below.
Wiessner (1983:256) defines style as "formal variation in material culture that transmits information about personal and social identity." She also contends that style is subject to selection and it therefore may confer adaptive benefits to its users. In her view, identity, which is communicated via stylistically diagnostic artifacts, stems from two sources:
* Membership in different social groups and identification within these groups
* A creative, innovative impulse to differentiate themselves from similar others
(Wiessner 1983:257)
In this view, social comparison is the driving force behind stylistic choices. Wiessner (1983:257) holds this view largely because the majority of Kalahari San that she interviewed compared the shape of their artifacts to those of others.
Wiessner postulates the existence of two aspects of style: emblemic and assertive style.
Emblemic style is "formal variation in material culture that has a distinct referent and transmits a clear message to a defined target population about conscious affiliation or identity." Emblemic style carries information about the existence of groups and boundaries, but not the frequency of interaction across or within them. One may expect change in emblemic style to occur slowly through errors or rapidly when its referent changes or becomes detached. Because emblemic 46 style indicates and maintains boundaries, it should be visible in the archaeological record as uniform within its realm of function. This kind of stylistic signaling may be poorly developed among many hunter-gatherers because of the investment required to establish stylistic uniformity
(Wiessner 1983:257).
Assertive style is "formal variation in material culture which [sic] is personally based and which [sic] carries information supporting individual identity" by distinguishing similar individuals as well as facilitating personal expressions of membership in various groups.
Assertive style may be well developed among many hunter-gatherers. Wiessner characterizes assertive style as having no direct referent, but only playing a supportive role in the expression of individuality. Lacking a distinct referent, Wiessner contends that assertive style is subject to diffusion in concert with acculturation and enculturation, and therefore can provide a measure of contact within and over the bounds of social groups. Whether assertive style in any particular case carries such information depends upon the following factors:
* The artifact's realm of function, suitability for conveying stylistic messages, and
duration of use
* Ease of replication and complexity of design
* The density and visibility of an artifact exhibiting style in a population (Wiessner
1983:258)
Change in assertive style should have a different profile from emblemic style. Where craft specialization exists, assertive style may be increased or decreased at the behest of artisans and buyers. Wiessner offers three theoretical bases for choosing items for stylistic analysis:
1. The assumption that an item carries social information because it is naturally
important to social identity and/or is efficient for transmitting such information 47
2. The greater the number of stages an artifact goes through the greater its chances
of exhibiting social information, since each stage offers opportunity to add social
expression [this overstates the case somewhat for projectile points, since some
stages obliterate evidence of previous ones]
3. One could expect stylistic content to be correlated with manufacturing time and
use-life of the artifact (investment) (Wiessner 1983:259-260)
Among the San of the Kalahari Desert, Wiessner (1983:270) believes that arrow points are a poor indicator of the nature of contact between groups because the simple alternative designs employed are easily remembered and reproduced (see also Shackley 2000). Furthermore, limitations in material, time, technology and purpose conspire for the manufacture of "convergent styles."
In his critique of Wiessner (1983), Sackett (1985:154) characterizes Wiessner and other researchers' position that style communicates social information as the iconological approach to style. Sackett (1985:155-156) finds Wiessner's (1983) evidence for emblemic or iconological style in San arrow points less than convincing. Although Wiessner's (1983) expectation that arrow point morphology would differ between San language groups was borne out, the morphological attributes differentiating arrow points manufactured by different language groups were size, overall shape, and configuration of tip, body, and base shape (Wiessner 1983:267-
268). None of Wiessner's (1983:269) informants indicated, upon examination of arrow points made by members of other language groups, that the maker or the maker's social affiliation was known, only that the points were made by those "who are not our people." Sackett (1985:157), therefore, contends that Wiessner's San case is an example of isochrestic ("equivalent in use") variation. Sackett's isochrestic variation acknowledges that in a great many instances of manufacturing, there are multiple viable means of achieving the desired outcome [and 48 presumably performance, although Sackett (1985) seems not to explicitly state this]. In this view, what archaeologists and others perceive as style is the outcome of artisans consistently making choices about artifact manufacture, producing artifacts recognizable as conforming to a particular plan. Consistency is ensured by enculturation in a social group's craft tradition. It is therefore expectable that artifacts conforming to a specific style represent the manufactures of a more-or- less bounded social or ethnic group (Sackett 1985:157; see also Stark 1999).
Technological Approaches to Artifactual Style
Numerous researchers, particularly those archaeologists who specialize in ceramic studies, posit an approach to treating archaeological style that combines aspects of the iconological and isochrestic styles discussed in the previous section. Specific perspectives in this vein include the techniques et culture school, chaine operatoire, and technological style.
Technological style is "the formal integration of the behaviors performed during the manufacture and use of material culture, which expresses social information" (Childs 1991:332, quoted in
Stark 1999:27). While not dispensing with what Sackett (1985) terms iconological styles, the technological style school emphasizes the information potential that can be eked from the decision chain associated with the manufacture of artifacts or features, arguing that technological style constitutes knowledge of a manufacturing tradition passed down from generation to generation (Stark 1999:27). Based on evidence from ethnoarchaeological studies, adherents posit that technological styles are more resistant to change than iconographic styles, because changing technological style requires more costly adjustments to the manufacturing process (Stark
1999:29; Wiessner 1985).
Technological style theorists note correctly that there is much debate over the intentionality of signaling group identity in material culture. Stylistic expressions vary according 49 to the media involved, the nature of the relationship between social groups, local economic conditions, and perhaps sociopolitical structure. In short, the relationship between style and social boundaries is context-dependent and makes uniformitarian statements about the nature of stylistic change-to say nothing of its interpretation in the archaeological record-difficult to support (Carr 1995a, 1995b; Stark 1999:26-27).
Darwinian Evolutionary Theory and the Archaeological Record
Since the 1970s, there has been a growing interest among archaeologists in applying the principles of Darwinian and neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory to archaeological problems
(Barton and Clark 1997; Bentley and Shennan 2003; Bettinger et al. 1996; Maschner 1996;
Neiman 1995; Winterhalder and Smith 2000:51-52). Darwinian evolutionary theory holds that evolution is descent with modification, continuity or heritability with change, namely the differential production of distinct variants. Darwinian evolutionary theory is manifestly historical: it addresses how and why a particular phenomenon came to be (Dunnell 1996:89;
O'Brien and Lyman 2000:180-181). In applying evolutionary theory to archaeology, human culture-including material culture-is viewed as part of the human phenotype because material culture has consequences for the fitness of individuals and aggregates of individuals (Bentley and
Shennan 2003:460; O'Brien and Lyman 2000:131). In a similar manner, evolutionary biologists and paleontologists have long considered extrasomatic objects-such as birds' nests or early hominids' artifacts-as part of an animal's phenotype (Dawkins 1990:198, quoted in O'Brien and
Lyman 2003:100-101; Plavcan and van Schaik 1997:346). As such, material culture is subject to the evolutionary processes of selection and drift. The reader should not construe the previous sentence as meaning that inanimate objects reproduce, interact, or make decisions. The position of evolutionary archaeologists is that human decisions made in response to evolutionary forces 50 result in frequency shifts among artifacts, features, and other aspects of the archaeological record and that the distribution of frequency shifts changes over time (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:181).
Evolution acts on individuals through two processes: natural selection and drift.
Selection is the differential reproduction of individuals that generates changes in trait frequencies at the population level and correlates with external natural and cultural environmental conditions
(Wilhelmsen 2001:99). Better-adapted traits increase in proportion to those less well-adapted because of differential persistence of individuals and reproductive success (Bentley and Shennan
2003:460; Little 1997:146, 147; O'Brien and Lyman 2003:240). Traits conferring or decreasing evolutionary fitness in a given social and cultural environment are termed selectively non-neutral traits, whereas traits that do not affect the fitness of individuals or populations are selectively neutral. Performance characteristics and relative production costs affect the transmission of non- neutral traits: those traits that confer enhanced performance of evolutionarily consequential tasks and cost less to produce are more likely to be replicated in a population. The persistence of traits could result from the "selection of' traits as well as "selection for" traits. "Selection for" a trait refers to an outcome in which selection directly targets a trait because it enhances the reproductive success of an individual possessing it. "Selection of' a trait, on the other hand, refers to a selection process in which the frequency of a given trait increases with no effect on fitness. Such neutral traits are selected along with non-neutral ones because of a close structural, mechanical, or cultural relationship between the neutral element(s) of the phenotype and the fitness-enhancing element(s) of the phenotype (Wilhelmsen 2001:99-100). This phenomenon is recognized in the frequency-dependent bias and indirect bias models of cultural transmission theory (Bettinger and Eerkens 1997:179; Shott 1997:194).
Drift, on the other hand, is a consequence of errors in transmission, whether of genetic or cultural information, that results in the production of variants (Eerkens and Lipo 2005:318-319; 51
Neiman 1995:9). In evolutionary parlance, error does not necessarily denote "mistake". Rather, the term "error" includes various means by which the frequency of a trait or traits changes in a population, what researchers variously term "transmission fidelity," "innovation," and
"stimulated variation" (Beck 1998:23; Eerkens and Lipo 2005:319; Lyman and O'Brien 2000).
Drift affects selectively neutral traits, which have no measurable effect on fitness (Wilhelmsen
2001:99).
Because frequency shifts in the archaeological record may be the result of selection
(fitness-related change) or the result of drift (non-fitness related change), distinguishing between functional and stylistic variability, and between analogous and homologous traits is a primary concern of evolutionary archaeology. This distinction is important to make because trait similarity between two archaeological assemblages does not necessarily indicate social congress between discrete social groups or a direct "genetic" relationship; the similarities between the two may just as easily have developed in response to similar environmental variables (read: selective pressures), which would be a case of convergent evolution (Gould 1989:213-214; Jordan and
Shennan 2003:43). Conversely, marked differences between assemblages do not necessarily reflect separate historical trajectories among them, but may represent a case of divergent evolution wherein two possibly historically related assemblages followed separate evolutionary trajectories as a response to different selective stimuli, or because of differential responses to selective stimuli. The discernment of complex and subtle evolutionary trends in the archaeological record demands rigorous construction of analytical units (Kornbacher 2001:28;
Lyman and O'Brien 2000:42; O'Brien and Lyman 2000:181; O'Brien, Lyman, Darwent, and
Glover 2003:125-126; Wilhelmsen 2001:99). 52
Evolutionary Change and Analytical Units
A key issue in evolutionary archaeology is distinguishing selection-driven variation in the archaeological record from variation caused by non-selective factors, leading many archaeologists to equate stylistic variation with homology (correctly) and functional variation with analogy (only sometimes correctly). Accordingly, archaeologists sometimes determine early in an analysis which attributes are analogous (functional) and which are homologous (stylistic) and-depending on whether the primary problem is one of history or one of adaptation-which sets of attributes they will employ in their research. O'Brien, Lyman, Darwent, and Glover
(2003:153-154) point out that functional attributes are not always simply analogs, although analogs are by definition functional. What makes attributes, specimens, or classes of artifacts homologs is their historical relationship to other forms, not a lack of functionality. For these reasons, researchers should include functional attributes in phylogenetic analyses if the attributes concerned would likely exhibit marked variability or a strong phylogenetic signature, especially where stylistic attributes are difficult to isolate (Beck 1998; O'Brien, Glover, Lyman, and
Darwent 2003; Wilhelmsen 2001). In guiding their research, O'Brien, Lyman, Darwent, and
Glover (2003:150) base their choice of characters "on expectations as to which parts of a projectile point would change the most over time as a result of transmission and thus create a strong phylogenetic signal. All other things being equal, characters that show a higher degree of variation are more likely to have detectable phylogenetic signals than characters that do not."
Once a researcher chooses traits or trait complexes for study, how does one recognize and interpret phylogenetic signals?
The recognition of analogous and homologous trajectories among artifacts rests in large measure upon analyzing the distribution of attributes over time and space. Non-neutral attributes may exhibit a number of distributions: 53
* A sharp rise in popularity followed by an abrupt decline
* Unimodal distribution
* Discontinuous, multimodal distribution (Wilhelmsen 2001 :Figure 4.1)
The two types of distributions that most intuitively fit the expected patterning of non-neutral traits are the sharp rise/dramatic decline and discontinuous, multimodal distributions. In the first case, the increase in frequency is concomitant with fitness benefits conferred because of employing a given attribute or suite of attributes; the steep decline in frequency occurs when new, more fitness-enhancing attributes or suites of attributes supplant their predecessors (O'Brien, Lyman,
Darwent, and Glover 2003:153). Discontinuous, multimodal distributions are expectable where attribute frequencies change because of convergence or changes in the selective environment
(O'Brien, Lyman, Darwent, and Glover 2003:153; Wilhelmsen 2001:Figure 4.1). Non-neutral attributes may also exhibit unimodal distributions, contrary to expectation; non-neutral attributes can reflect adaptive change alone or can reflect transmission as mediated by selective pressure
(Bettinger et al. 1996:150-152). In the latter case, a unimodal distribution is highly probable
(O'Brien, Lyman, Darwent, and Glover 2003:153). Engineering analyses can distinguish unimodal distributions that reflect functional or adaptive trends as well as transmission from unimodal distributions that reflect transmission alone. Engineering analyses in evolutionary archaeological context identify the traits of an archaeological entity that are selectively advantageous to the user.
The distributions of selectively neutral traits, on the other hand, are typically unimodal or r-shaped (Beck 1998:Figure 2.1; Neiman 1995; O'Brien and Lyman 2000; Wilhelmsen 2001).
Unimodal attribute distributions result from stochastic factors such as drift, social interaction, and innovation, and frequently map onto interacting lineages. The unimodal curve results because, with respect to the selective environment, neutral attributes confer no adaptive benefit and have 54 no environmental correlates (Lipo, et al. 1997:305; Neiman 1995; Wilhelmsen 2001:99-100,
Figure 4.1). An r-shaped distribution of a neutral attribute, on the other hand, is likely to result when a neutral attribute is formally or structurally associated with non-neutral attributes. The neutral trait is likely to be selected along with a non-neutral trait, such that the neutral attribute displays an r-shaped distribution (Wilhelmsen 2001:100, Figure 4.1).
Evolutionary theory applied to archaeological research can also address production issues such as the identification and explication of craft specialization. The identification of craft specialization, in the archaeological record is a matter of recognizing artifact standardization and collecting data regarding the temporal and geographic distribution of standardized artifacts in the archaeological record (Arnold 1992:73; Bouey 1986:123; David and Cramer 2001:304; Sterling
2001:Table 5.1). The inference of craft specialization is reasonable where standardized artifact variants appear over a region simultaneously because such a phenomenon implies production on a large scale. If standardized artifacts appear first in one locality and then another later, craft specialization is not inferable from the archaeological record. Rather, transmission of ideas
(manufacturing knowledge) or other processes would be responsible for the production of standardized artifacts (Sterling 2001:147-149).
Criticisms of Selectionist Evolutionary Archaeology
Evolutionary archaeologists hailing from the behavioral ecology school raise important criticisms of the selectionist form of evolutionary archaeology; Bettinger et al. (1996) frame these critiques ardently and eloquently. Bettinger et al. (1996) take issue with two major facets of selectionist archaeology: the sharp distinction between style and function on one hand and the lack of modeling conducted for the explication of transmission processes. Bettinger et al. (1996) eschew any attempt to set a rigid boundary between style and function, as Dunnell (1978) has 55 done (see discussion above, Darwinian Evolutionary Theory and the Archaeological Record).
Bettinger et al. (1996) argue that style has function and cannot be ignored in evolutionary explanation. Bettinger et al. (1996:134, 140-141) also criticize selectionist archaeologists for not deriving models for the transmission of variation and emphasizing generalizations about consequences when explaining the archaeological record. Viewed in its most simple and programmatic forms prior to ca. 1996, selectionist archaeologists do appear content to identify any instance of random or bell-shaped distributions of artifactual variation as evidence for selectively neutral variation and other distributions as non-neutral. The explanation appears to stop there. Building models of the transmission of variation is a necessary growth area for selectionist archaeology, and the selectionist approach could benefit from gains in cultural transmission theory and behavioral ecology in general.
Although it is correct to observe that selectionists stridently support a sharp distinction between style and function, this author finds that Bettinger et al. (1996) misunderstand Dunnell's
(1978) formative statements concerning style and function, as well as those of other selectionist evolutionary archaeologists. Selectionists have also gained ground in model-building, though not generally in the area of greatest concern to behavioral ecologists, as we shall see. Several selectionists, including Dunnell, assert that stylistic variation should not be ignored in evolutionary explanation. In addition, selectionists. do not make categorical pronouncements about what sorts of archaeological phenomena are stylistic. Whether variation is stylistic (that is, neutral) is context-dependent (Abbott et al. 1996; Barton 1997; Hunt et al. 2001; Neiman 1995;
O'Brien and Lyman 1999, 2000, 2003). It appears that Bettinger et al. (1996) may even have set up a straw-man argument-wittingly or no-by assuming on behalf of the selectionists what constitutes style in the archaeological record. The selectionists, as far as this author can determine from the evolutionary archaeology literature, never define style in terms of specific 56 material correlates. For instance, Dunnell (1978:199), whom Bettinger et al. (1996:153) quote, points out that "all traits have a cost in terms of energy, space, and matter and are thus an unavoidable part of the whole selection picture... Analytically, this can be treated as a problem of scale." Instead of being a rejection of stylistic variation as relevant to evolutionary explanation, the style vs. function dichotomy presented by selectionist archaeologists represents an attempt to use terminology common in archaeological usage to explain, with reference to higher-order theory, the success of seriation studies (Lipo et al. 1997; Lyman and O'Brien 1999; Neiman
1995). Bettinger et al.'s (1996:136) characterization of the selectionist relegation of "style and art" to random, non-adaptive behavior is incorrect.
Bettinger et al. (1996:140-141; see also Neff and Larson 1997:75-80) note a conspicuous lack of model-building in selectionist archaeology, beyond the characterization of variation as neutral or non-neutral. Whereas this is certainly true for selectionist archaeology until about
1997, more recent studies focus on modeling of one sort or another within a Darwinian framework. One of the most central issues in selectionist archaeology is the empirical justification for determining particular traits as non-neutral (Kombacher 2001; Pfeffer 2001;
Sterling 2001; Wilhelmsen 2001), answering Bettinger et al.'s (1996) contention that selectionist archaeologists do not consider the potential for convergence and sorting to confound the distinction between neutral and non-neutral variation (Beck 1998:Figure 2.1; Lipo et al.
1997:305; Neiman 1995; O'Brien and Lyman 2000; Wilhelmsen 2001:99-100). Selectionist archaeologists are also developing models of cultural transmission processes, although these efforts are still in a programmatic phase of development, not having been tested against archaeological data (Lipo 2001; Lipo et al. 1997). 57
Discussion
This chapter's discussion of style and variability in the archaeological record bears out that these are not straightforward matters to characterize for any particular data set.
Archaeologists have forwarded numerous, mostly overlapping approaches to artifactual style.
For the purposes of this thesis, archaeological approaches to style were briefly described under the banner of three perspectives (discussion of postmodernist approaches to style were considered beyond the scope of this thesis, having little bearing on a study conducted in a processual vein).
The first, and broadest in this treatment, is the social information school of artifactual style, perhaps best known from the writings of Sackett (1985), Wiessner (1983, 1985, 1997), and Wobst
(1999). Researchers that emphasize the role of style in the transmittal of social information, such as social boundaries and individuality, frequently rely on ethnographically and ethnoarchaeologically derived models to interpret the archaeological record (e.g., Wiessner 1983,
1985, 1997). Most researchers have commented on the vast number of variables, that shape artifactual style and the implications for interpreting the meaning of archaeological styles (see especially Carr 1995a, 1995b). They conclude-in agreement with Bettinger et al. (1996)-that the elucidation of artifactual style is context-dependent. The second approach discussed above is cultural transmission theory, which models variability as the outcome of the manner in which a desired behavior is learned within a given social group (Bettinger 1991; Bettinger et al. 1996;
Boyd and Richerson 1987). Proponents of cultural transmission theory exert considerable effort in the modeling of transmission processes and have derived explicit narrative and mathematical models of several aspects of variation (Bentley and Shennan 2003; Bettinger et al. 1996; Eerkens and Lipo 2005). Models derived via cultural transmission theory, however, presuppose that the community-of whatever scale-in which transmission occurs is known. The recognition of such communities is an important archaeological research problem in and of itself, rendering the 58 application of cultural transmission theory as the cart before the proverbial horse. This author sees selectionist evolutionary archaeology as capable of contributing in a significant way to resolving this problem. The selectionist archaeological focus has been on the recognition of neutral and non-neutral variation, as well as sequences of historically related artifacts and features
(O'Brien and Lyman 1999, 2000, 2003). The selectionist approach to identifying artifactual lineages is based on the time-tested seriation method (O'Brien and Lyman 1999, 2000) and is buttressed by rigorous sampling and chronological requirements (Lipo et al. 1997, 2005). With an emphasis on defining historically related assemblages, an evolutionarily informed seriation study seems a tool well suited to the study of arrow point variability in the study area.
Evolutionary Classification
It should be clear to the reader from the preceding discussions that measures of morphology are central to evolutionary archaeological investigations. Investigators must design classificatory units such that the phenomena of interest are measurable along a continuous timescale, since evolution is itself a continuous process historically contingent on the qualities of existing forms rather than a transformational process that comprises a series of leaps from one type to another (O'Brien and Lyman 1999:114-115, 2000:32-36). Classification can follow one of two methods: extensional and intensional definition. Both methods of classification establish necessary and sufficient conditions for membership in a unit. In extensional definitions, researchers educe the conditions for membership by listing selected character states exhibited by members of a previously constructed unit. This is the traditional method of classification in archaeology; a collection of, say, projectile points is sorted into categories based on morphological similarities. Once satisfied with the categories derived, the archaeologist then lists out the essential (and sometimes non-essential) characteristics for membership in the various 59 groups, based on the shared characteristics of the groups' members (Shennan 1988:195-199).
The definition of each group is completely contingent upon the specimens originally examined.
Such extensionally derived units are not amenable to carrying out a critical task in evolutionary explanation-the examination of frequency changes in units over time-because unit definition is potentially changeable every time a new specimen is identified (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:191-
192). Archaeologists attempt to work around this problem of extensional definition by employing hierarchical classificatory units such as clusters, series, types, subtypes, and variants (for
California examples, see Basgall and Bouey 1991; Justice 2002; Layton 1990). Although these hierarchical classificatory units are useful in assigning a reasonable level of specificity and reliability to the constructs, they do not completely negate the problems of extensional definition.
Rather, the constructs simply provide some bounds on the scale of the problem. Where extensionally defined artifact types happen to form valid chronological types and the problem at hand concerns chronology and perhaps even traditions of artifact manufacture, extensionally defined units may pose relatively little trouble for the researcher. The real problem lays in whether extensionally defined units are appropriate for the problem at hand. The existing projectile point classifications described in Chapter 3 are examples of extensional units.
Researchers construct intensional definitions, on the other hand, by imposing conditions on empirical specimens in order to sort them into sets (LeTourneau 1998:53; O'Brien and Lyman
2003:234-236). In this approach to classification, if the length of barbs on a projectile point, is, for instance, unimportant, then the inclusion of points with any length of barb has no implications for the classification scheme in use. Investigators derive the significant characters of intensional units from hypotheses about how particular phenomena work, whereas extensional definitions are seldom based on explicit theoretical grounds. If a particular intensional classification does not 60 prove productive, the fact is noted and the classification is modified or discarded. The process of unit construction and the units employed in this thesis are presented in Chapter 3. 61
CHAPTER 3 PROJECTILE POINT SYSTEMATICS
This chapter addresses the classification of projectile points. Two broad topics are covered here: existing projectile-point classifications in the study area and the formation of intensional classificatory units with which to tackle the problems at hand. First, this chapter describes the morphology, dating, and distribution of late period projectile point types commonly used in the southern North Coast Ranges. The existing type descriptions are then used as a jumping-off point for building classificatory units better suited for the identification of evolutionary trends in projectile point morphology.
Existing Projectile Point Classifications
Rattlesnake Series
Rattlesnake series projectile points are small, corner- and side-notched arrow tips common in the southern North Coast Ranges. Archaeologists have described these points in various ways since Harrington (1948) first published photographs of the point form, proposing different classificatory schemes to account for variability among similar projectile points.
Rattlesnake series projectile points are notched triangular points with a "narrow neck and a straight to convex basal edge (Justice 2002:402). Blade edges are slightly convex to straight to concave and may exhibit light serration, although Basgall (1993:187) notes that throughout the southern North Coast Ranges Rattlesnake series points usually do not possess serrations. In cross-section,'Rattlesnake series points include flat and thin biconvex shapes. Rattlesnake series projectile points were generally made by pressure-flaking flake blanks into triangular or ovate preforms. Biface thinning, edge maintenance, and notching were achieved via pressure-flaking as 62 well. The Rattlesnake corner-notched and side-notched forms at Lower Lake are typically thin and finely flaked (Baumhoff 1985:175; Justice 2002:402).
Rattlesnake Variants
Researchers have identified a few formal variants, which have not achieved type or subtype status, within the Rattlesnake series. Broadly speaking, division of the Rattlesnake series follows a three-part scheme: Rattlesnake corner-notched, Rattlesnake side-notched, and Laguna
Notchless forms (Basgall and Bouey 1991:75, 93-94; Jobson 1991:323; Origer 1987:34; White
2003:96; White and Allison 2002:Figure 83).
Rattlesnake corner-notched points are distinguishable from Rattlesnake side-notched points by the placement of notches on the hafting element as well as the narrowness of the neck.
The side-notched form, on the other hand, has a wide neck and exhibits low, acute-angled notching. Rattlesnake side-notched projectile points have been recovered from archaeological deposits in Clear Lake Basin and Warm Springs, whereas the corner-notched form exhibits a broader distribution, including Clear Lake Basin, Napa Valley, the North Bay, the Santa Rosa
Plain, and Warm Springs (Basgall 1993:137; Jobson 1991:335; Origer 1987:32; White 1984:128;
White and Allison 2002:Figure 83).
The Laguna Notchless form, sometimes referred to as Rattlesnake Triangular (White and
Allison 2002:Figure 83), is an unnotched triangular projectile point found in Clear Lake Basin, the Santa Rosa Plain, Point Reyes, and Warm Springs (Basgall and Bouey 1991:93-94; Origer
1987:34; Soule 1975:35, Plate 7; White and Allison 2002:Figure 83). This point form may represent a preform for Rattlesnake series points (Basgall and Bouey 1991:94).
The northern limit of projectile points belonging to the Rattlesnake series appears to be south-central Lake and southern Mendocino counties, though they occur in small numbers at CA- 63
MEN-500 and Round Valley (Basgall and Bouey 1991:76; Meighan 1955). Rattlesnake series points have been identified as far south as the northern shore of San Francisco and San Pablo bays and west to the Pacific Ocean (Basgall et al. 2006; Layton 1990; Slaymaker 1977). The series has also been identified in western Yolo County, between the Cache and Putah Creek drainages (Tremaine et al. 1986). The point series is widely distributed throughout Lake and
Sonoma counties (Jackson and Fredrickson 1978; Jones and Hayes 1989, 1993; Origer 1987;
Soule 1975; Wickstrom 1986).
Morphological Criteria and Temporal Placement
Researchers have long proposed that the Rattlesnake series dates to the latter portion of
North Coast Ranges prehistory, with possible persistence into the historic period. Relatively few
Rattlesnake points have been dated by radiocarbon; the dating of the series relies primarily on component assignments and obsidian hydration spans (Basgall 1993; Basgall and Bouey 1991;
Jones and Hayes 1989, 1993). At LAK-702, Rattlesnake series projectile points are associated with radiocarbon dates of 435±80, 270±60, and <300 years B.P. (Jackson and Fredrickson
1978:94). Obsidian hydration data indicate an Emergent Period (950-150 B.P.) age for
Rattlesnake series points in the Santa Rosa area (Origer 1987:Tables 17, 18; see Table 3.1).
Based on component assignments, Rattlesnake series projectile points at Warm Springs fall in the
100-900 B.P. interval (Basgall 1993:189; see Table 3.2). Although fraught with uncertainties, attempts to derive calendric obsidian hydration rates through radiocarbon-obsidian hydration rim pairings have the potential to permit direct age estimates on individual artifacts made from North
Coast Ranges obsidians (see Chapter 4, Methods and Data Sets, for details regarding obsidian hydration and rate formulation). As indicated in subsequent data presentations (Appendix A), this study's use of calendric hydration rates corroborates other researchers' hypothesis that the 64
Table 3.1. Obsidian Hydration Data for Marin-Sonoma Narrows Corner-Notched and Serrated Points
Locality Group No. Mean S.D. CV Range SCN-L 3 3.83 0.67 0.17 3.40-4.60 Marin-Sonoma Narrows SCN-D 6 2.20 0.88 0.40 1.10-3.40 NCN 2 1.40 0.00 0.00 1.40 SCN-L 3 3.83 0.67 0.17 3.40-4.60 All Marin Sites SCN-D 12 2.21 1.06 0.36 1.10-2.30 NCN 3 1.70 0.52 0.30 1.40-2.30 SCN 46 2.07 0.31 0.15 1.5-2.7 Santa Rosa Plain NCN 49 1.50 0.30 0.20 1.0-2.2 Notes: S.D. = standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation; mean, S.D., and range in microns; SCN- L = serrated corner-notched points with large serrations (large); SCN-D = serrated corner-notched points (small) with denticulate serrations; NCN = non-serrated corner-notched points. All micron readings are measurements' on Napa Valley specimens or Annadel data converted using the 0.77 conversion constant (Tremaine 1993). Data obtained from Bieling (1998); Clark et al. (1992); and Origer (1982a, 1992). Table adapted from Basgall et al. (2006:Table 22).
Rattlesnake series persisted into the historic period. This study also suggests that the series may predate the ca. 950 B.P. inception proposed by Basgall (1993) and Origer (1987) by as many as
600 to 1,400 years. At present, however, the few age estimates reported in Appendix A that are in excess of ca. 950 B.P. appear to be statistical anomalies and cannot at present be taken as indicative of greater antiquity for the series as a whole.
Table 3.2. Obsidian Hydration Data for Warm Springs Rattlesnake Series Points
Source Number Mean S.D. CV Median Range Mt. Konocti 74 1.86 0.61 0.33 1.80 0.93-3.10 Napa Valley 140 1.72 0.64 0.37 1.60 0.93-3.40 Borax Lake 12 2.31 0.89 0.39 2.40 1.00-3.80 Annadel 19 1.29 0.42 0.33 1.20 0.90-2.40 Notes: S.D. = standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation. Mean, S.D., Median, and Range are micron values. Source: Basgall (1993:Table 4). 65
White (1984) proposes that Rattlesnake series points exhibit a trend in later prehistory toward stem enlargement and more frequent side-notching. Basgall and Bouey (1991:79-82) and
Jobson (1991:325-328) test this proposition using Rattlesnake series points from Warm Springs.
These researchers segregate Warm Springs Rattlesnake points (Napa and Mt. Konocti specimens only) into two temporal groups: specimens that exhibit hydration rims < 2.0 pm and those that exhibit hydration rims > 2.0 pm. Basgall and Bouey (1991) and Jobson (1991) then run Chi- squared and Student's t-test to assess the relationship between the two temporal groupings and the values of point attributes relevant to stem size and notching parameters: proximal shoulder angle
(PSA), neck width (nW), and BWR (base width:blade width ratio). The test results indicate that attribute values associated with stem expansion and side-notching are significantly correlated with thinner hydration rims. Although Jobson (1991:335) tentatively proposes that side-notched
Rattlesnake series projectile points at Warm Springs date to ca. A.D. 1550-1850 or 400-100 B.P.,
Basgall and Bouey (1991) urge caution in assigning a fixed post-400 B.P. date to the side-notched
Rattlesnake point, as side-notched specimens also exhibit hydration rims in excess of 2.0 Pm.
Nevertheless, a clear morphological trend toward wider expanding stems and side-notching is indicated by Basgall and Bouey (1991) and Jobson's (1991) studies, suggesting that stem shape and notching parameters would likely be useful attributes for inclusion in the present thesis' point classification.
Metrical data and source-specific obsidian hydration data from Rattlesnake series and similar point forms are presented in Tables 3.1 through 3.4 in order to determine whether and in what manner spatial trends in morphology are discernable. These data are drawn from summary tables in published literature covering the study area and adjacent locations (Basgall 1993;
Basgall and Bouey 1991; Basgall et al. 2006; Jones and Hayes 1989; Origer 1987). These studies were selected because at least 30 points of each variant described by the researchers were used in 66 compiling the summary metrical data on the subject points. Basgall et al. (2006) is an exception in this regard,; having analyzed fewer than 20 arrow-sized points. The data from this study are included, however, to fill the gap left by Origer's (1987) data, which do not include metrical attributes relevant to basal and notching morphology, arguably among the more variable aspects of point form.
Table 3.3 indicates that the most variable aspects of Rattlesnake series point morphology at Warm Springs are the notch opening angle (NOA) (CV=0.51) and weight (Wt) (CV = 0.43).
The least variable are maximum width (mW) (CV = 0.15), distal shoulder angle (DSA) (CV =
0.15), and proximal shoulder angle (PSA) (CV = 0.15). The mean CV score for measured attributes on Warm Springs Rattlesnake series points is 0.26.
Table 3.3. Summary Metrical Data on Warm Springs Rattlesnake Series Points
Wt L Th mW bW bW/mW nW DSA PSA NOA (g) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Sample 186 216 403 304 329 255 381 336 336 335
Mean 0.88 21.4 3.50 14.50 9.60 0.67 7.20 177 120 57
S.D. 0.38 4.50 0.90 2.20 2.30 0.16 1.60 26 18 29
Max. 2.40 37.00 8.00 21.00 17.00 1.00 13.00 258 167 146
Min. 0.30 13.00 2.00 9.00 3.00 0.21 4.00 124 62 5
CV 0.43 0.21 0.26 0.15 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.15 0.15 0.51
Notes: S.D. = standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation; Wt = weight; L = maximal length; Th - maximal thickness; mW = maximal width; bW = basal width; bW/mW = base width:maximal width ratio; nW = neck width; DSA = distal shoulder angle; PSA = proximal shoulder angle; NOA = notch opening angle. Sources: Basgall (1993:Table 8); Basgall and Bouey (1991:Table 17). 67
Table'3.4 indicates that, at SON-120, the least variable dimension of Rattlesnake series points are DSA (CV = 0.12), PSA (CV = 0.13 and 0.14), and maximum length (mL) (CV = 0.13).
The most variable attribute is Wt (CV = 0.29). The overall CV score for attributes measured on
Rattlesnake series points at SON-120 is 0.18. Among the Rattlesnake points from sites reported in Origer (1987), Wt is the most variable aspect of morphology (CV = 0.39), whereas the least variable is mW (CV = 0.14). The overall CV score for point morphology among Origer's (1987) data is 0.24.
Table 3.4. Summary Metrical Data on North Bay Small Corner-Notched Points
SON-120 Origer (1987) Sites Totals
n M SD CV n M SD CV n M SD CV
mL 23 30.8 4.1 0.13 33 29.5 7.1 0.24 52 30.3 6.1 0.20
mW 28 14.5 2.7 0.18 33 14.8 2.0 0.14 57 14.6 2.4 0.16
Th 76 3.5 0.8 0.23 33 3.9 0.7 0.18 105 3.6 0.8 0.22
Wt 22 1.4 0.4 0.29 33 1.3 0.5 0.39 51 1.4 0.5 0.36
bW 36 11.4 2.7 0.24 36 11.4 2.7 0.24 68
Table 3.4. Summary Metrical Data on North Bay Small Corner-Notched Points
SON-120 Origer (1987) Sites Totals
n M SD CV n M SD CV n M SD CV
nW 43 8.0 1.4 0.18 43 8.0 1.4 0.18
DSA-1 31 178.5 21. 0.12 31 178.5 21. 0.12 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2
DSA-2 23 176.0 21. 0.12 23 176.0 21. 0.12 7 7
PSA-I 42 137.0 17. 0.13 42 137.0 17. 0.13 7 7
PSA-2 36 135.0 0 0.14 36 135.0 0 0.14 0 0
mL/mW 22 2.1 0.4 0.19 22 2.1 0.4 0.19
mW 21 24.1 6.3 0.26 21 24.1 6.3 0.26 position
Notes: n = sample of particular metrical unit; M = mean; SD standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation; mL = maximum length in mm; mW = maximum width in mm; Th = maximum thickness in mm; Wt = weight in g; bW = basal width in mm; nW = neck width in mm; DSA-I and DSA-2 = distal shoulder angle; PSA-1 and PSA-2 = proximal shoulder angle; mL/mW = length:width ratio; mW = axial position of maximum width in mm. Source: Jones and Hayes (I 989:Table 40). 69
Among the non-serrated corner-notched points at the Narrows sites, NOA and Wt are the most variable morphological attributes (CV = 0.56 and 0.36, respectively). The least variable characters are mW, DSA, and PSA (CV = 0.12, 0.14, and 0.14, respectively). The mean CV value for non-serrated corner-notched points is 0.20 (Table 3.5).
Table 3.5. Summary Metrical Data on Non-Serrated Corner-Notched Marin-Sonoma Narrows Arrow Points
Wt mL aL sL mW bW nW Th DSA PSA NOA
n 5 1 1 3 2 3 4 3 5 4 4
M 0.98 23.40 23.40 6.63 14.95 10.50 10.40 3.47 179.60 119.25 67.50
SD 0.39 2.12 2.48 3.39 2.73 0.76 27.75 18.96 43.58
CV 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.12 0.26 0.23 0.18 0.14 0.14 0.56
Notes: S.D. = standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation; WT = weight (g); ML = maximum length (mm); AL = axial length (mm); SL = stem length (mm); MW = maximum width (mm); BW = basal width (mm); NW = neck width (mm); TH = maximum thickness (mm); DSA = distal shoulder angle; PSA - proximal shoulder angle; NOA = notch opening angle. Source: Basgall et al. (2006:Appendix A. 1).
Gunther Series
The Gunther point was first illustrated in Loud's (1918:223) archaeological and ethnographic work among the Wiyot, based in part on excavation of the Gunther Island site, CA-
HUM-67 (Jaffke 1997:11-12). Treganza (1958) first coined the term "Gunther barbed" in reference to points found in the Trinity Reservoir area, which resemble the points first published by Loud (1918) (Jaffke 1997:17, 19). The Gunther series is primarily a northern California morphological expression common to the northwest, northeast, and east of the present study area 70
(Basgall and Hildebrandt 1989; Davy and Ramos 1994; Eidsness 1985; Jackson and Schulz
1975:Figure 1; Jaffke 1997; Justice 2002:Map 53; Layton 1990; Sampson 1985; Sundahl 1982).
The point series has a scant representation in Lake, Marin, and Sonoma counties, numbering at
Warm Springs, for instance, a mere handful of specimens-a "class of points.. .too small to warrant full discussion" (Basgall and Bouey 1991:75). Given the scarcity of the Gunther series in the study area, it is discussed below in somewhat less detail than the Rattlesnake series.
Gunther series preforms are thin, wide, equilateral and isosceles triangles produced by a combination of percussion- and pressure-flaking, though most specimens appear to have been made exclusively by pressure flaking (Justice 2002:411). Jackson and Schulz (1975:2, quoted in
Baumhoff 1985:173) describe Gunther series points as:
... medium to small stone projectile points characterized by trianguloid blades, contracting or parallel stems, pronounced shoulders, with angles of less (usually considerably less) than 75 degrees, and with base profiles (the proximal border of the blade from shoulder to shoulder exclusive of the stem) concave or indented.
A few variants of the Gunther series have been proposed, some based on impressionistic, gross observations on point morphology, others on the basis of metrical comparisons of varying geographic scale (Basgall and Hildebrandt 1989; Davy and Ramos 1994; Dougherty 1990;
Eidsness 1985; Jaffke 1997; Jobson 1991; Justice 2002; Layton 1990; Sampson 1985; Sundahl
1982; Treganza 1958; White 1979, cited in Jaffke 1997:24). Some proposed variants are named
(Round Valley Tanged, Gunthersnake, Gunther Barbed, and Sutter Contracting Stem), whereas others are referred to more generically, such as "contracting-stem variant." To summarize the findings of previous research, variant proposals for Gunther series points hinge on the following morphological characteristics: barb length, presence or absence of serration, stem size and shape, and maximum width:maximum length (mW:mL) ratio. These characteristics are discussed below. 71
Counterintuitive to a popular type designation (i.e., Gunther Barbed) and common opinion, excessively long barbs or tangs are not diagnostic of the Gunther series as a whole in the southern North Coast Ranges and the lower portions of the Sacramento Valley (Davy and Ramos
1994:144; Jobson 1991). In the Trinity Reservoir vicinity, Treganza (1958:14, 21) observed
Gunther series points that possessed no barbs, barbs shorter than the stem, and barbs longer than the stem. Similar observations have been made well to the north and northwest of the study area
(Eidsness 1985:162-163, Appendix III; Loud 1918:361, 387, 391; Sampson 1985:348, Tables 13-
1, 13-2). None of these investigators have identified temporal patterning in barb length.
Treganza (1958:14, 21) observes that Gunther series points in the Trinity Reservoir area are sometimes serrated (typically denticulate), a pattern found on the northwestern California coast by some researchers (Jaffke 1997:22; Loud 1918:391). Serrations are common on Gunther series points from some upper Sacramento Valley sites, on the other hand, and tend to be deeper rather than denticulate (Jaffke 1997:22). Blade serration on Gunther series points has no known temporal significance.
Perhaps the most distinctive attribute of the Gunther series is its small base size. More than 80 percent of Jobson's (1 991:329) sample 5 (n = 313) of Gunther series points possessed very small bases, as indicated by BWR < 0.35. Basgall and Hildebrandt (1989:123) also find Gunther series points at sites within the Sacramento River Canyon (Shasta County) to possess overwhelmingly small bases (mean BWR = 0.23, n = 230). Eidsness (1985: 162-163, Appendix
III), notes that among 269 Gunther series points some specimens possess small (typically contracting) stems whereas others possess large (usually expanding) stems. Obsidian hydration analysis of 73 Gunther series points did not support a temporal disparity between small-based and large-based variants (Eidsness 1985).
5The sample was drawn from site collections originating in Colusa, Del Norte, El Dorado, Humboldt, Mendocino, Modoc, Placer, Sonoma, Tehama, Trinity, and Yolo counties (Jobson 1991:Table B-10). 72
Among the more frequent proposals is variant distinction between large, expanding-stem and small, contracting-stem forms (Basgall and Bouey 1991; Basgall and Hildebrandt 1989; Davy and Ramos 1994; Eidsness 1985; Jobson 1991; Sampson 1985; Sundahl 1982). Some researchers also note the presence of parallel or square stems within the Gunther series (Jaffke 1997:31;
Sampson 1985:348, Tables 13-1, 13-2; Sundahl 1982:39-41). Although Jobson (1991:335) holds that these two variants exhibit distinct chronological parameters (ca. 1350-650 B.P. and ca. 650
B.P. to the historic period, respectively), this distinction does not hold for all portions of the
Gunther series distribution; Basgall and Hildebrandt (1989:123, 128) identify contracting-stem and expanding-stem variants in the Sacramento River Canyon, but find these forms to be approximately coeval; Sampson (1985:348) identifies no such temporal patterning, nor does
Eidsness (1985). Sundahl (1982: 39-41) notes that at CA-SHA-222, expanding-stem Gunther points were stratigraphically deepest, followed by parallel-stemmed and contracting stem forms; this stratigraphic-morphological correlation was weaker at SHA-266 (Sundahl 1982:109, 111-
113). Neither "sequence" is supported by chronological data.
Researchers have also proposed that mW:mL ratios distinguish variants among Gunther series points (Jaffke 1997; Sampson 1985:347-348; Sundahl 1982:109, 111-113). Sampson
(1985:347) distinguishes a broad Gunther variant from narrow and "classic Gunther barbed" variants at Nightfire Island by a mW:mL ratio greater than or equal to 0.6. Based on stratigraphic distribution of the points, Sampson (1985:347) infers that the broad variant dates to ca. 1650-
1450 B.P. Similarly, Sundahl (1982:39-41, 109, 111-113) infers temporal priority for broad
Gunther variants at SHA-222 and SHA-266, based on the stratigraphic distribution of the points. 73
Stockton Series
The Stockton series point has been recognized as a regionally distinctive projectile point form in the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta for over 100 years (Johnson 1940; Justice
2002:352). Division of the Stockton series into temporally discrete types has proven unsuccessful thus far, although formal variants have been identified. Justice's (2002) discussion of what he terms the "Stockton Cluster" provides a useful vantage from which to examine formal variability among the Stockton series. Justice (2002:352-362) advances five "types" (hereafter the thesis uses the term "variants") within the Stockton series: Stockton Parallel Stem, Stockton Notched
Leaf, Stockton Corner Notched, Stockton Expanded Stem, and Stockton Curve. Of these,
Stockton Notched Leaf, Stockton Corner Notched, and Stockton Expanded Stem possess geographical distributions in the present study area (Basgall et al. 2006:Plate 9; Beardsley 1954a,
1954b; Fredrickson and Origer 1995; Goerke and Cowan 1983; Jones and Hayes 1989:Figures
29, 30; McGeein and Mueller 1955:Figure 8; Origer 1987; Slaymaker 1977). Stockton series points in the study area (and beyond) are regarded as an indicator of Phase 1 of the Late Period, or the Lower Emergent Period (Basgall et al. 2006:128; Beardsley 1954a, 1954b; Jones and
Hayes 1989:139; Origer 1987:35). Table 3.1 largely corroborates this temporal placement, with mean hydration rims consistently larger than Rattlesnake series points on the Santa Rosa Plain, the Narrows, and other Marin sites. Smaller (SCN-D in Table 3.1) Stockton series points exhibit some overlap with Rattlesnake points, however, and may be a more recent serrated form than the large Stockton variants (SCN-L in Table 3.1), as evidenced by consistently smaller hydration rims. 74
General Description of Stockton Variants
As indicated, three Stockton series variants are represented in the present study area:
Stockton Notched Leaf, Stockton Corner Notched, and Stockton Expanded Stem. The Stockton
Notched Leaf variant is made "almost without exception" from a leaf-shaped preform and possesses a base that varies from rounded to pointed. Both round-based and contracting-stem
Stockton Notched Leaf points have been observed. This variant exhibits serrations along the blades in the form of paired notches that generally form equal arcs. Serrations are often squared and perfectly in line with the blade edge, sometimes extending the length of the blade, occasionally occupying the proximal half of a given specimen. The serrations are placed at an upward angle from time to time (Justice 2002:353-354).
The Stockton Corner Notched variant is similar to the Stockton Notched Leaf in overall design and execution, except that it is triangular in outline and wide at the base. Stockton Corner
Notched points occur in small and large varieties with straight to convex bases. The hafting element on these points varies from approximately side-notched to nearly basal-notched.
Serrations occur as described for the Stockton Notched Leaf variant (Justice 2002:359).
The Stockton Expanded Stem is a small arrow point characterized by very narrow haft elements ranging from narrow corner-notched to nearly parallel-stemmed. Although similar to the variants previously mentioned, serrations on the Stockton Expanded Stem tend to be shallower and less symmetrical (Justice 2002:360-361).
Morphological Observations
This section presents and discusses morphological-chiefly metrical-data on Stockton series points from numerous archaeological sites in Marin and Sonoma counties (see sources 75 cited in Tables 3.6 and 3.7). Table 3.6 indicates that the least variable aspects of serrated point morphology at SON-120 are DSA (CV = 0.05 and 0.06) and mL (CV = 0.11). Wt, again, is the most variable aspect of morphology (CV = 0.39). The overall CV score for serrated points at
SON-120 is 0.15. Among the sites reported by Origer (1987), Wt is the most variable dimension
(CV = 0.40), whereas mW is the least variable (CV = 0.16). The mean CV score for serrated points from these sites is 0.24.
Table 3.6. Summary Metrical Data on North Bay Serrated Points
SON-120 Origer (1987) Sites Totals
Data n Mean S.D. CV n Mean S.D. CV n Mean S.D. CV
mL 26 43.0 4.5 0.11 25 32.5 7.4 0.23 51 37.9 8.0 0.21
mW 37 13.5 1.7 0.13 25 13.7 2.2 0.16 62 13.6 1.9 0.14
Th 44 5.0 0.6 0.12 25 4.4 0.8 0.18 69 4.8 0.7 0.15
Wt 25 1.8 0.7 0.39 25 1.5 0.6 0.40 50 1.7 0.7 0.41
bW 23 10.7 1.7 0.16 23 10.7 1.7 0.16
nW 28 8.4 1.0 0.12 28 8.4 1.0 0.12
DSA-I 25 187.0 10.0 0.05 25 187.0 10.0 0.05
DSA-2 21 189.5 11.8 0.06 21 189.5 11.8 0.06
PSA-1 26 118.5 22.2 0.19 26 118.5 22.2 0.19
PSA-2 26 121.0 22.2 0.18 26 121.0 22.2 0.18
L/W 26 3.2 0.5 0.16 26 3.2 0.5 0.16
mW 20 21.1 2.8 0.13 20 21.1 2.8 0.13 position
Notes: n = sample of particular metrical unit; S.D. = standard deviation; mL = maximum length in mm; mW = maximum width in mm; Th = maximum thickness in mm; Wt = weight in g; bW = basal width in mm; nW = neck width in mm; DSA-1 and DSA-2 = distal shoulder angle; PSA-I and PSA-2 = proximal shoulder angle; L/W = length:width ratio; mW = axial position of maximum width in mm. Source: Jones and Hayes (1989:Table 42). 76
Among the denticulate-serrated points at the Narrows sites, mL and axial length (aL) are the least variable aspects of morphology (CV = 0.03), followed by DSA and PSA (CV = 0.08 and
0.09, respectively). The two most variable morphological attributes are bW (CV = 0.40) and Wt
(CV = 0.32). The mean CV score for the Narrows denticulate-serrated points is 0.17 (Table 3.7).
Table 3.7. Summary Metrical Data on Serrated Marin-Sonoma Narrows Arrow Points
Small (Denticulate) Serrated Corner-Notched Points (SCN-S)
Wt mL aL sL mW bW nW Th DSA PSA NOA
n 7 2 2 5 5 3 6 6 7 7 7
Mean 0.54 21.70 21.70 5.22 11.90 6.70 6.72 3.18 190.00 99.29 90.71
S.D. 0.19 0.85 0.85 0.97 1.63 3.27 1.23 0.84 17.03 9.38 23.29
CV 0.32 0.03 0.03 0.17 0.12 0.40 0.17 0.24 0.08 0.09 0.24
Large (Square or Lobed) Serrated Corner-Notched Points (SCN-L)
Wt mL aL sL mW bW nW Th DSA PSA NOA
n 5 I 1 4 4 4 4 5 4 3 3
Mean 1.48 50.30 50.30 6.45 14.83 9.38 8.68 4.74 180.25 94.33 94.67
S.D. 1.02 1.47 1.28 3.98 2.34 1.05 22.85 42.60 41.96
CV 0. 62 0.000 0.000 0.20 0.08 0.37 0.23 0.20 0.11 0.37 0.36
Notes: S.D. =,standard deviation; CV = coefficient of variation; Wt = weight (g); mL = maximum length (mm); aL = axial length (mm); sL = stem length (mm); mW = maximum width (mm); bW = basal width (mm); nW = neck width (mm); Th = maximum thickness (mm); DSA = distal shoulder angle; PSA proximal shoulder angle; NOA = notch opening angle. Source: Basgall et al. (2006:Appendix A.1). 77
Similar to the denticulate-serrated points, square-serrated point forms are most variable along Wt and bW dimensions (CV = 0.62 and 0.37, respectively). They exhibit the least variability in mW (CV = 0.08) and DSA (CV = 0.11). PSA and NOA are both rather variable, exhibiting CV values of 0.37 and 0.36, respectively. The mean CV score for square-serrated points is 0.23 (Table 3.7).
Discussion
Although the typological constructs themselves do not comprise a sufficient foundation on which to apply evolutionary theory to the research questions presented in Chapter 1, the preceding projectile point type descriptions are useful for identifying morphological attributes that are variable and perhaps prone to temporal and geographic patterning. Tables 3.8-3.11 compare the means of select metrical attributes from Warm Springs, SON-120, the North Bay sites reported in Origer (1987), and the Narrows, covering Rattlesnake and Stockton series points.
These tabulated comparisons were generated by applying Student's t-test to data derived from pairs of localities (e.g., Warm Springs and the Narrows). The t-tests were conducted using the t
Test Calculator (GraphPad Software 2005).
Among Rattlesnake points, five attributes are significantly different between the Warm
Springs specimens and the Santa Rosa Plain specimens: Wt, mL, nW, bW, and PSA (Table 3.8).
Rattlesnake points from Warm Springs and the Narrows exhibit little statistically significant difference, only nW being statistically significant (Table 3.9). Similarly, the Santa Rosa Plain and Narrows Rattlesnake points are significantly different in nW (Table 3. 10). 78
Table 3.8. Tests of Differences Between Means of Rattlesnake Series Point Attributes: Warm Springs and Santa Rosa Plain (SON-120 and Origer Sites)
Attribute WS n SRP n t d.f. p-value Alpha Signifi- cant?
Wt 0.88 186 1.40 51 8.05 235 0.00 0.05 Yes
mL 21.40 216 30.30 52 11.89 266 0.00 0.05 Yes
mW 14.50 304 14.60 57 0.31 359 0.76 0.05 No
mT 3.50 403 3.60 105 1.04 506 0.30 0.05 No
nW 7.20 381 8.00 43 3.14 422 0.00 0.05 Yes
bW 9.60 329 11.40 36 4.38 363 0.00 0.05 Yes
DSA 177.00 336 178.50 31 0.31 365 0.76 0.05 No
PSA 120.00 336 137.00 42 5.78 376 0.00 0.05 Yes
Notes: Wt = weight (g); mL maximum length (mm); aL = axial length (mm); sL stem length (mm); mW = maximum width (mm); bW = basal width (mm); nW = neck width (mm); Th = maximum thickness (mm); DSA = distal shoulder angle; PSA = proximal shoulder angle; WS = Warm Springs; SRP = Santa Rosa Plain; SRP values for DSA and PSA use DSA-I and PSA-1, respectively, from Table 3.4; d.f. = degrees of freedom
Table 3.9. Tests of Differences Between Means of Rattlesnake Series Point Attributes: Warm Springs and the Narrows
Attribute WS n Narrows n t d.f. p-value Alpha Signifi- Wt 0.88 186 0.98 5 0.58 189 0.56 0.05 No mL 21.40 216 23.4 1 NC NC NC NC NC mW 14.50 304 14.95 2 0.29 304 0.77 0.05 No mT 3.50 403 3.47 3 0.06 404 0.95 0.05 No nW 7.20 381 10.40 4 3.95 383 0.00 0.05 Yes bW 9.60 329 10.50 3 0.67 330 0.50 0.05 No DSA 177 336 179 5 0.17 339 0.87 0.05 No PSA 120 336 119 4 0.08 338 0.93 0.05 No NOA 57 335 44 4 0.72 337 0.48 0.05 No Notes: Wt= weight (g); mL = maximum length (mm); aL = axial length (mm); sL= stem length (mm); mW = maximum width (mm); bW = basal width (mm); nW = neck width (mm); Th = maximum thickness (mm); DSA = distal shoulder angle; PSA = proximal shoulder angle;WS = Warm Springs; NC = Not calculable; d.f. = degrees of freedom 79
Table 3.10. Tests of Differences Between Means of Rattlesnake Series Point Attributes: Narrows and Santa Rosa Plain (SON-120 and Origer Sites)
Attribute SRP n MSN n t d.f. p-value Alpha Signfi- cant?
Wt 1.40 51 0.98 5 1.82 54 0.07 0.05 No
mL 30.30 52 23.40 1 NC NC NC NC NC
mW 14.60 57 14.95 2 0.20 57 0.84 0.05 No
mT 3.60 105 3.47 3 0.28 106 0.78 0.05 No
nW 8.00 43 10.40 4 3.01 45 0.00 0.05 Yes
bW 11.40 36 10.50 3 0.55 37 0.59 0.05 No
DSA 178.50 31 179 5 0.10 34 0.92 0.05 No
PSA 137.00 42 119 4 1.91 44 0.06 0.05 No
Notes: Wt= weight (g); mL = maximum length (mm); aL = axial length (mm); sL = stem length (mm); mW = maximum width (mm); bW = basal width (mm); nW = neck width (mm); Th = maximum thickness (mm); DSA = distal shoulder angle; PSA = proximal shoulder angle;MSN = Marin-Sonoma Narrows; SRP = Santa Rosa Plain; NC = Not calculable; SRP values for DSA and PSA use DSA-I and PSA-1, respectively, from Table 3.4; d.f. = degrees of freedom
In terms of general size parameters (Wt, mL, mW, and mT), SON-120 and the site collections employed by Origer (1987) exhibit greater mean size compared to points from Warm
Springs and the Narrows (Wt and mL) (Table 3.9). By contrast, the mean values of mW and mT are more comparable among the collections shown in Table 3.8. Given that the majority of the points analyzed by Origer (1987) were from the Santa Rosa Plain, the disparity in Wt and mL between Warm Springs and the Narrows compared to SON-120 and Origer (1987) sites, appear to reflect geographic differences in point morphology. Whether this apparent pattern reflects trends in social interaction and the transmission of point-making knowledge will be addressed in later sections of this thesis. Looking at PSA, Warm Springs and the Narrows again are more similar, 80 yielding mean values of 1200 and 1190 (suggesting a prevalence of corner-notching), respectively, versus an average of 1360 at SON-120 (suggestive of more frequent side-notching). Mean bW figures are somewhat indeterminate, although SON-120 clearly has the largest bW (bW = 11.1) and Warm Springs the smallest (bW = 9.6). Although mean mL/mW and BWR data were not available for all three areas represented in Table 3.8, the differences observed in mL and mW suggests that rather different mL/mW ratios are expectable for different portions of the study area. Notching parameters also may differ along geographic lines, as suggested by the PSA values in Table 3.8.
Table 3.11 indicates that the mean values characterizing size (Wt, mL, mW, and mT) of the Santa Rosa Plain (SON-120 and Origer in Table 3.9) and the Narrows Stockton series points are grossly similar, although points from the Narrows are considerably lighter (1.7 g and 1.0 g mean Wt, respectively). Considering only the large Stockton variants from the Narrows, Wt is more comparable to the Santa Rosa Plain group (but still lighter), whereas the Narrows large variants are significantly longer and are wider than those of the Santa Rosa Plain group. The large Stockton points from the Narrows are significantly longer relative to mW compared to the
Santa Rosa Plain points. Origer (1987) does not contain published data for nW, bW, DSA, PSA, or NOA, relegating comparison of these attributes to the SON-120 and Narrows points. Mean values for bW indicate wider (10.7 mm) necks at SON-120 than in the Narrows (8.0 mm). The mean DSA is comparable between SON-120 and the Narrows points (188.30 and 185.20), whereas
PSA is markedly different: the mean PSA at SON-120 is 119.80 and the Narrows averages 96.80.
Both means are well within the PSA range of corner-notched points, though the Narrows points overall appear to be characterized by lower, more acutely angled corner notches. Interpretation of these data must be made with caution, owing to the small sample sizes. Nevertheless, the data suggest geographic differences in hafting morphology and overall length-width proportions. 81
Table 3.11. Tests of Differences between Means of Stockton Series Point Attributes: Narrows and Santa Rosa Plain (SON-120 and Origer Sites)
Attribute SRP n MSN n t d.f. p-value Alpha canti?
Wt 1.70 50 0.93 12 3.37 60 0.00 0.05 Yes
mL 37.90 51 31.23 3 1.36 52 0.18 0.05 No
mW 13.60 62 13.20 9 0.59 69 0.56 0.05 No
mT 4.80 69 3.89 11 3.63 78 0.00 0.05 Yes
nW 8.40 28 7.50 10 1.95 36 0.06 0.05 No
bW 10.70 23 8.23 7 2.62 28 0.01 0.05 Yes
DSA 188.30 23 186.46 11 0.37 32 0.71 0.05 No
PSA 119.80 26 97.80 10 2.72 34 0.01 0.05 Yes
Notes: Wt = weight (g); mL = maximum length (mm); aL= axial length (mm); sL = stem length (mm); mW = maximum width (mm); bW = basal width (mm); nW = neck width (mm); Th = maximum thickness (mm); DSA = distal shoulder angle; PSA = proximal shoulder angle;MSN = Marin-Sonoma Narrows; SRP = Santa Rosa Plain; NC = Not calculable; d.f = degrees of freedom
To summarize, the metrical data on Rattlesnake and Stockton series points are suggestive of geographic differences in hafting configuration and notching parameters (measured by bW,
PSA, nW, DSA, NOA), as well as body proportions (measured by mL:mW). The gradation between some Gunther and Rattlesnake variants near Warm Springs and further north in the
North Coast Ranges (Jaffke 1997; Jobson 1991) suggests that distinct barbs will be evident on some points in the Warm Springs vicinity, but unlikely to manifest in the Santa Rosa Plain and
Point Reyes assemblages. The projectile point classification presented below therefore focuses on those attributes related to notching parameters, basal morphology, serration, barbs, and body proportions. 82
Intensional Classification of Projectile Points
The use of occurrence seriation to measure historical and heritable continuity requires that artifact classes be capable of monitoring both sorts of variation. Extant projectile point classifications in the southern North Coast Ranges were not constructed specifically to explain why Rattlesnake series projectile points are different from Stockton series points. This section of the thesis will describe the attributes (e.g., notching parameters) and attribute states (e.g., side- notched) of projectile points that archaeologists typically classify as belonging to the Rattlesnake,
Gunther, and Stockton series. The attributes and their states selected are those that appear to be reasonable candidates for replication via cultural transmission unrelated to functional (hunting) efficacy and thus most suited to monitor heritable continuity. The classification is paradigmatic, consisting of the presence or absence of a series of attributes hypothesized not to be fitness- related. Based on the description of projectile point morphology earlier in this chapter, five morphological attributes of late prehistoric projectile points exhibit considerable variability over time and space in the southern North Coast Ranges. These are summarized, together with their attribute states, in Table 3.12. Detailed descriptions of the attributes and attribute states follow.
Table 3.12. Attributes and Attribute States in the Paradigmatic Classification of Projectile Points
Attribute 1.Notching Parameters IV. Body proportions 1. mL shorter than mW (wide) 2. Side-notched 2. mL = 1-2 x mW (equilateral) 3. Corner-notched 4. Stemmed-notcd 3. mL > 2 x mW (narrow) 4. Stemmed II. Shape of stem 1. Not applicable (non-stemmed) V. Presence of barbs 2. Contracting 1. Unbarbed 3. Parallel 2. Barbed 4. Expanding 83
Table 3.12. Attributes and Attribute States in the Paradigmatic Classification of Projectile Points
Attribute III. Number of serrations 1. None 2. 1-4 per blade (lightly serrated) 3. > 4 per blade (heavily serrated)
I. Notching Parameters
Notching parameters is a straightforward, descriptive attribute that may exhibit one of four states: 1) unnotched; 2) side-notched; 3) corner-notched; and 4) stemmed. Side-notched points are defined as points with PSA > 1310, whereas corner-notched points are defined as having a PSA < 131°' (Jobson 1991:323, 325). Stemmed points are those that are neither corner- nor side-notched, but that possess a hafting element narrower than the maximum blade width of the artifact.
II. Shape of Stem
Shape of stem may exhibit one of four states: 1) not applicable (non-stemmed); 2) contracting; 3) parallel; or 4) expanding. Contracting stems are distinguished by PSA < 90°.
Parallel stems are distinguished by PSA of 900. Expanding stems have a PSA > 900.
III. Number of Serrations
Number of serrations may take one of three states: 1) none; 2) 1-4 per blade (lightly serrated); or 3) more than 4 per blade (heavily serrated). These states were defined based on
Fredrickson and Origer's (1995:5) study of late prehistoric, serrated arrow points in Sonoma 84
County. Serrations were counted from the midpoint of one serration to the midpoint of the next serration or representative edge portions (Jaffke 1997:54). The midpoint is the apex of the protrusion or the center in the case of rounded and squared serrations.
IV. Body Proportions
Body proportions may take one of three states: 1) mL shorter than mW; 2) mL = 1-2 x mW; or 3) mL greater than 2 x mW. These thresholds were selected based on the mL:mW data in
Tables 3.3-3.7 as well as examination of published photographs and drawings of late prehistoric points in the study vicinity (Basgall and Bouey 1991; Basgall et al. 2006; Jones and Hayes 1989;
Origer 1987). These sources of information suggest that the apparent geographic patterning in body proportions may break meaningfully along the thresholds identified above.
V. Presence of Barbs
Presence of barbs may take one of two states: 1) unbarbed or 2) barbed. In this study, a projectile point was classified as barbed if at least one DSA on the artifact measured 180° or less.
Artifacts with DSA in excess of 1800 were classified as unbarbed.
Artifact classification is approached in the following manner. A given artifact is examined and, as appropriate, measured to characterize the attribute states exhibited by the specimen. Each attribute (I-V) is assigned a score based on the observations made on the artifact.
The score describing each attribute state is recorded sequentially to form a number string; this number string then becomes the class identifier for that artifact. In this way, the attributes of interest for a specific problem can be recorded and analyzed with other data without recourse to classificatory systems created for other problems and avoids the typological confusion inherent in 85 the use of most named artifact types (i.e., exactly how large is the hafting element of a
Rattlesnake point?). An example of classification is provided using hypothetical data below.
The specimen is a notched projectile point with the following characteristics: PSA =
1350, no serrations, mL = 40 mm, mW = 45 mm, and DSA = 1500. Consulting Table 3.10 and the associated definition of attribute states, the subject point would be coded as follows:
* Attribute I: 2 (side-notched)
* Attribute II: 4 (expanding stem)
* Attribute III: 1 (non-serrated)
* Attribute IV: 1 (wide)
* Attribute V: 2 (barbed)
The resultant identifier for this point would therefore be 24112. It could be described as belonging to a class of point that is side-notched, expanding-stemmed, non-serrated, wide, and barbed.
The archaeological sites included in this study contained 323 projectile points, which belong to 12 artifact classes (see Table 3.13).
Table 3.13. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies
ClassClass FrequencyClass per Relative Frequency(%) per Class Class Description
1112 10 3 Unnotched, non-stemmed, non-serrated, I narrow bodied, unbarbed
2411 38 12 Side-notched, expanding stem, non- 1 serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed
2411 21 6 Side-notched, expanding stem, non- 2 serrated, wide bodied, barbed 86
Table 3.13. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies
Class Frequency per Relative Frequency per Class Class Description Class ~Class (%
2412 9 2 Side-notched, expanding stem, non- I serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed
3211 1 Corner-notched, contracting stem, non- 2 serrated, wide bodied, barbed
3411 44 14 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non- 1 serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed
3411 73 23 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non- 2 serrated, wide bodied, barbed
3412 13 4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non- 1 serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed
3412 44 14 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non- 2 serrated, narrow bodied, barbed
3421 22 7 Corner-notched, expanding stem, 2 serrated, wide bodied, barbed
3422 27 8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, 2 serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed
3422 18 Corner-notched, expanding stem, 2 18 6 serrated, narrow bodied, barbed
Total 323 100.0 s 87
CHAPTER 4 METHODS AND DATA SETS
Projectile point assemblages of the appropriate age and similar durations, statistically significant populations of projectile points, and sites that are well-dated (preferably by obsidian hydration) are necessary to elucidate the meaning and causes of variability among projectile points in the study area ca. 1500-100 B.P. Controls for and accounting for these factors mean little, however, if methods appropriate to the problem and objects of study are not employed in the data analysis.
In Chapter 2, I identify Darwinian evolutionary theory as the theoretical framework for the present problem. Darwinian evolutionism applied to archaeological investigations distinguishes variation that is non-neutral from neutral variation, with the former defined as affecting the Darwinian fitness of individuals or larger entities and the latter as resulting from stochastic processes such as drift (Neiman 1995:8). In the parlance of evolutionary sciences, evolutionary archaeology must be able to distinguish variability that is analogous from that which is homologous. Four issues are involved in sorting out analogs from homologs in the archaeological record:
1. Identification of appropriate analytical units. Variation must be measured in
discrete units, necessitating that ideational units, or theoretically informed and
designed classes, be used to monitor archaeological variability.
2. Persistence is indicated by temporal stability in the groups created by
archaeological classes; change is marked by alteration in the frequencies of class
members and/or turnover in the classes represented.
3. Because classes are used, heritable continuity at the type level is hypothetically
possible to identify. 88
4. By using and meeting the requirements of the seriation method, heritable
continuity at the tradition/lineage level is hypothetically possible. (O'Brien and
Lyman 2000:272.)
Seriation involves placing objects or sets of objects in an order based on their formal similarities. It is, in Rowe's (1961:326) words,
the arrangement of archaeological materials in a presumed chronological order on the basis of some logical principle other than superposition. The units seriated may be individual specimens of a particular kind (pottery vessels, stone axes) or units of archaeological association, such as grave lots or single deposition units of refuse, such as might be found in a "one period" site. The logical order on which the seriation is based is found in the combinations of features of style or inventory which characterize the units, rather than in the external relationship of the units themselves.
The more attributes two entities share, the closer to one another they are arrayed in the seriation.
Archaeologists have employed three kinds of seriation based on similarity since the nineteenth century: phyletic seriation, frequency seriation, and occurrence seriation (Lyman et al. 1998:241,
Figure 1; O'Brien and Lyman 1999:64, Figure 3.1; Rowe 1961:326). For the present study, occurrence seriation was selected. This methodological choice is defended below, following a description of each kind of seriation.
Phyletic seriation is defined, simply, as a "[c]hronological ordering of objects based on similarity in appearance. For example, ceramic vessels could be ordered by suspected change in form or decoration" (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:403). The derived sequence is theoretically supposed to comprise a lineage (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:276). Phyletic seriation is essentially an inductive exercise in pattern recognition: the phenomena to be seriated are examined for traits that appear to change over time and the phenomena are then ordered based on similarity with respect to those traits that exhibit change. The investigator does not identify prior to conducting a phyletic seriation what constitutes a type or class (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:281). That is, the classes are extensionally defined, as discussed in Chapter 3 of this thesis. Subsequent to 89 establishing a given sequence, the frequency of types within the seriation is examined. Based on the frequency or proportion of types present in a given, subsequently identified assemblage, the assemblage can be placed in the original sequence (phyletic seriation). The addition of new assemblages does not alter the original sequence, unlike the procedures for conducting frequency or occurrence seriations (Lyman et al. 1998:241; O'Brien and Lyman 1999:85).
Occurrence and frequency seriation move from the scale of attributes of artifacts to the attributes of aggregates of artifacts (that is, assemblages or collections). Similarity is measured first by noting the presence or absence of types of artifacts or the frequencies of types of artifacts in each assemblage, then either visually or statistically determining how similar various assemblages are to one another in terms of the types they share or the frequencies of types. In occurrence seriation, the more types shared by two assemblages, the closer to one another the two are placed in an ordering and the closer in time they are thought to be. In frequency seriation, the more similar the relative frequencies of shared types between two assemblages, the closer the two are placed in a seriation and the closer in time they are thought to be. Unlike phyletic seriation, with occurrence and frequency seriation, the defining features of types or classes are determined in advance of conducting the seriation. The defining features are chosen to address a particular problem, such as the measurement of time or craft specialization (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:282-
283; Rowe 1961:327-329).
The seriation method assumes that proximity in form indicates temporal proximity
(termed "historical continuity"). The assumption of historical continuity rests on the supposition that formal similarity is the result of heritable continuity-so long as the seriation requirements described in the next paragraph are met. Heritable continuity assumes that objects produced at a given moment in time will most closely resemble objects produced at slightly later and earlier moments because of a genetic-like connection between them. Establishing heritable continuity is 90 critical to the construction of lineages based on historical continuity. Once a seriation has been made, it must be tested to see if it is temporally ordered by using independent chronological data.
If the seriation is chronological (denoting historical continuity), the next step is to determine if the seriation is also a lineage-a line of heritable continuity-because historical continuity does not guarantee heritable continuity (homology) (Lyman and O'Brien 2000:44-45; O'Brien and Lyman
2000:272-274). Criteria for establishing heritable continuity are presented below and are referred to by evolutionary archaeologists as the seriation model and seriation criteria (Lyman and
O'Brien 2000:45; O'Brien and Lyman 2000:284, 286; Sterling 2001:163-164).
A seriation must meet two procedural requirements to identify heritable continuity. First, the assemblages of artifacts to be seriated must be of similar temporal duration so that the assignment of a particular assemblage is the result of their age and not their respective durations.
Second, all assemblages to be seriated must come from the same local area; the control of the spatial dimension of variation ensures that the temporal dimensions of historical and heritable continuity are measured in the seriation. If the latter two requirements are met, the likelihood that a successful seriation will result is greater, and the greater the chance that the seriation actually represents the manifestation of a distinct tradition of artifact manufacture. In the parlance of some selectionist archaeologists, the assemblages ordered would belong to the same cultural tradition (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:45-47). If the requirements of seriation are satisfied, the distribution of each class over time will be continuous, as shown in the hypothetical examples in
Tables 4.1 and 4.2. 91
Table 4.1. An Example of an Occurrence Seriation
Historical Class
Assemblage 1 2 3 4 5
Unordered
A + + + +
B + + +
C + + +
D + +
E + + +
F + +
Ordered
E ± ± +
C + + +
A ++ ± ±
B + + +
D/F + +
Source: O'Brien and Lyman 2000:Table 6.1
Table 4.1 represents a hypothetical occurrence seriation. The first set of assemblages
(labeled A through F) is not ordered with respect to the presence or absence of historical classes, labeled 1 through 5. The bottom half of Table 4.1 shows the assemblages ordered according to the presence or absence of historical classes. In this hypothetical example the assemblages are arrayed such that the distribution of each class is continuous. This result would indicate a successful seriation if independent chronological data demonstrate that the ordering is also temporal; that is, that the placement of assemblages would have to be chronological order. In this seriation, absent independent chronological data, assemblages D and F cannot be distinguished 92 from one another with respect to chronological position. Without chronological data, the assemblages are viewed as contemporaneous.
Table 4.2 exhibits a hypothetical frequency seriation using the same assemblages as
Figure 4.1. In Table 4.2, the frequency of occurrence of historical classes within assemblages replaces the presence/absence data of Table 4.1. Each row, representing a single assemblage, contains the frequency of each class in the assemblage expressed as a percentage; the sum of frequencies in each row equals 100.
Table 4.2. An Example of a Frequency Seriation
Historical Class Assemblage 1 2 3 4 5 Unordered A 10 30 10 50 B 50 30 20 C 20 15 65 D 40 60 E 30 25 45 F 20 80 Ordered E 30 25 45 C 20 15 65 A 10 30 10 50 B 50 30 20 D 40 60 F 20 80 Source: O'Brien and Lyman 2000:Table 6.2
The bottom portion of Table 4.2 shows the assemblages ordered such that assemblages possessing the most similar proportion or frequency of shared classes are adjacent to one another, with the goal of achieving a continuous distribution of class frequencies. In the example above, 93 frequency data allow for the differentiation of assemblages D and F, indicating that frequency seriation has greater information potential in certain circumstances compared to occurrence seriation. If the frequencies of classes 3 and 4 in assemblages D and F were identical, the sequence of the two assemblages could not be determined without independent chronological data. Conversion of the percentages in Table 4.2 to scaled bar graphs would show that each class exhibits a battleship-shaped curve (Figure 4.1), the distributional pattern that archaeologists have found repeatedly to characterize historical classes or types (Dethlefsen and Deetz 1966; Lipo et al. 1997:Figure 12; Lyman et al. 1997; Thomas and Bierwirth 1983).
DMaihs Head Heeart-Mooth MNd }L.1 Chleru~b unil & Willow
1840.49 - 1Pa 1830-39- [ii F > .W. 1820--29 - 3810-19 _ I80--09 1790-99 - I Jab - [ah 1i10-79 - UEw= 1760-69 _ [E m'' 1750-59 - U CsXYS.EgK row _ t74049 TV E . 0 1730-39 P- (n 1720-29 - E . MM MEra 1710-19 - V:,7-i.777f07='.f 1700-0 - v 4z- En
1640-9~9 0- 1'i,777707e.'W.t an, 16_0-89
0 100%
Figure 4.1. Dethlefsen and Deetz's (1966:Figure 3c) Graph Depicting Changing Percentages of Five Classes of Headstones in Use in Plymouth, Massachusetts Between 1680 and 1849 (adapted from Lyman and O'Brien 2000:Figure 1)
The theoretical and mathematical underpinnings of the relationship between battleship curves or unimodal distributions and temporally diagnostic aspects of material culture have been 94 explored. No consensus about the relationship has been reached at present, although selectionist archaeologists maintain that unimodal distributions are expressive of material culture traditions and result from stochastic changes in class frequency akin to the process of drift, as defined by evolutionary biologists (Bentley and Shennan 2003; Lipo et al. 1997; Lyman and O'Brien 2000;
Neiman 1995; O'Brien and Lyman 2000; Sterling 2001; Wilhelmsen 2001). Non-selectionist archaeologists decline to attribute unimodal distributions to exclusively neutral aspects of material culture variability (selectionists, however, do point out that non-neutral variability may be transmitted in such a way that its distribution is unimodal), but generally attribute the distributions to the waxing and waning of the popularity of classes of artifacts in geographically delimited (though not necessarily small) and culturally related contexts (Dethlefsen and Deetz
1966).
Although the meaning of unimodal curves is a subject worthy of greater attention and empirically grounded debate, this thesis will not attempt to resolve the matter, as occurrence seriation is employed rather than frequency seriation. Occurrence seriation is used in the present study because it is less sensitive to sampling problems (Rowe 1961:328). Given that a number of assemblages used in this thesis are small (fewer than 30 projectile points), it is desirable to employ a method less sensitive to sampling biases.
The Study Area Defined and Selection of Assemblages
In this author's review of southern North Coast Ranges archaeological literature, Point
Reyes, the Santa Rosa Plain, and Warm Springs meet the study area criteria outlined in the two paragraphs above. Point Reyes and the Santa Rosa Plain were home to two ethnolinguistic groups (Southern Pomo and Coast Miwok) with markedly different histories; the inclusion of projectile points from sites in Coast Miwok territory provide a convenient foil for building, 95 testing, and explaining artifactual traditions in the study area. Warm Springs projectile point assemblages add interest to assessing projectile point traditions in that assemblages exhibit spatial and temporal variation in obsidian source profiles. Additionally, the Warm Springs. locality was used by speakers of Southern Pomo and Kashaya (McCarthy 1991:34; Praetzellis et al. 2000:28), increasing the potential to examine patterns of interaction via projectile point morphology.
Archaeological collections were examined at the Archaeological Collections Facility of the
Anthropological Study Center (Sonoma State University), the State Archaeological Collections
Research Facility (State of California Department of Parks and Recreation), the Adan E.
Treganza Museum of Anthropology (San Francisco State University), the University of
California, Davis Museum of Anthropology, and the National Park Service collections facility at
Point Reyes National Seashore. The selected assemblages are described in Chapter 5, Analysis and Results. All projectile points examined were photographed with a digital camera and metric scale bar at the repository where they were stored, unless published photographs and metrical data were available. Large-size photo prints of the point assemblages and published photographs and metrical data were measured or otherwise characterized using the classificatory criteria described in Chapter 3 of this document.
Major considerations in the selection of projectile point assemblages were assemblage size, chronology, assemblage duration, and artifact condition. Although artifact seriation was initially conducted at a regional scale, assemblage size remained an important consideration in selecting projectile point assemblages for analysis. Although perhaps not as critical as in frequency seriation, when seriating artifacts or assemblages based on the presence or absence of multiple classes, one must control for the effects of assemblage, or sample, size on the diversity of classes, or richness (Jones et al. 1983:55; Lipo et al. 1997:312). Similarly, the duration of seriated assemblages must be approximately equal, or-as in assemblages of considerably 96 different sizes-the number of classes present may be influenced more by sample size than by factors of ultimate interest to the archaeologist (Lipo et al. 2005:540). The quality of chronological data associated with a particular assemblage is important for estimating the durations of seriated assemblages, as well as for providing independent confirmation or falsification of seriations. Lastly, artifact condition affects the number and types of observations available for the purposes of classification. Each of these considerations is discussed below.
Assemblage Size
Concerning assemblage size, site collections that include 30 or more late prehistoric projectile points were sought, although smaller assemblages were admitted to the analysis when in close proximity to other, incorporated assemblages. Small collections are included in the analysis with full recognition that test statistics would be needed to control for sample size effects. Sample size effects on the number of projectile point classes represented in the study assemblages were assessed by calculating Pearson's correlation coefficient for each seriation group. Pearson's correlation coefficient determines how much of the variability in a dependent variable (in this case, the number of projectile point classes) is related to the independent variable
(in this case, assemblage or sample size). The correlation coefficient also indicates the nature of the relationship, whether positive or negative. The coefficient of determination (r2) provides a ready percentage measure of how much variability in the dependent variable is correlated to the independent variable (Shennan 1988:129-131). All calculations of Pearson's correlation coefficient in this thesis were performed using the XLSTAT add-in program for Microsoft Excel
(Addinsoft 2008). 97
Chronology
Chronological control, essential to archaeological study, is a difficult enterprise in an investigation such as this; the study area is of moderate size and numerous researchers with diverse research biases studied the archaeological sites, affecting data collection and presentation.
Chronological methods vary significantly across the study area. The first 50 years of archaeological research in the study area passed without the benefit of radiocarbon dating; investigators relied instead on relative dating measures such as seriation, stratigraphy, and index artifacts (Beardsley 1948, 1954a, 1954b). Obsidian hydration dating was added to the archaeologist's toolbox rather late, about 1960 (Basgall and Bouey 1991:51; Evans and Meggars
1960). Archaeological collections obtained from sites in Point Reyes are especially depauperate in chronological data, as dominant research interests through the 1960s (the search for evidence of the Sir Francis Drake and Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeho landings, as well as salvage archaeology) had little use for radiocarbon and obsidian hydration dating (Heizer 1941; Moratto
1970; Polansky 1998:33; Russell 2007:3-4; Stewart 2003:73; Von der Porten 2000). As a result, only a handful of radiocarbon assays and relatively few obsidian hydration readings have been obtained from Point Reyes sites.
To provide chronological control in the present study, this study relies on obsidian hydration age estimates obtained by previous researchers. Other chronological data, such as '4C assays and the distribution of shell beads in an assemblage, were considered as well, although the relationship between these data and the deposition of projectile points into the archaeological deposits is frequently unclear. The behavior related to production of a '4C-dated hearth, for instance, may have no connection to the production and deposition of projectile points at a given site. Direct association with dated features allows associated artifacts to be dated more-or-less directly; the majority of projectile points analyzed in this study, however, were not recovered 98 from feature contexts. The use of obsidian projectile points previously subjected to hydration analysis, on the other hand, permits direct placement of the artifacts in time. For this reason, obsidian hydration data are actually preferred to radiocarbon in this study, though radiocarbon and aspartic acid racemization provide useful checks on hydration data6.
Non-obsidian projectile points are somewhat problematic in this study in terms of temporal placement because there are no commonly used, accepted methods for directly estimating the age of cryptocrystalline silicate materials such as chert (Bamforth 1997; Harry
1995), which is second only to obsidian as the most common projectile point toolstone material in the study area. Hence, direct age estimates on non-obsidian projectile points from the study area are unavailable. Most non-obsidian projectile points also did not originate in feature contexts, although most non-obsidian arrow points occur in assemblages with obsidian projectile points and other chronological indicators. Non-obsidian projectile points are assigned to assemblages based on stratigraphy and other chronological data, but no attempt is made to assign a more specific age estimate except for instances of clear feature associations.
Assemblage Duration
As stated above, chronological data are necessary to estimate the duration of the assemblages and to make seriations falsifiable. Assemblage duration is an important consideration in seriation studies because, like assemblage or sample size, the duration of an assemblage may affect the diversity of artifact types identified (Lipo et al. 2005:532; O'Brien and
Lyman 1999:117). Absolute and relative chronological data from selected archaeological sites
6A note concerning the use of obsidian hydration age estimates to verify the results of the seriations performed is in order here. The median value of obsidian hydration readings for each site is employed rather than the mean because median values are resistant to the effects of statistical outliers, whereas the mean is considerably influence by outliers (Drennan 1996:20; Fletcher and Lock 2005:38). 99
(as well as some sites that were eventually removed from the analysis) are employed to estimate the age of each site, with special attention to implications for the age range of projectile point use.
Once the age ranges of each site and each site's projectile point use are estimated, chronological data and stratigraphy are used to determine whether and to what extent each site is divisible into temporally distinct assemblages. Nevertheless, a number of archaeological sites in this study exhibit excessively long durations compared to others, introducing a potential source of bias in assessing projectile point diversity and sample size effects.
The sampling problems are twofold here: sample size effects and artifact type diversity.
A modified Chi-square analysis, the Cochran-Armitage trend test, is used to estimate the extent to which projectile point type frequencies reflect trends uninfluenced by sample size. The Cochran-
Armitage trend test is a suitable statistic in this context because it is designed to assess whether a significant trend in relative abundance declines concomitantly with decreasing sample sizes
(Cannon 2001:193). All Cochran-Armitage trend tests in this study were performed using
XLSTAT (Addinsoft 2008). Site-specific discussions of the determination of assemblage duration for this study are presented in Appendix A. The reader is directed to the discussions of
MRN-202 (Point Reyes) and SON-547 (Warm Springs), as they represent opposite ends of the spectrum with respect to assemblage duration: MRN-202 is relatively short, whereas SON-547 exhibits a long duration.
Artifact Condition
Assemblages selected for inclusion in a serdation analysis must contain artifacts in a sufficient state of preservation to type according to the classificatory system used in the study.
The paradigmatic classification system employed in this thesis generally increases the number of projectile points that can be analyzed compared with projectile point keys based on Thomas' 100
Monitor Valley typological structure (Thomas 1970, 1981). Unlike the Thomas key, which was not designed specifically for the sorts of problems examined in this thesis, paradigmatic classification relies on attributes that have mutually exclusive states, not continual, ordinal-scale measurements on metrical attributes. This limits the number of possible attribute states to manage and permits the use of more fragmentary artifacts, since exact measures of length or width, for example, are not necessarily required for classification.
A second aspect of artifact condition that merits consideration is the history of modification and use of the subject implement. Several researchers have studied the effects of projectile point use, maintenance, and recycling on the chronological validity of the Thomas
(1970, 1981) typology, some contending that point maintenance and recycling can result in the conversion of one projectile point type into another (Flenniken and Wilke 1989; Zeanah and
Elston 2001). Without denying the possibility that the reworking of damaged projectile points could result in typological shifts, the structure of the present problem and paradigmatic classification side-step this problem for two reasons. First, projectile points are not used as time markers in this thesis, relying instead on external chronological data to place individual artifacts and assemblages into chronological context. Second, the paradigmatic classification itself is ahistorical and eschews reliance on existing, extensionally defined types. Furthermore, the
Flenniken-Wilke argument is applicable primarily to dart points-arrow point breakage is typically fatal and liable to reduce a given point to a size impractical for reworking into a new form (Chesier and Kelly 2006:354).
Obsidian Hydration Analyses
As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, obsidian hydration age estimates on artifacts are the preferred chronometric tool employed in this study. First, obsidian hydration provides a 101 direct age estimate for analyzed artifacts, avoiding the interpretive problems of age estimates from sometime uncertain associations with other chronometric data. Second, obsidian arrow points are abundant in the late prehistoric record of the study area and obsidian hydration and sourcing studies in the southern North Coast Ranges are a common element of most archaeological research programs, ensuring that numerous direct age estimates are available.
The basic premise of obsidian hydration dating is simple. Obsidian hydration commences when a freshly exposed surface of obsidian-such as that made when a piece of obsidian is flaked or otherwise fractured-is exposed to water in liquid or vapor form, allowing water molecules to diffuse into the glass. This diffusion is held to occur at a predictable, constant rate and causes a change in the refractive index in the hydrated volume of obsidian (termed the hydration rim)7. If the rate of hydration is known or can be inferred, the time since the surface was exposed can be estimated, thus providing a direct age estimate for the subject material (Evans and Meggars 1960; Friedman and Smith 1960; Michels and Bebrich 1971; Rogers 2006:1696;
Ross and Smith 1955). The use of obsidian hydration to provide age estimates on artifacts is not without some controversy, however, despite some 48 years of geochemical and archaeological research using and refining the technique (Evans and Meggars 1960; Meighan 1988:3; Michels
1969; Rosenthal 2007:1). Key areas of controversy include the physics and chemistry of obsidian hydration, the accuracy of obsidian-hydration measurement methods, the identification and control of various factors affecting obsidian hydration, and the relative benefits of relative versus absolute age estimates. Because the use of obsidian hydration age estimates is central to this thesis, these matters are discussed briefly below with a focus on obsidian hydration rates.
7 In addition to, the change in refractive index, a chemical reaction in the structure of the hydration rim takes place. The molecular water that diffuses into the obsidian eventually disassociates. Some of the hydroxyl ions bind to silicon sites in the obsidian matrix, forming silanol (SiOH) and can no longer diffuse. (Rogers 2006:1704.) The effects of this chemical change on obsidian hydration are not presently understood. 102
Various factors affect the rate of obsidian hydration: the geochemistry of the obsidian
(assessed via geochemical group- or source-specific studies), intrinsic water content, temperature, relative humidity, and the chemistry of diffusing water (Hull 2001:1025; Jones et al. 1997;
Rogers 2006:1696-1697, 2008a, 2008b; Stevenson et al. 1998). Most archaeologists have regarded ambient air or soil temperature and obsidian chemistry as the primary variables determining the hydration rates, rendering the estimation and control of temperature and intrinsic chemistry critical to any use of obsidian hydration analysis as a chronometric tool (Jones et al.
1997:505; Stevenson et al. 1998:183). These two variables are considered in detail below (see
EstimatingEffective Hydration Temperature).
Napa Valley Hydration Rates
California prehistorians have proposed no fewer than five hydration rates, one set of geographically specific archaeological phase-micron ranges, and comparison constants for relative dating of Napa Valley obsidian (Basgall 1993:Table 6; Ericson 1981, cited in Basgall
1993:176; Michels 1986, cited in Hull 2001:1027; Origer 1982a, 1987; Rosenthal 2007; Tremaine
1993:Table 2). The earliest treatment of Napa Valley hydration rate was by Ericson (1981, cited in Basgall 1993:176), who calculated constants for seven different hydration models. Only 23 hydration readings were used in the rate calculation and it is generally considered unreliable
(Basgall and Bouey 1991:55, Tables 9, 11). Michel's (1982, 1986) Napa Valley hydration rate produced age estimates that were sometimes older, sometimes more recent than expected based on archaeological contexts, rendering the rate generally unreliable (Basgall and Bouey 1991:55).
Of the hydration rates proposed for Napa Valley obsidian by investigators working in the southern North Coast Ranges, Origer's (1982a, 1987) is in most widespread use. Origer
(1987:Tables 13, 19) developed the Napa obsidian rate based on six 4C-micron pairs (36 103 hydration readings) from six archaeological sites in the Santa Rosa area. Origer (1987:55) employed Friedman and Smith's (1960) diffusion formula
(2) T = kx2 , where:
x = hydration band thickness in microns (pm)
k = constant
T = time in years before present
Origer (1987:56) found that Napa Valley obsidian hydrated at the following rate:
(3) T = 153.4x2
This hydration rate is presented graphically in Figure 4.2. The rate slightly overestimates age estimates on artifacts up to about 2,000 years old, but tends to underestimate the age of artifacts that are known to be older than 2,000 years (Basgall and Bouey 1991).
In a recent draft paper, Rosenthal (2007:5, Table 15) develops and tests two obsidian hydration rates for Napa Valley obsidian, using radiocarbon-micron pairs from 33 distinct archaeological contexts. The archaeological contexts selected for study consisted of materials directly associated with interments at 15 prehistoric sites in the San Francisco Bay-Sacramento-
San Joaquin River Delta region of central California. A total of 36 radiometric dates ranging from 3775 to 291 cal B.P. was used in the study, with 88 percent of samples dating to the last
2,000.years. Obsidian hydration readings (n = 95) varied from 0.7 plm to 5.6 pm. In addition to these materials, obsidian hydration was conducted on Ishi-produced debitage dating to ca. 39 cal
B.P. (Rosenthal 2007:3-5, Table 15). 104
0~~~~~~~~~
1 2n
I0
P4610;o*0On 0a*.c in Years Uoto:0 Nvom. (fsoM 1.98D)
Figure 4.2. Regression Lines, Napa Valley and Annadel Obsidian (after Origer 1987:Figurel)
Rosenthal (2007:8) evaluated best-fit, power function- and diffusion-based formulae to develop a Napa Valley obsidian hydration rate. Rate model A used the same theoretical diffusion model as Origer (1982a, 1987), whereas Rate model B was based on best-fit power function regression generated in Microsoft Excel 2000: 105
(4) Y =axb where,
Y = time in years before present
a = constant
x = hydration band thickness in pm
b= 1.76
Compared to Origer's (1982a, 1987) Napa Valley rate, rate model A produced whole- micron conversions that depart only slightly from Origer's (1982a, 1987) values, despite the use of more than 25 additional radiocarbon-micron pairs. Rate model A generated uniformly younger dates, but only varies from Origer (1982a, 1987) by a maximum of 380 years at 9.0 jam.
Rate model B provides age estimates only slightly younger than both other rates. Rate model B, however, begins to diverge significantly from the other two rates at about 5.0 gm and differs by more than 3,000 years at 9.0 plm. (Rosenthal 2007:9, Table 19; see Figure 4.3)
7 y = 148.7x y = I618t05x' S 45000 R2 = 08415 R = 0.8692
35000'
3000
l 2000
1500
i 1000*
5So
0 0 I 5 10 5 10 IS 20 25
Figure 4.3. Rosenthal's (2007) Napa Valley Hydration Rates A (Right) and B (Left) 106
To further the rate comparisons using the 95 obsidian hydration readings and 36 radiocarbon dates selected by Rosenthal (2007), Origer's (1982a, 1987) rate produces micron-age conversions that vary no more than 750 years from the 14C ages, whereas micron-age conversions under rate model A vary from the radiocarbon ages by no more than 850 years. Excluding the two archaeological contexts dating before 3000 cal B.P., rate model A diverges no more than 610 years from radiocarbon ages, whereas Origer's (1982a, 1987) hydration rate diverges no more than 690 years from corresponding radiocarbon ages (see Table 4.3; Rosenthal 2007:9, Table 19).
Table 4.3. Comparison of Hydration-Radiocarbon Pairs and Hydration Rate Models (after Rosenthal 2007:Table 19)
H ORIGER 1982 URATEA HATE B SIrE FtArURE HYi)eAN CAIBi' Y- 154.3X)- VARIANCE Y=148.7x2 VARIASCI Y=181OX MEAN CAI, 3~ CAL BI' CAL BP CAL~BP Vari;uire L.owic Uhi 0.7 39 76 5 73 2 97 26 SC1-38 Burial 144 1.7 291 446 155' 430 139 461 170 ALA-329 Burial4S 1.8 29S 500 202 482 384 509 211 SCL-38 Burial 171 3.8 372! 500 1281 482 110 509 137 ALA-555 Burial 107 1.1 3731 187 -186 180 -193. 214 -159 ALA-555 Burial 25 1.4 464- 302 -162. 291 -173 327 -137 ALA-329 Burial 130 2.0 485 617 132: 595 110. 613 128 CCO- 138 Burial 8 1.5 524 347 -177I 335 -189 370 -154 ALA-613 Burial 144 2.5 650, 964 135 929 100 908 79 SON-1281 Cremuacion 2.1 654 680 26, 656 2 668 14 AIA-329 Burial 226 2.6 6S5S 1043 358 1005 320 973 288 SAC-43 Burial 69 2.6 687 1043 356! 3005 318 973 286 CCO-696N Burial 357 2.1 691 680 - j 656 -35 668 -23 ALA-613 Burial 343 1.5 710W 347 -177! 595 -173 370 -154 ALA-329 Burial239 2.7 732 1125 413 1084 372 1040 328 SC138 Burial 21 2.0 750 617 -1333 595 -155 613 -137 ALA-42 Burial 95-236 2.6 784 1()43 259. 1005 221 973 189 AIA-42 Burial 95-55 2.5 8291 964 135! 929 100 908 79 AIA-42 Burial 95-66 2.4 854. 889 35 857 3 845 -9 ALA-329 Burial 251 2.8 S83 1210 327! 1166 283 1109 226 ALA-424 Burial 6 2.3 953. 816 -137 787 -166 784 -169 SAC-43 Burial 50 2.4 1032. 889 -143 857 -175 845 -187 SAC-43 Burial 25 2.7 1063 1125 62. 30S4 21 1040 -23 AIA-329 Burial 143 3.4 1111 1784 673 1719 608 1560 449 SAG-133 Burial 1 2.5 1226 964 -262 929 -297 908 -318 SAC-43 Burial4 S 2.7 1287: 1125 -362: 1084 -203. 1040 -247 ALA-555 Burial 138 3.1 1517' 1483 -341 1429 -88 1326 -191 .SjO-142 Crcemation 3 3.9 16601 2347 687. 2262 602 1986 326 MIUN-27 Burial 3 3.6 1911 2000 89.: 1927 16 1725 -186 SCt.674 Burial 187 3.8 2116! 2228 1121 2147 31 1898 -218 SAC-107 Burial C8 4.6 2774 3265 49t1 3146 372 2656 -318 SJO-68 Cremation 3 4.2 3358 2722 -636' 2623 -735: 2263 -1095 SJO-6.8 Buriil 23124 4.6 .3999 3265 -734i 3146 -853 2656 -1343 107
Referring to Table 4.3, rate model B results in age estimates varying no more than 450 years from radiocarbon ages falling within the last 3000 years. Predicted micron-age conversions in excess of 3,000 years, on the other hand, diverge from radiocarbon ages by as much as 1,340 years. The wide disparity in older contexts may be the result of sampling bias toward archaeological contexts dating to the last 2,000 years. Overall, hydration rate A maintains the closest fit to the 14C assays compared to Rate B and Origer's (1982a, 1987) rate (Rosenthal
2007:9, Table 19). It is nevertheless clear from Table 4.3 that hydration rate A only performs well back to 1,000 B.P., when the variance between hydration-based age estimates and radiometric age estimates increases considerably.
Tested on radiocarbon-micron pairs from 10 residential features in central California, micron-age conversions using rate model A differ from the radiocarbon age by less than 200 years, even at 5.5 pm/4480 cal B.P. (Table 4.4; Rosenthal 2007:11).
Table 4.4. Comparison of Hydration Conversion and Radiocarbon Dates from Central California Sites
Hydration Rate A (B.P.) 14C cal B.P.
Site Range Range @ I S.D. Range 2-sigma Range CA-SCL-38 335-790 410-670 220-4770 1-5436 CA-ALA-329 120-1620 290-1060 300-2055 25-2312 CA-SAC-43 215-2270 550-1330 590-2350 522-2708 CA-ALA-42 720-1620 795-1135 785-1350 685-1735 CA-SCL-674 380-3290 1160-2510 375-2355 160-2715 CA-SJO-68 1007-5915 2590-4790 3195-5000 2855-5590
Assuming a linear rate of hydration, the maximum possible accuracy of a Napa Valley rate based on obsidian hydration readings reaching back 9.5 pm is 285 years, assuming visual measurement of hydration rims with an error of +0.2 pm. A 285-year error is commensurate with 108 the accuracy level of rate model A. Because obsidian hydration appears to slow over time
(Friedman et al. 1997:307-309; White 2003:220; White and Meyer 2002:428), one should not assume that hydration proceeds linearly. In addition, accuracy in late prehistory should be greater than in earlier periods due to the greater quantity of chronometric data available for constructing hydration rates (Rosenthal 2007:12).
Although not a perfect rate by any stretch of the imagination, Rate A works notably better than Rate B or the Origer (1982a, 1987) rate for the first 1,000 years of prehistory, which subsumes two-thirds of the period of interest in this study, Based on the greater quantity of good- quality chronometric data and the rate's superior performance, Rosenthal's (2007) rate model A
(k = 148.7) for Napa Valley obsidian will be employed in this thesis.
Annadel Hydration Rates
To date, two source-specific hydration rates exist for Annadel obsidian (Michels 1982, cited in Hull 2001:1027; Origer 1982a, 1987). In addition to Origer's (1982a, 1987) Annadel obsidian hydration rate, Tremaine (1993:Table 2) presents comparison constants for the four major geochemical groupings of North Coast Ranges obsidian, including Annadel. Origer's
(1987:Table 19) rate, which is in widespread use, is based on five radiocarbon-hydration rim (n =
34) pairs from five prehistoric archaeological sites (MRN-27, SON-455, SON-518, SON-1269, and SON-1281 8) in the Santa Rosa vicinity (see King 1970; Roscoe 1981; Upson 1973). Origer
(1987:55-56) used Friedman and Smith's (1960) diffusion formula (equation 2 in Napa Valley
Hydration Rates above) to develop a hydration rate for Annadel obsidian. The resulting rate equation is: (5) T = 184.6x2.
8 Origer (1987:56, Table 19) does not use data from SON-978 (Origer and Fredrickson 1980)in his calculation of the Annadel hydration rates due to statistical reasons. 109
Similar to his rate for Napa Valley hydration, Origer's (1982a, 1987) Annadel rate appears to work well up to about 2,000 years, but appears to underestimate the age of artifacts assigned to periods exceeding 2,000 years (Basgall and Bouey 1991:58). For lack of a better rate, equation (5) above is employed in this thesis. This decision should not be especially problematic as the period of interest here is the last 1,500 years, an interval in which the Origer (1982a, 1987) rate appears to be accurate.
Borax Lake Hydration Rates
Researchers have conducted no fewer than eight obsidian hydration studies focused on the Borax Lake hydration rate (Ericson 1981, cited in Basgall and Bouey 1991:54; Findlow et al.
1978; Kaufman 1978, 1980; Meighan and Haynes 1968, 1970; White 1984; White and Meyers
2002), no doubt in part because of the interest in and chronological controversy surrounding early sites such as LAK-36, the Borax Lake site (Basgall 1993:175; Basgall and Bouey 1991:54).
These early hydration rates did not achieve widespread use in the North Coast Ranges because the supporting data constituted statistically inadequate samples (especially with respect to It assays) or contained sample biases toward older archaeological specimens, leading to rates that overestimated the age represented by hydration rim thickness (Basgall and Bouey 1991:54).
White and Meyers (2002:Figure 189; see also White 2003:220) proposed a Borax Lake hydration rate based on 14 hydration rim-' 4C pairs from the Lower Lake area of Clear Lake basin
(Figure 4.4). The rate is based on pairs with '4C dates no older than 7700 B.P. This rate will be employed in the present study and is calculated as follows:
years BP (in mnx log format) = 2.53 (a constant) x (the micron value turned into Inx log format) + 3.73 (a constant); thus, 2.1 microns on an artifact is equivalent to 0.7419 in Inx log, multiplied by 2.53 becomes 1.877 and added to 3.73 is 5.607. Taken from Inx log format to get years, this equates to 272 years BP. For a micron value of 10.0, the same procedure gives an age estimate of 14,122 BP. For 5.0 microns, the estimate is 2445 BP. 110
14 Dval
12 DOD 1100
la Due
(1AW 4DI
z dDO
F0
4~4~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ 4
4~~~~~~~~~~~~~,~
40k0
3iino U311
3MOX
1,0
D. 1.0 2.0 ;.0 4.D &] 0.0 7.0 9 E P.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 15.0 14.0 ObIdfla2m HVd1rlgoa Rim it=jq AVG I L.
Figure 4.4. White et al.'s (2002) Hydration Curve for Borax Lake Obsidian
Mt. Konocti Hydration Rates
Although archaeological research in the Clear Lake basin resulted in the derivation of a hydration constant for Mt. Konocti obsidian (Ericson 1981, cited in Basgall 1993:175), the 111 constant is not currently in use for the conversion of hydration rim thickness into calendric measures of time because of the paucity of data points used in deriving the rate (Basgall and
Bouey 1991:58). Instead, where calendric age estimates are desired, many investigators use
Tremaine's (1993:Table 2) conversion constants to convert Mt. Konocti hydration rims to equivalent values for the Napa Valley geochemical groups. The conversion constant, which effectively renders the Mt. Konocti hydration rate as equivalent to that of the Napa Valley rate, is
1.0. This constant will be used in the thesis.
Estimating Effective Hydration Temperature
The typical manner in which archaeologists estimate temperature's effects on hydration rates is to estimate the effective storage temperature throughout the lifetime of a subject artifact
(Jones et al. 1997:505). Temperature affects hydration rates exponentially rather than arithmetically or linearly, which is the measure usually applied to climatological and weather data
(Jones et al. 1997:505; Origer 1987:14). Numerous researchers advocate calculating mean monthly temperature fluctuations using the concept of natural effective temperature, more commonly referred to in the archaeological literature as effective hydration temperature (EHT)
(see Dowdall 1995; Hull 2001; Origer 1987:14; Stewart 2003:92). EHT can be calculated using the following equation (Lee 1969).
(1) Te = [(Ta + 1.2316) + (0.1607 . Rt)] / 1.0645 where,
Te = effective hydration temperature
Ta = mean annual air temperature
Rt = temperature range of annual monthly means 112
Because higher temperatures are known to stimulate the rate of obsidian hydration, higher EHTs should indicate an accelerated hydration rate. Origer (1987:14) has found that the increase in some EHTs actually results in slower hydration rates. This phenomenon is a consequence of the EHT equation (equation 1), which uses the range exhibited by monthly mean temperatures as a key variable influencing hydration rates (Origer 1987:14).
The use of EHT via Lee's (1969) equation, although in common use among archaeologists working in California, is not a universally accepted means of accounting for the effects of the depositional environment on the hydration rate of archaeological obsidian. Critical appraisals of the calculation of EHT posit that the Lee (1969) formula is not appropriate for archaeological contexts because it is based on a single temporal interval of variation. Rogers
(2007:657, 2008a:2,010) maintains that EHT is affected by two patterns of temperature variation-annual and diurnal-whereas the Lee (1969) formula employs mean annual air temperature. Rogers (2007:Table 7) demonstrates that his EHT formula, which accounts for annual and diurnal temperature variation, yields EHT values significantly different from the Lee equation. The order of magnitude of this difference increases considerably as hydration rim thickness increases (Rogers 2007). Despite the theoretical relevance of diurnal temperature variation to calculation of EHT, Rogers' (2007, 2008a) work on EHT does not provide supporting evidence for the purportedly critical role that diurnal temperature variation plays in it. Absent theoretical warrant and empirical data that demonstrate significant effects of diurnal temperature variation beyond that shown by Lee (1969) for annual temperature variation, abandonment of the
Lee (1969) EHT formula in favor of the Rogers EHT formula (2007, 2008a) appears unwarranted. The Lee (1969) equation therefore is employed in this study.
In order to render obsidian hydration age estimates comparable between archaeological manifestations from localities with differing EHTs, it is necessary to choose one EHT as the 113 baseline and then adjust all hydration rim measurements from different EHT contexts to the baseline. Many researchers advocate employing a 6-percent change per degree of difference between EHTs (Dowdall 1995:42; Origer 1989:75-76; Rogers 2007:659). The adjustment is calculated for each degree of difference prior to calculating the next degree of change, reflecting the exponential effect of temperature on hydration rates (Dowdall 1995:43). An example of how this adjustment is to be made is given below for a specimen with an initial measurement of 1.0 pm and a -2.5° C difference in EHT.
* 1.00 x 1.06 = 1.06 (adjusted for the first degree of change)
* 1.06 x 1.06 = 1.1236 (adjusted for the second degree of change)
* 1.1236 x 1.03 = 1.157308 (adjusted for the final 0.5 degree of change)
Table 4.5 presents the EHT and temperature data sources for each site included in the study. The Santa Rosa EHT of 16.10 C (Origer 1987:Table 1) will serve as the baseline EHT for this study because most researchers working in the southern North Coast Ranges use this EHT as their baseline; use of a common baseline should improve the comparability of data in different studies.
Table 4.5. Archaeological Sites and Effective Hydration Temperatures
Site Locality Weather Station EHT (' C) MRN-202 Point Reyes Point Reyes 16.7 MRN-230 Point Reyes Point Reyes 16.7 MRN-396/H Point Reyes Point Reyes 16.7 SON-159 Santa Rosa Origer (1987:Table 1) 16.1 SON-455 Santa Rosa Origer (1987:Table 1) 16.1 SON-456 Santa Rosa Origer (1987:Table 1) 16.1 SON-1269 Santa Rosa Origer (1987:Table 1) 16.1 SON-544 Warm Springs Warm Springs Dam 17.3 SON-553 Warm Springs Warm Springs Dam 17.3 SON-567 Warm Springs Warm Springs Dam 17.3 114
Table 4.5. Archaeological Sites and Effective Hydration Temperatures
Site Locality Weather Station EHT (0C) SON-568 Warm Springs Warm Springs Dam 17.3 SON-593-I Warm Springs Warm Springs Dam 17.3 SON-597 Warm Springs Warm Springs Dam 17.3
The Warm Springs EHT is calculated based on temperature data collected by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (weather station WRMSPRNG.C, NCDC #9440, Warm Springs Dam).
The Corps obtained these data daily from June 1, 1973 through November 29, 1998. The data employed in this thesis were taken from monthly average temperature readings spanning the dates cited above (University of California 2007). Appendix B contains the Warm Springs temperature data. Based on these data, the EHT for Warm Springs was derived thusly:
* Ta= 15.1IC
* Rt = 13.1 0 C
* Te = [(15.1 + 1.2316) + (0.1607 13.1)] / 1.0645
* Warm Springs Te = 17.30 C
Weather data for Point Reyes was obtained from Schenck (1970). The data are presented in Appendix B. The EHT for Point Reyes was derived from the following calculations.
* Ta=15.1°C
* Rt = 8.9° C
* Te =[(15.1 + 1.2316) + (0.1607 8.9)] / 1.0645
* Point Reyes Te = 16.70 C 115
CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The analyses and results reported in this chapter are presented in three parts. They consist of initial screening of collections, a determination of whether the point classes identified in Chapter 3 constitute historical or temporally sensitive classes, analysis of sample-size and duration effects on assemblage richness, and occurrence seriation of the arrow point assemblages.
Each stage is discussed under separate headings below.
Initial Screening of Collections
A total of 18 sites was identified as suitable for use in the present study, based on an examination of the artifact collections, unpublished records concerning the sites, and published literature. Each site collection and relevant literature was examined to determine whether projectile point assemblages ascribable to the last 1,500 years were identifiable. Arrow points that yielded visible hydration rims permitted straightforward decisions about the inclusion of a specific artifact. Hydration results also permitted inclusion or exclusion of undated arrow points-such as chert points or obsidian points without hydration data-via comparison of artifact provenience with the distribution of other, hydrated points. Radiocarbon dates, amino acid racemization (AAR) assays, and temporally diagnostic artifacts also permitted similar analysis of stratigraphic and chronological relationships, but with somewhat less confidence in some instances due to the weaker association between these data and the time that given arrow points were deposited. Appendix A presents a site-by-site discussion of assemblage selection.
The characteristics of the assemblages selected for this study are summarized in Table 5.1.
Photographs of the points are contained in Appendix C. 116
Table 5.1. Summary of Study Assemblage Characteristics
MediaAge Assemblage Site Locality Sample Size MedanAge Duration No. Classes (B.P.) (years)
MRN-202 Point Reyes 9 240 309 5 MRN-230 Point Reyes 9 304 324 6 MRN-396/H Point Reyes 10 325 452 5
SON-159 Santa Rosa 14 362 764 9 Plain
SON-455 San 27 Plain 413 413 9
SON-456 591 11 SantaPlain Rosa 44 473
SON- Santa Rosa 7 214 4 1250/1251 Plain
SON-1269 Santa Rosa 20 534 628 5 Plain
SON-544/H, Warm Springs 13 250 381 7 ______(W SC) ______
SON-547 (WSC) 7 674 1165 5
SON-553 Warm Springs 29 357 896 9 ______(W S C ) ______
SON-556 Warm Springs 13 620 731 4 ______(W SC) ______
SON-567 Warm Springs 11 233 105 4 ______(U D C ) ______
SON-568 Warm Springs 42 620 880 7 S O N-568 (UD C ) ______
SON-572 Warm Springs 19 730 1036 5 ______(U D C ) ______
SON-593-1 Warm Springs 31 266 642 7 ______(U T)C ) ______
SON-593-II Warm Springs 7 818 993 4 ______(U D C ) ______
SON-597 Warm Springs 5 307 187 3 ______(U D C ) ______Total 317 360a 610a 5a
Note: WSC = Warm Springs Creek subgroup; UDC = Upper Dry Creek subgroup; a = the median value for the column 117
Historical Sensitivity of Point Classes
As discussed in chapters 2 and 3, the accuracy of occurrence seriation depends in large measure on whether classes employed in the seriation measure time. The classes employed in the seriation should exhibit a unimodal or bell-shaped distribution in which the frequency of any given class enters the portion of archaeological record examined in low frequency, increases in frequency, and then wanes in frequency, all with the passage of time (Dempsey and Baumhoff
1963; O'Brien and Lyman 1999, 2000). The temporal distribution of all obsidian points analyzed in this thesis is presented in Table 5.2 according to class and age estimate.
Table 5.2. Temporal Distribution of Arrow Point Classes in the Study Area (Obsidian Only)
Arrow Point Class 11121 24111 24112 24121 32112 34111 34112 34121 34122 34212 34221 34222 185 141 96 150 168 168 141 199 98 50 185 200 223 141 168 266 304 168 168 266 141 174 236 240 236 168 187 266 304 199 168 266 168 199 362 240 266 199 199 269 427 199 185 304 176 199 363 266 269 211 266 307 596 205 185 362 185 233 388 286 312 233 266 598 1683 205 185 362 187 233 443 312 473 266 304 598 233 190 443 217 266 509 322 534 284 344 266 199 443 217 304 533 362 304 357 304 199 444 220 304 533 388 307 386 304 199 473 223 386 533 535 344 388 307 200 521 234 533 549 586 344 415 312 211 894 240 533 598 598 344 522 340 211 266 567 598 688 427 522 362 233 266 783 598 730 427 1021 378 233 307 905 598 799 427 386 233 312 905 598 814 454J 402 266 312 1089 598 473 427 266 362 598 505 473 269 362 639 521' 473 286 362 666 620 522 304 378 738 118
Table 5.2. Temporal Distribution of Arrow Point Classes in the Study Area (Obsidian Only)
Arrow Point Class 11121 24111 24112 24121 32112 34111 34112 34121 34122 34212 34221 34222 620 620 331 378 746 730 620 340 418 1028 783 674 362 427 1553 1126 674 362 443 674 362 460 730 362 473 730 378 473 783 415 473 905 415 504 905 415 534 1890 427 549 473 596 509 598 572 644 620 666 674 666 674 666 674 746 674 894 688 730 741 783 882 905 969 969 1302 1376 2017 Note: Numbers under each point class column heading represents years B.P.
The frequency of each class was then tallied by 200-year intervals using data from Table
5.2. This interval was selected as representative of the finest temporal resolution expected of the data employed. The results are presented in Table 5.3. 119
Table 5.3. Distribution of Arrow Point Classes (Obsidian Only) by 200-Year (B.P.) Interval
Arrow Point Classes Age 11121. 24111 24112 24121 32112 34111 34112 34121 34122 34212 34221 34222 0-200 1 4 4 1 1 4 11 1 6 4 1 1 201- 5 9 7 4 2 12 9 5 16 6 4 8
400 ______
6400- 2 7 3 2 2 5 7 5 12 4 13 3
60 01______601- 4 8 4 5 4 3
801- 2 1 1 2 l
1000 ___ 1001- I 1 I I 1200 1201- 2
1400 ______1401- =
1600 ___ 1601-1 1800 1 1801- 1 2000 ______2001-1
2200 ______
Examination of Table 5.3 indicates that the classes employed in this study generally exhibit unimodal distributions. Only Class 34111 is a possible exception, the frequency of the class being smaller (n = 5) during the 401-600-year interval than during the preceding (n = 12) and subsequent (n = 8) intervals. Overall, results suggest that the classes employed have temporal sensitivity in the study area.
Analysis of Sample-Size and Duration Effects
In the second stage of analysis, statistical tests were run to assess the effects of sample size and duration on the richness of projectile point assemblages. The XLSTAT 2008 (Addinsoft
2008) software was used to determine whether sample size or assemblage duration affected the richness of individual assemblages. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to determine the 120 effects of sample size on the richness of assemblages, whereas the Cochran-Armitage test of trend was used to determine duration effects on the assemblages, as stated in Chapter 4. The results of the tests are described below, first for each region, then for interregional pairs.
Regional Statistical Tests
Point Reves Peninsula
Pearson's correlation coefficient (r = -0.50, r' = 0.25) indicates that the number of arrow point classes in the Point Reyes assemblages is weakly related to sample size, since sample size only accounts for a reduction of approximately 25 percent of the variation in the number of classes (Figure 5.1). The variables and summary statistics used to calculate Pearson's correlation coefficient and the Cochran-Armitage test of trend are presented in Table 5.4.
No. of Types Sample Size
U) 6.9 62 ] CA 0 . 6 0 0. 64- 0. 5.8 -- > I.- 5.9 I- 5.6 -- - o,_ 549- " .. z 52 __6 Z 4.9 I I 5 ,a z 4.9 54 59 64 6.9 9 9.5 12 13.5
C) .N 98 Co 9.6 -
D. 9A.- E 92 co 90 5 5.5 6 6.5 8.9 9.4 9.9 4A t29 No. of Types Sample Size
Figure 5.1. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes Assemblages 121
Table 5.4. Variables and Summary Statistics Employed in Estimating Point Reyes Sample-Size and Duration Effects
Variables Used to Estimate Sample Size Effects Assemblage No. of Types Sample Size MRN-202 _ _9 MRN-230 6 9 MRN-396/H 5 10 Proportions Used to Estimate Duration Effects Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions MRN-202 309 5 9 14 0.357 MRN-230 324 6 9 15 0.400 MRN-396/H 452 5 10 15 0.333 Total 16 28 44 1.000
According to the Cochran-Armitage of trend (Figure 5.2), assemblage duration and number of classes are not correlated in the Point Reyes sample (z-score = 0.277, critical value =
1.960, p = 0.782, a = 0.05). A Monte Carlo simulation yields similar results (z-score = 0.277, critical value'= 2.060; p = 0.861; a = 0.05). Since sample structure is not likely skewing the number of point classes, the seriations can be interpreted in terms of behavioral implications.
04
0,35
Q3
C .2 025 It e 02
Q.
0.1
01
0 S I w 20 ZD 3n 3M 4 45D 5D Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.2. Duration Effects, Point Reyes Assemblages 122
Santa Rosa Plain
Table 5.5 presents the variables and summary statistics employed to estimate sample-size and duration effects. Pearson's correlation coefficient indicates that the number of classes present in the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages is moderately correlated (r = 0.773, r2 = 0.597) with assemblage size (Figure 5.3).
Table 5.5. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain
Variables Used to Estimate Sample Size Effects
Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size
SON-159 9 14
SON-455 9 27
SON-456 11 44
SON-1250/1251 4 7
SON-1269 5 20
Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects
Assemblages Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions
SON- 214 4 7 11 0.364 1250/1251
SON-455 413 9 27 36 0.250
SON-456 591 11 44 55 0.200
SON-1269 628 5 20 25 0.200
SON-159 764 9 14 23 0.391
Total 38 112 150 1.000 123
No. of Classes Sample Size
W 25 -. . 12 -...... 0 0 0 (U 8- ~* ° -15 8- 4-1H 4- 0 6 -0 e 6 4 Z 4 9 14 0 20 40 60
50 1 E *) 0 ±! 40 - 0, (E30 0. 20 -0 04 0. 02 ~~~~E M, 09- M~~~~~0 0 4 9 14 0 20 40 60 No. of Classes Sample Size
Figure 5.3. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain Assemblages
The Cochran-Armitage test of trend indicates that there is no relationship between assemblage duration and the number of classes (z-score = 0.082, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.935, a = 0.05). The Monte Carlo method reveals a similar trend: z-score = 0.082, critical value =
2.006; p = 0.920; a = 0.05. Duration effects are depicted graphically in Figure 5.4.
These statistical tests indicate that the number of classes present in the Santa Rosa Plain samples is not likely a function of assemblage size, but the number of classes and sample size are moderately correlated. Figure 5.4 show a positive correlation between sample size and number of classes, suggesting that an increase in sample size would result in more point classes within the assemblage. The number of classes present at SON-1269 and perhaps SON 159 would likely increase with larger sample sizes. Any seriation based on the sample described in this thesis is potentially a product of sample structure, rather than being reflective of past human behavior. 124
04 S
0 0.35
03
C .2e03 02 t 0 0
0.
01
0.05
0 to aS 3D) 4D0 Sl 600 70 Sn gm Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.4. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain Assemblages
Warm Springs
The data used to assess sample-size and duration effects are presented in Table 5.6.
Pearson's correlation coefficient indicates that the number of classes present in the Warm Springs
assemblages is moderately correlated (r =0.749, r2 = 0.560) with assemblage size (Figure 5.5).
Table 5.6. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Warm Springs
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-567 4 11 SON-568 7 42 SON-572 5 19 SON-593-1 7 31 SON-593-11 4 7 SON-597 3 5 SON-544/H 7 13 SON-547 5 7 125
Table 5.6. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Warm Springs
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-553 9 29 SON-556 4 13 Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects Assemblage: Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-567 105 4 11 15 0.267 SON-597 187 3 5 8 0.375 SON-544/H. 381 7 13 20 0.350 SON-593-I 642 7 31 38 0.184 SON-556 731 4 13 17 0.235 SON-568 880 7 42 49 0.143 SON-553 896 9 29 38 0.237 SON-593-II 993 4 7 11 0.364 SON-572 1036 5 19 24 0.208 SON-547 1165 5 7 12 0.417 Total 55 177 232 1.000
No. of Classes Sample Size
O t' 72 1 ' .| jJ8 t|t __ -] 2 7 1 10 0 0
7 8 1 7 0 20 40 60
2 ...... 17.... 6 0 20 40 6
0)40 -- N No. 500 apeSz -. N0lse 030 Se40 C 200 E 20 E
U)0 0- 4t 3 8 13 0 20 40 60 No. of Cla sse s Sample Size
Figure 5.5. Sample-Size Effects, Warm Springs Assemblages 126
The Cochran-Armitage test of trend shows that the number of classes in the Warm
Springs sample is not a function of assemblage duration (z-score = 0.599, critical value = 1.960, p
= 0.549, a = 0.05). The Monte Carlo simulation yields comparable results: z-score = 0.599, critical value = 2.012, p = 0.527, a = 0.05. See Figure 5.6 for a visual presentation of the test results.
The statistical tests indicate that the number of classes present in the Warm Springs point assemblages is not likely a function of assemblage duration, but is moderately correlated with sample size. The potential effects of sample size on the number of classes present can be appreciated by examining Table 5.6, where sites with five or fewer point classes all have sample sizes below 20 (SON-567, SON-572, SON-597, SON-547, and SON-556). By contrast, samples of approximately 30 points possess seven or more classes. It is probable, therefore, that larger sample sizes would result in the addition of point classes to the Warm Springs assemblages.
Seriations based on the present sample are probably an artifact of sample structure.
045
'A
03
°(0 02-
02
a.s 0.1
0 Z) 40l 60D an t) 2l 1(00 Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.6. Duration Effects, Warm Springs Assemblages 127
Previous researchers (Basgall and Bouey 1991:163; Baumhoff and Orlins 1979) hypothesized that several distinct settlement systems were present in the Warm Springs locality
(see Chapter 1). The assemblages analyzed in this thesis are located within Basgall and Bouey's
(1991:163, Maps 5, 6) Upper Dry Creek and Warm Springs Creek settlement groups. To test whether these postulated settlement groups represent distinct social units, the Warm Springs assemblages are seriated not only as a locality-wide group, but also as Upper Dry Creek and
Warm Springs Creek subgroups. The effects of sample size and assemblage duration on the number of point classes represented in the subgroups is therefore also examined.
Table 5.7 contains the variables and summary statistics used to estimate sample-size and duration effects. Figure 5.7 provides a graphical display of sample-size effects on the number of point classes represented among the Upper Dry Creek assemblages. The number of point classes is strongly correlated with sample size (r = 0.961, r2 = 0.924).
No. of Classes Sample Size
tlS 13- ,.8 '- 7A 3 82
iu13 7C L) ~~~~~~~~~~6 4- 5 0
6 '~6 Z 3 ~~3 Z 3 8 13 0 20 40 60
No. Cla40 s - S60 N N- CO30 40 . C 0) 0 '&20 20' E 20 * E u 0 0 -'C 3 8 0 20 40 60 No. of Classes Sample Size
Figure 5.7. Sample-Size Effects, Upper Dry Creek Assemblages 128
Table 5.7. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Upper Dry Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects
Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size
SON-567 4 11
SON-568 7 42
SON-572 5 19
SON-593-I 7 31
SON-593-II 4 7
SON-597 3 5
Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects
Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions
SON-567 105 4 11 15 0.267
SON-597 187 3 5 8 0.375
SON-593-I 642 7 31 38 0.184
SON-568 880 7 42 49 0.143
SON-593-II 993 4 7 11 0.364
SON-572 1036 5 19 24 0.208
Total 30 115 145 1.000
According to the Cochran-Armitage test of trend (Figure 5.8), the number of point classes is not a function of assemblage duration in the Upper Dry Creek group (asymptotic two-tailed test: z-score - 0.849, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.396, a = 0.05). A Monte Carlo simulation
(10,000 simulations) returned comparable results: z-score = 0.849, critical value = 2.019, p =
0.401, a = 0.05. 129
The statistical tests indicate that the number of classes present in the Upper Dry Creek point assemblages is not likely a function of assemblage duration, but is strongly correlated with assemblage size. The implications are identical to those discussed above for the Warm Springs sample as a whole: seriations based on the Upper Dry Creek sample are probably suspect due to sample structure. Violations of the seriation model will probably involve SON-567, SON-572, or
SON-597.
Q35 0.3
,00 025 0
0 0. Q2
0.15 0
0Q1
0.05
0 2DD 400 600 e0o 0o 2o Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.8. Duration Effects, Upper Dry Creek Assemblages
Turning to the Warm Springs Creek group, the variables and summary statistics applied to estimate sample-size and duration effects are given in Table 5.8. Figure 5.9 provides a graphical display of sample-size effects on the number of point classes represented among the
Warm Springs Creek assemblages. Number of classes and sample size are moderately correlated, as indicated by Pearson's correlation coefficient (r = 0.821, r2 = 0.673). 130
Table 5.8. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Warm Springs Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects
Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-544/H 7 13 SON-547 5 7 SON-553 9 29 SON-556 4 13 Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects
Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-544/H' 381 7 13 20 0.350 SON-556 731 4 13 17 0.235 SON-553 896 9 29 38 0.237 SON-547 1165 5 7 12 0.417 Total 25 62 87 1.000
No. of Classes Sample Size
C0 - _. fl __ ....._.
0 6-a.60 8 ~~~~~~~~8 7 LC) 06 6 0 0 6 Z4! 4 Z 4 6 8 fl 0 20 40
4 6 8 ) 0 20 40 No. of Classes Sample Size
Figure 5.9. Sample-Size Effects, Warm Springs Creek Assemblages 131
The number of classes in the Warm Springs Creek sample is not a function of assemblage duration, according to the Cochran-Armitage test of trend (Figure 10): z-score = 0.077, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.939, a = 0.05. Similar results are obtained via Monte Carlo simulation: z- score = 0.077, critical value = 1.963, p = 0.953, a = 0.05. That sample size accounts for approximately 67 percent of the variation in the number of point classes renders the interpretation of seriations problematic, as seriations are likely the result of sample structure.
0.45
0.4
026
In
.2 02 0 a r_0 20 2 a.
Q1
0.1
0 an0 400 60n aCO Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.10. Duration Effects, Warm Springs Creek Assemblages
Statistical Tests on Interregional Pairs
Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain
Pearson's correlation coefficient indicates that the number of classes present in the Point
Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages, taken together, is moderately correlated (r = 0.82, r2 = 132
0.67) with assemblage size (Figure 5.11). The variables and summary statistics used to estimate sample-size and duration effects on the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain samples are presented in Table 5.9.
No. of Classes Sample Size
G)to~ (C(AC) 13 . 3( 8 C.) 0 8 ~ 0 ~~~6 6 . e6 Z 3 4 Z 3 8 13 1B 0 20 40 60
50 60 -_
40 4 o N No.3of0Classes Sample Size 20 0 .. C E 0 ~~ ~ ~~~~~20E
0 0 t 4 9 14 0 20 40 60 No. of Cl asse s Sample Size
Figure 5.11. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain
Table 5.9. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-159 9 14 SON-455 9 27 SON-456 I1 44 SON-1250/1251 4 7 SON-1269 5 20 MRN-202 5 9 MRN-230 6 9 MRN-396/H 5 10 133
Table 5.9. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain
Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects
Assemblage! Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions
SON- 214 4 7 11 0.364
MRN-202 309 5 9 14 0.357 MRN-230 324 6 9 15 0.400 SON-455 413 9 27 36 0.250 MRN-396/H 452 5 10 15 0.333
SON-456 591 11 44 55 0.200
SON-1269 628 5 20 25 0.200
SON-159 764 9 14 23 0.391 Total 54 140 194 1.000
Figure 5.12 depicts the results of the Cochran-Arnitage test of trend on the number of classes and assemblage duration for the Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain sample. The test yielded the following results: z-score = 0.734, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.463, a = 0.05. Monte Carlo simulations produced similar results: z-score = 0.734, critical value = 1.962, p = 0.454, a = 0.05.
The tests indicate that the number of classes present in the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa
Plain assemblages, in aggregate, is not a function assemblage duration, but is correlated with assemblage size. Table 5.9 shows that sites with approximately 30 or more points (SON-455 and
SON-456) possess the larger number of classes of the group. With the exception of SON-I 59, the remaining sites exhibit small sample size and concomitantly low numbers of classes. Reliable interpretations of the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain seriation are hampered by sample structure. 134
0.4 0
0.35
0~~~~ 03
0 .2 02 t 0 0. 2 02 0.
Q0.
0.05
0 'SO MD 300 400 50D 600 7C0 83O 900 Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.12. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain
Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek
Table 5.10 shows the variables and summary statistics used to assess sample-size and
duration effects on the number of classes in the Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek grouping.
Pearson's correlation coefficient indicates a moderate correlation between sample size and number of point classes (r = 0.808, r2 = 0.652). Sample-size effects are depicted in Figure 5.13.
Table 5.10. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects I Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size MRN-202 5 9 MRN-230 6 9 MRN-396/H 5 10 SON-567 4 11 SON-568 7 42 135
Table 5.10. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-572 5 19 SON-593-I 7 31 SON-593-II 4 7 SON-597 3 5 Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-567 105 4 11 15 0.267 SON-597 187 3 5 8 0.375 MRN-202 309 5 9 14 0.357 MRN-230 324 6 9 15 0.400 MRN-396/H 452 5 10 15 0.333 SON-593-I 642 7 31 38 0.184 SON-568 880 7 42 49 0.143 SON-593-I1 993 4 7 11 0.364 SON-572 1036 5 19 24 0.208 Total 46 143 189 1.000
No. of Types Sample Size
OL 7 bg-eO °) '...... 8 .. O
0 8 5 0 6 >13 **4608 1 8 0 2 0 6 6 3 3 3 8 1 0 20 40 60
0 40'-- N a30 45
E& 20 ,. Es Eo * 3 .
8 35 55 75 No. of Types Sample Size
Figure 5.13. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek Assemblages 136
The Cochran-Armitage test of trend (Figure 5.14) indicates that assemblage duration and number of classes are not correlated: z-score = 1.808, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.071, a = 0.05.
Monte Carlo simulation produce nearly identical results: z-score = 1.808, critical value = 1.982, p
= 0.076, a = 0.05.
0.45
04* 0 0 035 0 0 0
G3
(n03 0 .2 0: 0 0. LO 02 S
S
0.1
0.06
O 2n0 400 60D 80 Io Io Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.14. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages
The moderate correlation between sample size and number of classes among the Point
Reyes and Upper Dry Creek samples suggests that, were the sample sizes for those sites containing fewer than 30 points increased, the number of classes would potentially increase.
Seriation of these assemblages, therefore, may be conditioned by sample structure rather than past human behavior. 137
Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek
Pearson's correlation coefficient and a Cochran-Armitage test of trend were run to determine whether a relationship exists between sample size or assemblage duration and the number of point classes represented in the assemblages. The variables and summary statistics employed to assess sample structure are presented in Table 5.11.
Table 5.11. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects
Site No. of Types Sample Size MRN-202 5 9 MRN-230 6 9 SON-544/H 7 13 MRN-396/H 5 10 SON-556 4 13
SON-553 9 29 SON-547 5 7
Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects
Assemblage No. of Types Sample Size Total Proportions Duration MRN-202 309 5 9 14 0.357 MRN-230 324 6 9 15 0.400 SON-544/H 381 7 13 20 0.350 MRN-396/H 452 5 10 15 0.333 SON-556 731 4 13 17 0.235 SON-553 896 9 29 38 0.237 SON-547 1165 5 7 12 0.417 Total 41 90 131 1.000 138
Sample-size effects are depicted in Figure 5.15. Pearson's correlation coefficient shows that number of classes and sample size are moderately correlated (r = 0.812, r2 = 0.660), suggesting that as sample size increases, so does the number of classes present.
No. of Types Sample Size
30- o 40- . @8
EU 3§ 00' E0~ ~ t 9 ~ 0 40 0 5~~~~~~ 0 Z Z~~~5 3 - 3 5 7 9 11 0 20 40
030 o40 *A25 020 0 20 0 E~~~~~~~~~~~~~
5 0+ 4 6 8 3 0 20 40 No. of Types Sample Size
Figure 5.15. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages
The Cochran-Armitage test of trend on assemblage duration and number of classes indicates that the two variables are not correlated (Figure 5.16). (z-score = 0.703, critical value
1.960, p = 0.482, a = 0.05; see also Figure 5.16). Monte Carlo simulations yielded similar results: z-score = 0.703, critical value = 1.887, p = 0.493, a = 0.05.
The moderate correlation between number of classes and sample size suggests that seriation of the Point Reyes-Warm Springs Creek group is influenced by sample structure and is not unambiguously reflective of the phenomena of interest in this study (that is, traditions of arrow point manufacture and patterns of social interaction). 139
0.45
0.4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0,35~~~~
0.3
.2 OZ t a 0 0 0. 2 02
o so~~ 40 60 o Lio o o 0.1
O0~5
0 c l 4.i a a2 8ts of trn w r t Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.16. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages
Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages
Pearson's correlation coefficient and a Cochran-Armitage test of trend were run to assess sample structure in the Point Reyes and Warm Springs samples. Table 5.12 contains the variables and summary statistics used to assess sample structure. Number of classes and sample size are moderately correlated (r = 0.714, r2 = 0.509) for this group (Figure 5.17).
Table 5.12. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects
Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-567 4 11 SON-597 3 5 1
140
Table 5.12. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Point Reyes and Warm Springs
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects
Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size
MRN-202 5 9 MRN-230 6 9
SON-544/H 7 13 MRN-396/H 5 10 SON-593-I 7 31 SON-556 4 13 SON-568 7 42 SON-553 9 29 SON-593-II 4 7 SON-572 5 19 SON-547 5 7
Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects
Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-567 105 4 11 15 0.267 SON-597 187 3 5 8 0.375 MRN-202 309 5 9 14 0.357 MRN-230 324 6 9 15 0.400 SON-544/H 381 7 13 20 0.350 MRN-396/H 452 5 10 15 0.333 SON-593-I 642 7 31 38 0.184 SON-556 731 4 13 17 0.235 SON-568 880 7 42 49 0.143 SON-553 896 9 29 38 0.237 SON-593-II 993 4 7 11 0.364 SON-572 1036 5 19 24 0.208 SON-547 1165 5 7 12 0.417 Total 71 205 276 1.000 141
No of Classes Sample Size
17 - 13 9 - 0 _ e 8 - 81 2- 7 - - 0 0 U 6 --0o *.4' 5 -.- o t 4 -- en AW .1 0 I I _I 2 7 12 Ir 0 20 40 60
0n 40 - 0 N 30- 0 N _7r . 0 0 ;e * 0 a, I I I 3 8 13 -b b 35 t1 /75 No. of Classes Sample Size
Figure 5.17. Sample-Size Effects, Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages
The results of the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on assemblage duration and number of classes is graphically represented in Figure 5.18. The test reveals that number of classes and assemblage duration are not correlated: z-score = 1.384, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.166, a =
0.05. Monte Carlo simulations present nearly identical results: z-score = 1.384, critical value =
1.995, p = 0.177, a = 0.05.
Table 5.12 above shows that, with the exception of SON-544/H, no site with a sample size less than 30 has more than six point classes. In light of the correlation between sample size and number of classes, it is likely that sample structure will affect seriation of the assemblages and that violations of the seriation model will involve one or more of the small-sample sites (that is, SON-567, SON-597, MRN-202, MRN-396/H, SON-556, and SON-593-II). 142
0 Q4 - 0 0 0 U 0 036- 0~~~~
0
0 0 0. o 02- 0~~~~~ a-
Q1-
oar -
0 MO 40D 60D 800 Ifl MO 1C0 Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.18. Duration Effects, Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages
Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek
Pearson's correlation coefficient and a Cochran-Armitage test of trend were run to determine whether a relationship exists between sample size or assemblage duration and the number of point classes represented in the assemblages. The summary statistics and variables used in the tests are presented in Table 5.13. Number of classes is moderately correlated with
2 sample size (r = 0.754, r = 0.568); sample-size effects are depicted in Figure 5.19.
Table 5.13. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-567 4 11 SON-597 3 5 SON-1250/1251 4 7 143
Table 5.13. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects SON-455 9 27 SON-456 11 44 SON-1269 5 20 SON-593-I 7 31 SON-159 9 14 SON-568 7 42 SON-593-II 4 7 SON-572 5 19 Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects
Assemblage Astbilg No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions
SON-567 105 | 4 11 15 0.267 SON-597 187 3 5 8 0.375 SON-1250/1251 214 4 7 11 0.364 SON-455 413 9 27 36 0.250 SON-456 591 11 44 55 0.200 SON-1269 628 5 20 25 0.200 SON-593-I 642 7 31 38 0.184 SON-159 764 9 14 23 0.391 SON-568 880 7 42 49 0.143 SON-593-II 993 4 7 11 0.364 SON-572 1036 5 19 24 0.208 Total 68 227 295 1.000
In contrast to sample-size effects, assemblage duration is not correlated with number of classes (z-score = 0.987, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.324, a = 0.05). Similar results were obtained through Monte Carlo simulations: z-score = 0.987, critical value = 1.969, p = 0.321, a =
0.05. The results of the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on assemblage duration and number of point classes is presented graphically in Figure 5.20. 144
No. of Classes Sample Size
(A 17 - ...... 13......
9 0 0 - = 7 S 0 7 j0 5 6 eso Z 2 3 2 7 2 17 0 20 40
50 6 a@40-0 o °6-; *@30 o e40- 2 EA20- 2 E E en -_ of. I 1 8 13 0 20 40 60 No. of Classes Sample Size
Figure 5.19. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages
0.45 -
0.4 0-
0 S 0.35 -
03 -
aL0 o 02- e 0 XL 0 0
01 _ 0.05 --
o -i O SD 40D 600 OD DO 'MD Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.20. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages 145
That the number of classes is positively correlated with sample size suggests that several of the included assemblages are too small to discern the full breadth of point classes in the present samples. Were the sample sizes increased for all the sites in Table 5.13 with fewer than 30 points, the number of classes represented at those sites would be expected to increase as well.
This is suggestive of a considerable sample structure problem, wherein seriation results are likely to reflect, at least in part, sample composition rather than past human behavior.
Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek
Pearson's correlation coefficient and a Cochran-Armitage test of trend were run to assess the effects of sample size and assemblage duration and the number of point classes represented in the assemblages. Sample-size effects are depicted in Figure 5.21. The variables used to estimate sample-size effects are shown in Table 5.14.
No. of Classes Sample Size
U) 0~~~~~~~~~~~
C113 3 8 13 18 4 * 02 0 0 30 40< . 6 Z I3 _ 4 Z 3 8 13 1 0 20 40 60
6 50 .* o 60 e-S i 60 N40 N (fl 3 40 co
CL20 0 'a E II 20E
0 0 ( 4 9 11 0 20 40 60 No. of Classes SamDle Size
Figure 5.21. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages 146
Table 5.14. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek
Variables Used to Estimate Sample Size Assemblage No. of Classes Sample Size SON-1250/1251 4 7 SON-544/H 7 13
SON-455 9 27
SON-456 11 44 SON-1269 5 20 SON-556 4 13 SON-159 9 14 SON-553 9 29
SON-547 5 7 Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-1250/1251 214 4 7 11 0.364 SON-544/4 381 7 13 20 0.350 SON-455 413 9 27 36 0.250 SON-456 591 11 44 55 0.200 SON-1269 628 5 20 25 0.200 SON-556 731 4 13 17 0.235 SON-159 764 9 14 23 0.391 SON-553 896 9 29 38 0.237 SON-547 1165 5 7 12 0.417 Total 63 174 237 1.000
The number of classes in the Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs Creek are moderately correlated with sample size (r = 0.802, r2 = 0.644). As with most of the other seriation groups, sites with less than 30 points have few point classes, typically five or less, although SON-544/H and SON-159 are exceptions in this regard (Table 5.14). 147
The results of the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on assemblage duration and number of point classes is presented graphically in Figure 5.22. The test indicates that number of classes is not correlated with assemblage duration (z-score = 0.273, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.785, a =
0.05). Monte Carlo simulations yield similar results (z- score = 0.273, critical value = 1.967, p =
0.766, a = 0.05).
0 Q4 0
0 035
03 0
so0 O 0 0 0. O 02 0* 0.
Q.15
0.1
0 0 200 400 SD 800 Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.22. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages
Although assemblage duration does not affect the number of classes in the Santa Rosa-
Warm Springs Creek grouping, sample size is affecting the number of classes represented. Figure
5.21 and Table 5.14 depict a clear trend: smaller samples are less diverse in terms of point classes. It is therefore likely that seriation of these assemblages will result in considerable measure from sample structure, rendering interpretation of the seriation in terms other than sample structure suspect. 148
Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages
Pearson's correlation coefficient and a Cochran-Armitage test of trend were run to
determine whether a relationship exists between sample size or assemblage duration and the number of point classes represented in the assemblages. The data employed in this assessment are presented in Table 5.15. Sample-size effects are depicted in Figure 5.23.
Table 5.15. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs
Variables Used to Estimate Sample Size Site No. of Classes Sample Size SON-567 4 11 SON-597 3 5 SON-1250/1251 4 7 SON-544/H 7 13 'SON-455 9 27 SON-456 11 44 SON-1269 5 20 SON-593-I 7 31 SON-556 4 13 SON-159 9 14 SON-568 7 42 CA-SON-553 9 29 CA-SON-593-I1 4 7 CA-SON-572 5 19 CA-SON-547 5 7 Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-567 105 4 1 1 15 0.267 SON-597 187 3 5 8 0.375 SON-1250/1251 214 4 7 1 1 0.364 SON-544/H 381 7 13 20 0.350 SON-455 413 9 27 36 0.250 149
Table 5.15. Variables and Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Sample-Size and Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs
Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-456 591 11 44 55 0.200 SON-1269 628 5 20 25 0.200 SON-593-I 642 7 31 38 0.184 SON-556 731 4 13 17 0.235 SON-159 764 9 14 23 0.391 SON-568 880 7 42 49 0.143
SON-553 896 9 29 38 0.237 SON-593-II 993 4 7 11 0.364 SON-572 1036 5 19 24 0.208 SON-547 1165 5 7 12 0.417 Total 93 289 382 1.000
No. of Classes Sample Size
of 17------13 -- -- X ( Cn~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C U)
0.7t4- ,' .4 7 0 0 l o 7 i0 6 500 Z 2 3 Z 2 7 2 17 0 20 40 60
50 70 40 I 0 N s 3 r e D. 20 80 3840 , i -._w _01 1D~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 0 C 3 8 13 __- 30-- No. of Classes SamDle Size
Figure 5.23. Sample-Size Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages 150
Figure 5.23 demonstrates that number of classes and sample size are moderately correlated (r = 0.746, r2 = 0.556). Combined with the data presented in Table 5.15, it appears that the smaller samples (n < 30) in the Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs grouping possess less diverse point assemblages.
The results of the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on assemblage duration and number of point classes is presented graphically in Figure 5.24. The test shows no correlation between number of classes and assemblage (z-score = 0.614, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.539, a = 0.05).
Similar results are given by Monte Carlo simulations (z-score = 0.614, critical value = 1.971, p
0.543, a = 0.05).
Q4.D 0.4
*00 0 35 a
0.3
0 0 . 0 .20 02 - 0 0 ~~~0 0O 01a.E 0
0. -
0.05 -
290 400 en 8D) n00 tO in Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.24. Duration Effects, Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages
A pattern is evident in the Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs grouping that is similar to the other seriation groups discussed previously: assemblage duration does not influence the number of point classes, but sample size does. This pattern suggests that seriations of this group of 151 assemblages may be the result of sample structure rather than traditions of projectile point manufacture or exchange relationships.
Study Area (Point Reves-Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs)
Pearson's correlation coefficient and a Cochran-Armitage test of trend were run to determine whether a relationship exists between sample size or assemblage duration and the number of point classes represented in the assemblages. Sample-size effects are depicted in
Figure 5.25. The summary statistics and variables used to conduct the tests are shown in Tables
5.16 and 5.17.
.N a doaf Sanpie size
11* S I I. 1 ' * go - 4 1' I' - S S S t 7- S Isif . e 0 go' I 2 2 7 2 1I a 2M 40 E0
4:
.8 - S S I v I 40 * S N . .: S . .0~~ I IM .~Se 0 S an
8 13 NWo, of: Oasm Sample Size
Figure 5.25. Sample-Size Effects, Study Area 152
Table 5.16 Variables Used to Estimate Sample-Size Effects, All Assemblages
Site No. of Classes Sample Size SON-567 4 11 SON-597 3 5 SON-1250/1251 4 7 MRN-202 5 9 MRN-230 6 9 SON-544/H 7 13 SON-455 9 27 MRN-396/H 5 10 SON-456 11 44 SON-1269 5 20 SON-593-I 7 31 SON-556 4 13 SON-159 9 14 SON-568 7 42 SON-553 9 29 SON-593-I1 4 7 SON-572 5 19 SON-547 5 7
Table 5.17. Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects, All Assemblages
Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-567 105 4 11 15 0.267 SON-597 187 3 5 8 0.375 SON-1250/1251 214 4 7 11 0.364 MRN-202 309 5 9 14 0.357 MRN-230 324 6 9 15 0.400 SON-544/H 381 7 13 20 0.350 SON-455 413 9 27 36 0.250 MRN-396/H 452 5 10 15 0.333 SON-456 591 11 44 55 0.200 153
Table 5.17. Summary Statistics Used to Estimate Duration Effects, All Assemblages
Assemblage Duration No. of Classes Sample Size Total Proportions SON-1269 628 5 20 25 0.200 SON-593-1 642 7 31 38 0.184 SON-556 731 4 13 17 0.235 SON-159 764 9 14 23 0.391 SON-568 880 7 42 49 0.143 SON-553 896 9 29 38 0.237 SON-593-II 993 4 7 11 0.364 SON-572 1036 5 19 24 0.208 SON-547 1165 5 7 12 0.417 Total 109 317 426 1.000
Sample size and number of classes are moderately correlated across the entire study area
(r = 0.743, r2 = 0.552). As noted previously for most seriation groups, smaller assemblages exhibit fewer classes of projectile point.
The results of the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on assemblage duration and number of point classes are presented graphically in Figure 5.26. The test indicates that number of classes is not likely a function of assemblage duration, although not as strongly unassociated as for most groups (z-score = 1.212, critical value = 1.960, p = 0.225, a = 0.05). The trend is slightly weaker in Monte Carlo simulations (z-score = 1.212, critical value = 1.980, p = 0.218, a = 0.05).
The coefficients of determination (r2 = 0.55) indicate that sample size and number of point classes are correlated for the study area assemblages, taken as a whole. The Cochran-
Armitage test of trend indicates that assemblage duration and number of point classes are not correlated, although the trend is relatively weak. This relationship reduces the comparability of the study area assemblages as a single analytical unit and renders interpretation of seriation results more speculative, as the structure of the study area assemblages are likely skewing the number of point classes represented. 154
0.45 -
0.4
0.35 03
. 025 0 0 2 02
0. 0
0~~~~~~~~~~
0 20 40 I0 80 I0 IM 10
Assemblage Duration
Figure 5.26. Duration Effects, Study Area
Correlation between sample size and number of classes is a pervasive trend among the seriation groupings examined in this study. Only the Point Reyes assemblages exhibit a weak correlation between these two variables-all others are moderately to strongly correlated.
Assemblage duration, by contrast, does not appear to be a significant influence on the number of point classes. Nevertheless, the ubiquity of the sample size-class diversity correlation poses a significant methodological conundrum, as it indicates a moderate to strong influence of sample structure on the seriations. The correlation coefficients calculated and presented previously in this chapter demonstrate that the trend is a positive one. That is, as sample size increases, so also does the number of classes. The addition of classes has the potential to alter the seriations presented in this chapter. 155
Occurrence Seriation
As described in Chapter 4, occurrence seriation is an analytical technique in which a series of artifacts or assemblages is ordered according to similarities in the presence or absence of classes of attributes or artifacts. The selected archaeological sites yielded 323 useable projectile points belonging to 12 artifact classes (see Table 3.13).
The occurrence seriation was conducted to achieve four goals: 1) to test whether there was an overarching projectile point tradition in the study area; 2) whether finer-scale seriations correspond with the historic territories of California Indian groups; 3) whether intra-group distinctions could be identified using seriation; and 4) whether patterns of social interaction are discernible via artifact seriation. To achieve these goals, several seriations were attempted, involving changes in geography and scope. The following seriations were attempted for the thesis, in the following order, each discussed under a separate heading below:
* Study Area (Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs)
* Point Reyes
* Santa Rosa Plain
* Warm Springs (all assemblages)
* Warm Springs (separate Upper Dry Creek and Warm Springs Creek groups)
* Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain
* Point Reyes-Warm Springs
* Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek (Warm Springs)
* Point Reyes-Warm Springs Creek (Warm Springs)
* Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs
* Santa Rosa Plain-Upper Dry Creek (Warm Springs)
* Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs Creek (Warm Springs) 156
Study Area Seriations
An attempt was made to seriate all 18 assemblages to address the possible existence of regional-scale projectile point traditions (Table 5.18). The seriation failed to produce a satisfactory order, with numerous violations of the seriation model evident in Table 5.18
(indicated in gray). Similarly, all of the study assemblages arrayed in chronological order fail to form a valid seriation (Table 5.19).
The standard interpretation of such failures to seriate is that the attempted seriations violated the local-area assemblage seriation criterion (O'Brien and Lyman 2000:286) and that more than one tradition of projectile point manufacture operated in the study area over the last
1,500 years B.P. This is an intuitively appealing explanation given that numerous discrete tribelets inhabited the study area during the historic period alone (Fredrickson and Peri 1984;
Jackson 1986; Jones and Hayes 1989:Figure 36; Praetzellis et al. 2000). Pearson's correlation coefficient shows that sample size affects the number of point classes in the seriation group (see
Figure 5.25); results of the seriations shown in Tables 5.18 and 5.19 are in part, or perhaps wholly, a product of the sample structure. Although a valid study area-wide seriation was not obtained, the hypothesis that more than one projectile point manufacturing tradition operated in the study area can be tested by attempting seriations within the three subregions examined in this thesis: Point Reyes, Santa Rosa Plain, and Warm Springs. Seriations are attempted for each subregion below to test for the presence of projectile point traditions at that scale, then for pairs of subregions, such as Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages. 157
Table 5.18. Morphological Seriation of All Study Assemblages
OiZO ZEZ OOOZm VD1 n I 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~I0 - - Cl VCCl0 Cl UA00 - 00 )V N CA~ c~ f
Cl 1 1 1 111009 i 1 1
-
2-.i, 1 1, 1 1 1; ];01 1
l Cl l 01 n'1- 1 _ 1 1 1 '"2102 1 1 1 1 1 _<~
Cl4
- I .t ,,.,' 0Xj,, 1 ''F}, 1 S' .. 1 1 ;t0,'ji_ ,5 1e 'Z tSZ:,1 1£ '.9,Ei'
Cn
1 1 1 1 T1 ., 1 - :1 1. 1 1 1 iS 1
- 1 1 1D 1 1j 1 1 1S 1 1 1 1.-Xwzw1
t ; '1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1
_l 1 : 1'SI7''- 1 ] 1xd ] l'X 1- 1 =1W: ~1 1 WNk1 1 1 l 1bE 1 1 158 Table 5.19. Chronological Seriation of All Study Assemblages Youngest Oldest _l _ o _ N _c __ - k~~l Or4 W) W)' W) WL) WI) 0 Zl Cl,,, O g Ot O r Z Z 0 W l)co~~~~~~~~~> C)Q k, .. 0 l l Cl C Cl)I Cl Cl 0l 0l 0 ~~~~Cd) ~ ~ ~ nCn E ( ) Cn ) r4 1 W 1 1 _ 1 !l _ 1 1 1 1 1 S 1 1 1 1 1 2l 1 I I II I I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 ' c 1 1 1- 4-4 - tw.0.R:' I4- Cl4 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 I, -"I'll" I I I~~ ~ I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~It~ e) 1 . 71I.'TI 1 1 I II I I 1 1 1 1 i-ili1,ItI I _11I _ ,I I I I I 1 .. AtI 1 1 1 I II I I I I Cl1 I I II I I I 1 1 I I Cl S~ - I 1 1 1 I IIII : I NCl I Cl 1,i' 1 1 I I I I I I I I 1 I 1. N_N _1l I 1 1 1 I II : 159 Point Reyes Seriations The Point Reyes assemblages (MRN-202, MRN-230, and MRN-396/H) were ordered by morphology and resulted in the serdation, shown in Table 5.20. Eight out of the twelve point classes employed in the thesis are represented among the Point Reyes assemblages. Although the serdation provides a satisfactory ordering, a comparison of the median assemblage ages in Table 5.20 reveals that the assemblages are not in chronological order; MRN-396/H chronologically belongs in the far right column of the figure, with MRN-230 in the center. This ordering violates the serdation model's criterion of historical continuity; that is, if the serdation represents a tradition of arrow point manufacture, the assemblages ordered should seriate morphologically and chronologically. Accordingly, the assemblages were ordered chronologically, as shown in Table 5.21. Table 5.20. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes Assemblages MRN-202 MRN-396/H MRN-230 Class 240 B.P. 325 B.P. 304 B.P. 11121 24111 1 24112 1 1 24121 32112 34111 1 34112 1 1 1 34121 1 3412.2 1 1 1 34212 34221 1 1 34222 1 1 1 160 Table 5.21. Chronological Ordering of Point Reyes Assemblages Class MRN-202 MRN-230 MRN-396/H 240 B.P. 304 B.P. 325 B.P. 11121 24111 1 24112 1 AN 24121 32112 341111 34112 1 l 1 34121 1 34122 1 1 1 34212 34221 1 1 34222 1 1 1 The chronological ordering shown in Table 5.21 above contains two violations of the seriation model, involving the absence of point classes 24112 and 34221 from MRN-230 while the same classes are present in the MRN-202 and MRN-396/H assemblages. The data shows that MRN-202 and MRN-396/H would seriate with one another, whereas MRN-230 would seriate with neither MRN-202 nor MRN-396/H. Table 5.21 also indicates that three point classes (classes 34112, 34122, and 34222) exhibit historical continuity across the Point Reyes assemblages. These apparently historical classes suggest some degree of interaction among the entities responsible for the formation of MRN-202, MRN-230, and MRN-396/H. Sample-size and the number of point classes represented among the Point Reyes assemblages is not likely affecting the results of the seriation (Figure 5.1). Barring the influence of sample structure on the seriation, it would appear that MRN-202, MRN-230, and MRN-396/H do not represent a distinct arrow point-making tradition. The implications of these finding are discussed in Chapter 6. 161 Santa Rosa Plain Seriation Seriation of the five Santa Rosa Plain assemblages used in this study yielded an ordering that is both chronological and contains no violations of the seriation model (Table 5.22). All 12 arrow point classes employed in the thesis are represented among the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages. As discussed previously in this chapter, sample size and number of point classes are correlated' (Figure 5.3), indicating that the seriation is likely influenced by sample structure. Appendix A indicates that the median age of each assemblage is not influenced by statistical outliers (Figures A.5, A.7, A.9, A.11, and A.13). Although the seriation presented in Table 5.22 appears to represent a tradition of arrow-point manufacture on the Santa Rosa Plain, its validity as a valid seriation cannot be verified or falsified. Implications of this conundrum are discussed further in Chapter 6. Table 5.22. Santa Rosa Plain Seriation SON- SON-455 SON-159 SON-456 SON-1269 Class 1250/1251 181 B.P. 312 B.P. 362 B.P. 473 B.P. 534 B.P. 11121 1 1 1 1 24111 24112 1 1 1 24121 1 1 1 1 32112 1 34111 1 N 1 N 1 34112 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 1 34212 34221 1 1 1 1 34222 1 1 1 1 162 Warm Springs Seriations Two seriations of the 10 Warm Springs assemblages used in this study were attempted (Tables 5.23, 5.24). Ten of the 12 point classes are represented among the Warm Springs assemblages. On strictly morphological grounds, the assemblages failed to seriate; the ordering contains 15 violations of the seriation model (Table 5.23). A chronological ordering was attempted as well, shown in Table 5.24. The chronological ordering of Warm Springs assemblages also fails to produce a valid seriation; this ordering contains 27 violations of the seriation model (Table 5.24). Table 5.23. Morphological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- 597 593-11 544/H 553 593-1 568 556 547 567 572 Class 307 818 250 357 266 620 620 674 233 730 B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 1 1 1 24121 1 1 1 32112 1 1 34111 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 EW 1 34122 1I 1 1 1 34212 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 1 fXN I I I I I I I I , ` A ,I I~~~~~~~~~~ 163 Table 5.24. Chronological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages SON- SON SSON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON SSON- SON- 567 544/H 593-I 597 553 568 556 547 572 II 233 250 266 307 357 620 620 674 730 B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 818 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 1 1 1 24121 1 1 1 32112 1 1 34111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 »I - 1 34122 1 1 1 1 34212 1 1. 1 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 1I The Warm Springs assemblages differ from the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages in that the former contains numerous chert arrow points whereas the latter contain obsidian points exclusively. Furthermore, among the Warm Springs sample, the individual assemblages vary in their respective proportions of obsidian to chert arrow points (see Tables A. 17-A.3 8). Because no age estimates have been obtained directly for the chert points in these assemblages, inclusion of the artifacts has the potential to skew seriations since the chert points cannot be factored into calculations of median assemblage age and assemblage duration. Examination of Tables A.17-A.38 shows that the chert points included in the assemblages do not 164 introduce point classes not otherwise represented among the obsidian specimens, indicating that their inclusion is not influencing the presence of particular point classes (see Tables 5.25, 5.26). To determine whether the seriation of these assemblages is significantly affected by the inclusion of chert artifacts, four separate seriations were run for Warm Springs. Table 5.25 reports the results of the first two seriation attempts, which ordered the Warm Springs seriations separately by chert and obsidian. Table 5.26 presents the results of the third and fourth seriations, which comprised chronological orderings of the assemblages, again by material type, without respect to morphology. Table 5.25. Morphological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points Chert SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- Class 593-1 572 556 553 547 568 544/H 567 593-11 597 266 730 620 357 674 620 250 233 818 307 BP. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 24112 1:i 1 1 1 2412111 321121 34111 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1l 1 34122 1 1 1 34212 1 ? 1 Ad 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 1 1 Note: Numbers in italics represent classes found only among obsidian specimens at a particular site Gray cells denote violations of the seriation model 165 Table 5.25. Morphological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points Obsidian SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- Class 547 567 544/H 593-1 553 568 556 597 572 593-II Class 674 233 250 266 357 620 620 307 730 818 BP. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 24121 1 1 1 32112 1 1 34111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 34122 34212 1lll 34221 3422211 X0->2C:.-j 21 Note: Numbers in italics represent classes found only among chert specimens at a particular site Gray cells denote violations of the seriation model Table 5.25 shows that the chert-only morphological ordering contains seven violations of the seriation model, whereas the obsidian-only ordering contains 20 violations of the seriation model. Neither ordering places more than two assemblages next to one another on morphological grounds without causing violations elsewhere in the array. Indeed, the addition of chert specimens improves the formal seriation of the Warm Springs assemblages (Tables 5.24, 5.25). Table 5.26 contains 19 seriation violations in the chert-only ordering and 26 violations using only obsidian, compared to 27 violations in Table 5.24. The obsidian-only portion of Table 5.26 is nearly identical to Table 5.24, which uses both chert and obsidian points. Inclusion of chert points in the Warm Springs group, therefore, does not appear to be skewing the seriations. 166 Table 5.26. Chronological Seriation of Warm Springs Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- Class 567 544/H 593-I 597 553 556 568 547 572 593-II 233 250 266 307 357 620 620 674 730 818 B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 w 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1; 1 1 24121 1 1 32112 1 't 34111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 U 34112 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 34212 1 i * 1 ; 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 1 1 Note: Numbers in italics represent classes only found among obsidian specimens at Warm Springs. Gray cells denote violations of the seriation model SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- Class 567 544/H 593-I 597 553 568 556 547 572 593-I1 233 250 266 307 357 620 620 674 730 818 B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 24121 1 1 1 32112 1 ' 1 34111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 11 1111 34121 1 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 34212 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 1 1 167 The fact that sample size and number of classes are correlated indicates that sample structure is likely affecting the results of the seriation (Figure 5.5). Whether the seriations shown in Tables 5.24-5.26 mean that no arrow point-making tradition is discernible among the Warm Springs assemblages cannot be verified or falsified because of the influence of sample structure. Upper Dry Creek Seriations None of the attempts to seriate the Upper Dry Creek assemblages produced a valid seriation (Tables 5.27, 5.28). A strictly morphological ordering of assemblages, shown in Table 5.27, exhibits seven violations of the seriation model. Placed in chronological order, the Upper Dry Creek assemblages violate the seriation model 12 times (Table 5.28). Pearson' correlation coefficient and the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on sample-size and assemblage duration effects on the number of point classes represented among the Warm Springs assemblages indicate that sample size is likely affecting the results of the seriation (see Figure 5.7). Table 5.27. Morphological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages SON-567 SON-597 SON-568 SON-593-1 SON-572 SON-593-II Class 233 B.P. 307 B.P. 620 B.P. 266 B.P. 730 B.P. 818 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 24121 1 1 32112 34111 1 = i. 1 34112 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 34122 1 1 1 34212 1 1 1 34221 34222 168 Table 5.28. Chronological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages SON-567 SON-593-I SON-597 SON-568 SON-572 SON-593-I1 Class 233 B.P. 266 B.P. 307 B.P. 620 B.P. 730 B.P. 818 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 24112 1a 1 24121 ______32112 . 34111 34112 34121 I ! = ______34 122 MIX NOiAd } II 34212 .W ima m s 34222___34221 1 To determine whether the inclusion of chert arrow points significantly affects serdation of the Upper Dry Creek assemblages, four separate seriations were attempted. Table 5.29 reports the results of the first two serdation attempts, which ordered the assemblages morphologically by material. Table 5.30 presents chronological orderings of the assemblages by material type. Table 5.29. Morphological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points Class' SON-593-1 SON-572 SON-597 SON-593-11 SON-568 SON-567 266 B.P. 730 B.P. 307 B.P. 818 B.P. 620 B.P. 233 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 24112 24121 I 32112 t 34111 1 U 34112 1 ___.,.._ 1 1 34121 1 34122 1 j 34212 I _ 1 1 1 34221 34222 ______ Note: Numbers in italics represent classes only found among obsidian specimens in Upper Dry Creek assemblages. Gray cells denote violations of the sernation model 169 Table 5.29. Morphological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points SON-593-1 SON-572 SON-597 SON-593-11 SON-568 SON-567 Class 266 B.P. 730 B.P. 307 B.P. 818 B.P. 620 B.P. 233 B.P. SON-567 SON-572 SON-593-I SON-568 SON-593-II SON- Class 233 B.P. 730 B.P. 266 B.P. 620 B.P. 818 B.P. 307 B. 1112[ 241 111 24112111 24121 1 1 r. 32112 t 34111 .t 34112 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 34122 1 1 1 34212. 1 ; ; 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 . 1 Note: Gray cells denote violations of the sernation model Table 5.30. Chronological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points SON-567 SON-593-I SON-597 SON-568 SON-572 SON-593- Class 233 B.P. 266 B.P. 307 B.P. 620 B.P. 730 B.P. 8181B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 I1 24121 1 _ _ _ _ _ 32112 I I 34111 1 1 1 34112 1 .__;1 . __ . ; 11 34121 1 _ _ _ _ _1 34122 1 l 1 34212 1 1 1 34222 1 Note: Numbers in italics represent classes only found among obsidian specimens in Upper Dry Creek assemblages. Gray cells denote violations of the seriation model 170 Table 5.30. Chronological Seriation of Upper Dry Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points SON-593- Class SON-567 SON-593-I SON-597 SON-568 SON-572 S 5 233 B.P. 266 B.P. 307 B.P. 620 B.P. 730 B.P. 818 B.P. 11121 24111, 1 l 1 24112: 1 ______Ad z 24121 1 . 1 r. 32112 vci 34111' 1 . 1 1 . 34112 1 1 1 34121. 1 34122 1 1 1 1 34212 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 1 Note: Gray cells denote violations of the seriation model In Table 5.29, the chert-only morphological ordering contains five violations of the seriation model. The obsidian-only ordering contains four violations of the seriation model. These figures are slightly lower than the number- of violations shown in Table 5.27, which contains seven violations. Neither ordering shown in Table 5.29 places more than three assemblages next to one another on morphological grounds without causing violations of the seriation model for other assemblages-Table 5.29, which contains chert and obsidian points, shows four assemblages seriated together. Use of only chert or obsidian specimens does not improve morphological seriation of the Upper Dry Creek assemblages, but worsens it slightly. The chronological ordering depicted in Table 5.30 contains seven seriation violations in the chert-only ordering and 10 violations in the obsidian-only ordering, compared to 12 seriation violations in Table 5.28, which seriates both chert and obsidian arrow points. The inclusion of chert arrow points in the Warm Springs assemblages does not appear to improve seriation results in terms of the number of assemblages successfully seriated, but does improve them slightly in 171 terms of the number of violations in chronological orderings of the assemblage. The inclusion of chert points in the Upper Dry Creek assemblages is therefore not problematic and the seriation results shown in Tables 5.27 and 5.28 are used in the interpretive discussions of Chapter 6. The effects of sample size on the seriations render interpretation of the seriations suspect, however. Warm Springs Creek Seriations An attempt was made to seriate the point assemblages from the Warm Springs Creek group (Table 5.31). The four Warm Springs Creek assemblages were seriated successfully, providing a correct chronological and morphological ordering. Sample size is likely affecting the results of the seriation (see Figure 5.9). Table 5.31. Seriation of Warm Springs Creek Assemblages SON-544/H SON-553 SON-556 SON-547 Class 250 B.P. 357 B.P. 620 B.P. 674 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 i 24112 1 1 24121 1 32112 1 1 34111 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 34122 1 34212 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 172 To determine whether seriation of the Warm Springs Creek assemblages is significantly affected by the inclusion of chert points, four seriations were run for these samples. Table 5.32 reports separate morphological orderings by material type. Table 5.33 presents chronological orderings of the assemblages, again by material type, without respect to morphology. Table 5.32. Morphological Seriation of Warm Springs Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points Class SON-556 SON-553 SON-547 SON-544/H Class ~620 B.P. 357 B.P. 674 B.P. 250 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 24112 ==1 24121 ______1 32112 t 34111 ~~~1 1 1 1 U ~~34112 1 1 1 34121 34122 34212 ______1__ 34221 34222 ______Numbers in italics represent classes only found among obsidian specimens in Warm Springs Creek assemblages. Gray cells denote violations of the seriation model SON-547 SON-544/H SON-553 SON-556 Class 674 B.P. 250 B.P. 357 B.P. 620 B.P. 24111 1 1 1 1 24112 l 24121 1 32112 1 I 34111 1 1 1 1 O0 34112 1 1 1 0 ~ 34121 1 1 34122 1 34212 1 1 1 1 34221 34222 l Numbers in italics represent classes only found among chert specimens in Warm Springs Creek assemblages 173 Table 5.32 demonstrates that a chert-only morphological ordering fails to produce a valid seriation, containing a violation of the serdation model that would not have occurred if only obsidian points were used. The obsidian-only morphological seriation is successful, having no violations of the serdation model. Note in Table 5.32 that the ordering could easily have been made chronological as well, if SON-547 had been placed in the far right colunm. The inclusion of chert specimens is not problematic for the Warm Springs Creek seriations. Table 5.33. Chronological Seriation of Wann Springs Creek Assemblages, Chert vs. Obsidian Points Class SON-544/H SON-553 SON-556 SON-547 250 B.P. 357 B.P. 620 B.P. 674 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 I10 24112 1 24121 1 32112 34111 1 1 1 1 c) 34112 1 1 1 1 34121 34122 34212 1 34221 34222 Numbers in italics represent classes only found among obsidian specimens in Warm Springs Creek assemblages. 'Gray cells denote violations of the seriation model Class SON-544/H SON-553 SON-556 SON-547 250 B.P. 357 B.P. 620 B.P. 674 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 24112 1 24121 32112 1 1 34111 1 1 1 34112 1 1 34121 1 1 34122 34212 1 1 1 34221 34222 1 Numbers in italics represent classes only found among chert specimens in Warm Springs Creek assemblages 174 Table 5.33 demonstrates that a chert-only chronological ordering fails to produce a valid seriation, as it contains two violations of the seriation model. Both violations would not have occurred if obsidian forms were included. The obsidian-only ordering, on the other hand, forms a valid seriation. The use of chert and obsidian points together in a seriation is not problematic. Nevertheless, the seriation depicted in Table 5.31 cannot be verified or falsified as a tradition of arrow point-making because sample size is influencing the seriation (see Chapter 6). Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain Seriations Seriations were attempted for the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages to determine whether a shared arrow point tradition exists between the two localities or whether other forms of interaction are evident. Whether ordered by morphology or chronology, the Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain assemblages do not form a valid seriation (Tables 5.34, 5.35). The morphological seriation in Table 5.34 contains 11 violations of the seriation model, whereas the chronological seriation in Table 5.35 contains nine. Pearson's correlation coefficient and the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on sample-size and assemblage duration effects on the number of point classes represented among the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages indicate that sample size is likely affecting the results of the seriation (Figure 5.11). The results shown in Tables 5.34 and 5.35 suggest that there is not a shared arrow point-making tradition evident among the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages, although sample-size effects may mask such a tradition. It is notable however, that Table 5.35 contains three point classes (34112, 34122, and 34222) that occur within seven or eight of the seriated assemblages. This historical continuity may suggest some sort of interaction between Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain populations. These matters are discussed further in Chapter 6. 175 Table 5.34. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain MRN- SON- MRN- MRN- SON- SON- SON- SON- 230 Class 1250/1251 396/H 202 1269 159 455 456 181 B.P. 325 B.P. 240 B.P. 534 B.P. 362 B.P. 312 B.P. 473 B.P. B.P. 11121 1 24112 1AT7 1 24112IIiII 24121 1 ! 1 1 1 32112 34111 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34212 34221 1 1 1 1 1 1 34222 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 Table 5.35. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain SON- MRN- MRN- SON- MRN- SON- SON- O269 Class 1250/1251 202 230 455 396/H 159 456 181 B.P. 240 B.P. 304 B.P. 312 B.P. 325 B.P. 362 B.P. 473 B.P. 534 B.P. 11121 1 1 1 1 24111 1 I 24112 1 1 1 1 24121 1111 32112 34111 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34212 1 34221 1 1 1 1 1 1 34222 1 1 1 176 Point Reyes-Warm Springs Seriations Seriations were attempted for the Point Reyes and Warm Springs assemblages to determine whether a shared arrow point tradition exists between the two localities or whether other forms of interaction are evident. Neither an order by morphology nor chronology forms a valid seriation (Tables 5.36, 5.37). The morphological seriation in Table 5.36 contains 37 violations of the seriation model, whereas Table 5.37 contains 46 violations of the seriation model. The results shown in Tables 5.36 and 5.37 suggest that there is no shared arrow point- making tradition evident between the Point Reyes and Warm Springs assemblages. It must be noted, however, that the seriation is affected by sample structure (Figure 5.17) that may be masking a shared arrow point-making tradition or other patterns. Table 5.36. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages C'4 C) 0 '0r U Z ZO _0 Z O 2 241112 I I I I l l . ; .; . . 24112 1 1 1 1-- ., 1, 1 1 24121 1 1 32112 1 1 2412134111 1 I1 1 1 1 1 1 1 _= 1 1 34121134112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 1 34212 1 34221 34222 1 1 1 177 Table 5.37. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and All Warm Springs Assemblages 178 Point Reyes-Upper Dry Creek Seriations Seriations were attempted for the Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek assemblages to determine whether a shared arrow point tradition exists between the two localities or whether other forms of interaction are evident. Whether ordered by morphology or chronology, the Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek assemblages do not form a valid seriation (Tables 5.38, 5.39). The morphological serdation in Table 5.38 contains 15 violations of the serdation model, whereas the chronological seriation in Table 5.39 contains 21. Pearson's correlation coefficient and the Cochran-Armitage test of trend on sample-size and assemblage duration effects on classes present in the Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek assemblages indicate that sample size is likely affecting the results of the seriations. Given the effects that sample size may be exerting on the number of classes represented among the seriated assemblages, the conclusion that Tables 5.38 and 5.39 indicate no shared arrow point-making tradition between the Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek assemblages cannot be properly falsified or supported (see Chapter 6 for further discussion). Table 5.38. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages SO- SN R-SON-SON- SON- SON- MR- MRN- Class 572 593-1 230 568 593-11 597 567 396/H 202 730 266 307 233 240 B.P. B.P. 304 B.P. 620 B.P. 818 B.P. B.P. B.P. 325 B.P. B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 1 1 1 24121 1 1 32112 _ _ _ 34111 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 §< ___ 111 34121 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 _NMI____ 1 1 34212 :___.__ 1 1 1 1 34221 __.____ 1 34222 ______179 Table 5.39. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages Point Reyes-Warm Springs Creek Seriations Seriations were attempted for the Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek assemblages to determine whether a shared arrow point tradition exists between the two localities or whether other forms of interaction are evident. Whether ordered by morphology or chronology, the Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek assemblages do not form a valid seriation (Tables 5.40, 5.41). The morphological seriation in Table 5.40 contains five violations of the seriation model, whereas the chronological seriation in Table 5.41 contains 12. One point class, 34112, is present in all assemblages (Table 5.41). Interpretation of these seriations is complicated by the fact that sample size is likely affecting the results of the seriations (Figure 5.21). Given the effects that sample size may be exerting on the number of classes represented among the seriated assemblages, the 180 conclusion that Tables 5.40 and 5.41 indicate no shared arrow point-making tradition between the Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek assemblages cannot be properly falsified or supported (see Chapter 6 for further discussion). Table 5.40. Morphological Seriation of Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages SON-556 SON- SON-553 MRN-230 SON-547 MRN-202 Class 620 B.P. 5 357 B.P. 304 B.P. 674 B.P. 3962TH 240 B.P. 250 B.P. 325 B.P. 11121 24111 1 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 1 24121 1 32112 1 1 34111 1 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121 1 1 1 34122 1 I I 1 34212 1 1 1 1 34221 1 1 34222 1 1 1 1 Table 5.41. Chronological Seriation of Point Reyes and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages 181 Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs Seriations Seriations were attempted for the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs assemblages to determine whether a shared arrow point tradition exists between the two localities or whether other forms of interaction are evident. Whether ordered in terms of morphology or chronology, the assemblages do not form a valid seriation (Tables 5.42, 5.43). The morphological seriation in Table 5.42. Morphological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages N N 00 n 'IC CA 'n C te'I If)Z C) 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 o 24112~~~~~~~~~ = - -c 11 k -1r V- 1 _-V) _V-1 112 24121~~~Lf 1~ " 1 1 f1 - -1 24111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34112 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34121341221 ig<01 1 fJo21 X 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 34212 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34222 34222 = = = = NOV.-= =i m m _ Table 5.42 contains 36 violations of the seriation model, whereas Table 5.43 contains 48 violations. The results shown in Tables 5.42 and 5.43 suggest that there is no shared arrow point- making tradition evident between the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs assemblages. One point class, 34222, has a continuous distribution from SON-455 through SON-568, appearing in four Santa Rosa Plain assemblages and two Warm Spring assemblages (one Upper Dry Creek and one Warm Springs Creek), but given sample-size effects, this apparent historical continuity may be due to a random effect. 182 Table 5.43. Chronological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and All Warm Springs Assemblages Do _- Z _0Z V)~ k k C ks 1 , v ) oo _ 8>O_ en Z,O ttZK Z s Z Z Z Z >Z O Z Z Z O 7 Cn Cb O00en 0 0,-z 0 0tC, 0° O! 0 0m 02 ,ON 0C nC _ 1 :=1 r 1 1 1 Cl 11111I'' .,,,'."00.iiI Cq Cl. '";"yS' _: .. '.k.". .''t '1 1 r i, : j. :> 01~~~~~~~~~~~~~ _ Cl 00 i : 4 ; i: l 1 v Cl, 0 g. :0- 02 qr C~Xlf '' ::..'' _ ''N 183 Santa Rosa Plain-Upper Dry Creek Seriations Seriations were attempted for the Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek assemblages to determine whether a shared arrow point tradition exists between the two localities or whether other forms of interaction are evident. Whether ordered by morphology or chronology, the Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek assemblages do not form a valid seriation (Tables 5.44, 5.45). The morphological seriation in Table 5.44 contains 24 violations of the seriation model, whereas the chronological seriation in Table 5.45 contains 29. Two point classes (11121 and 34222) display continuous distributions across assemblages. Class 11121 is only represented at four of the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages and does not appear to be an indicator of inter-locality interact- Table 5.44. Morphological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- 1269 159 455 456 572 568 593-I 597 567 1250/1251 Class 534 362 312 473 730 620 11 266 307 233 181251 B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P . BR 18] B.P. 11121 1 1 1 1 24111 1 1 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 _____FL_ _ _ _ 24121 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 32112 . 1 34111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34112 1I I I I 34121 1 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 1 34212 1 34221 l 1 1 1 34222 I 1 1 1 1 tions. Class 34222, by contrast, is present in four Santa Rosa Plain assemblages and one Upper Dry Creek assemblage, perhaps suggesting some form of interaction between the two populations. Class 34222 also could have appeared in the two localities independently. Given 184 that sample size is affecting the results of the seriations (Figure 5.19), interpretation of the seriations is uncertain. Tables 5.44 and 5.45 give the appearance of no shared arrow point- making tradition between the Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek, for example, but sample size effects may be obfuscating such a pattern (see Chapter 6 for further discussion). Table 5.45. Chronological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Upper Dry Creek Assemblages SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- 567 593-I 597 455 159 456 1269 568 572 593- Class 1250/1251 233 266 307 312 362 473 534 620 730 181 B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 818 _ _ _ _ ~~~~~~~~~B.P. 11121 1 1 1 1 24111 1 1 1 1Iuff 24112 1 1 32112 1 34111 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 341121 1 1 1 1 1 1R 34121 1EP 34122 1 .<: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34212___1 __ 1 i 34221 1: 1 1 1 34222 = 1 1 1 1 1 Santa Rosa Plain-Warm Springs Creek Seriations Seriations were attempted for the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek assemblages to determine whether a shared arrow point tradition or other forms of interaction are evident. The assemblages do not form valid morphological or temporal seriations (Tables 5.46, 5.47). The seriation in Table 5.46 contains 10 violations of the serdation model, whereas Table 5.47 contains 18. Four classes (24112, 34112, 34121, and 34222) have continuous distributions that include assemblages from both localities (Table 5.47), perhaps suggesting some degree of interaction between the two populations. Reliable explication of the seriations is tenuous due to sample-size 185 effects. Patterns of social interaction may be obscured by sample structure, as may be the case with the purported arrow point-manufacturing tradition (see Chapter 6 for further discussion). Table 5.46. Morphological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- 556 547 544/H 553 456 455 159 1269 Class 1250/1251 620 674 250 357 473 312 362 534 181 B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 11121 1 1 1 24111 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 1 1 24121 1 1 1 1 1 32112 1 1 1 34111 _ 1 34112 1 1 34121 1 1 1 1 1 1 34122 1 _ 1 1 1 1 1 34212 34221 1 1 1 1 34222 1 1 1 1 1 Table 5.47. Chronological Seriation of Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek Assemblages SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- 544/H 455 553 159 456 1269 556 547 Class 1250/18251 250 312 357 362 473 534 620 674 18] B.P.B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. B.P. 11121 1 :s<' 1 1 24111 1 1 1 1 24112 1 1 1 1 I 24121 I 1 1 1 32112 1 1 1 34111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34112 34121 1 1 1 1 1 1 34122 1 1 1 1 1 1I 34212 1 1 1 1 1 34221 1 1 K$ 1 1 34222 1 1 186 To summarize, the seriation analysis of all 18 study sites failed to produce a satisfactory ordering. This outcome was expected insofar as the study area was ethnically and socially heterogeneous during late prehistoric and historic times. The seriations cannot be reasonably construed to provide empirical support for sociocultural heterogeneity in the study area, however, in that the failure to seriate may simply be a matter of sample composition. Apparently valid seriations were produced for just two subregions: Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek. These seriations are also plagued with sample-size effects and cannot be interpreted with confidence. Seriation attempts for the other subregions-Point Reyes, Warm Springs, and Upper Dry Creek-failed to produce valid seriations. All of the interregional seriations appear to be similarly biased by sample size issues. Interpretations of the seriation results are discussed in Chapter 6. 187 CHAPTER 6 INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS This thesis has examined several research questions posed by previous investigators working in the southern North Coast Ranges. The selected research questions seemed amenable to analysis using occurrence seriation, as it can be applied to any archaeological phenomenon, is relatively unambiguous in application (with the exception of sample selection), and coupled with evolutionary theory possesses all the characteristics of falsifiable theory and method. The study findings and interpretations are provided under separate headings below, organized by the spatial units of analysis employed in the study. Regional-Scale Seriation A regional-scale occurrence seriation of the 18 study assemblages was undertaken to determine whether the manufacture of arrow points in the region was conditioned more strongly by local traditions of fabrication or broader regional influences such as the exchange of projectile points. The prevalence of localized transmission of arrow-point manufacturing traditions would be suggested if the occurrence seriation failed to produce an appropriate ordering for the region. Broader trends of social interaction or exchange would be suggested were historical and heritable continuity demonstrated between two of the subregions or across the entire region. In the present study, the regional-scale seriation failed to produce a valid ordering, suggesting that the manufacture of projectile points in a given subregion may be influenced primarily by local transmission of manufacturing traditions. This conclusion cannot be drawn with confidence in the present study, however, because Table 5.53 indicates that sample size and the number of point classes represented in the study area are correlated. Sample structure, therefore, is likely influencing the number of classes represented in some or all of the study assemblages and 188 skewing the seriation results. It is also important to note that the failure to seriate does not indicate a lack of influence from areas outside of the present study boundaries, including the Napa Valley and Clear Lake basin. After the failure of regional-scale seriation, locality-specific and inter-locality seriations were conducted, the results of which are interpreted below. Locality-Specific Seriations Occurrence seriations were conducted for each of the localities included in the study area, producing two valid orderings. These are discussed under separate headings below. Point Reyes Three assemblages from three archaeological sites on the Point Reyes Peninsula were included in the present study: MRN-202, MRN-230, and MRN-396/H. The selected assemblages span approximately 454 years (185-639 B.P.), excluding outliers, and failed to produce a valid ordering when seriated (Table 5.20, 5.21). MRN-202 and MRN-396/H seriate together, but MRN-230 seriates with neither. Further, though the Point Reyes assemblages do not form a valid seriation, Table 5.21 indicates that three point classes (34112, 34122, and 34222) exhibit historical continuity among the Point Reyes assemblages. These two patterns produce a seemingly contradictory scenario: two of the three assemblages seriate together, the third seriates with neither, yet the seriation exhibits historical continuity in three point classes across all three assemblages. The seriation itself provides little insight into the nature of the postulated interaction. Geography and intergroup interaction are explored below to elucidate the patterning. Interaction with social groups outside of Point Reyes is taken up in the section dealing with the Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain seriation (see below). 189 The most likely causal factor behind assemblage differentiation of MRN-230 from MRN- 202 and MRN-396/H is geography. Situated on eastern Tomales Bay, MRN-202 and MRN- 396/H are located 18.3 km and 16.0 km, respectively, north of MRN-230 (Origer 1987:Map 4); MRN-230 is located on Drakes Bay in the central Point Reyes peninsula. Although the distances involved do not necessarily preclude sufficient interaction between Tomales and southern Point Reyes peoples to foster a shared arrow point manufacturing tradition, the Tomales sites (MRN- 202 and MRN-396/H) and MRN-230 are located in different historic-period Coast Miwok tribelet territories-the former near the Cotomkowi tribelet, the latter near Olema (Barrett 1908:Map; Basgall et al. 2006:Map 10; Dietz 1976:Map 2; Kelly 1978:Figure 1). It must be said, however, that the projection of historic-period tribelet boundaries into prehistoric times is not a straightforward enterprise and requires multiple lines of evidence to support. Neither does social differentiation preclude the sharing of conventions in material culture. Santa Rosa Plain The Santa Rosa assemblages included in this study produced a valid seriation (from latest to earliest: SON-1250/1251, SON-455, SON-159, SON-456, and SON-1269), though sample size appears to be influencing the results (Figure 5.3), so the seriation cannot be taken to represent a distinct tradition of arrow point manufacture in the Santa Rosa area. The inference that these assemblages belong to the same tradition of arrow point manufacture is strengthened slightly by the temporal and spatial distributions of assemblages. The assemblages span 871 years, from 98 to 969 B.P., and each assemblage overlaps two others (Tables A.7, A.9, A.11, A.13, and A.15). That the assemblages are coeval supports the seriation results. In addition, the assemblages are located in a small area measuring 7.9 km by 4.4 km or 34.8 km2, easily within a daily forager trip radius (Basgall and Bouey 1991:156-157; Morgan 2008:255-256). Four of the assemblages 190 (SON-1250/1251, SON-455, SON-456, and SON-1269) are located in the historic territory of the Gualorni tribelet of the Southern Pomo (Jones and Hayes 1989:Figure 36). Following Slaymaker (1982:32), Jones and Hayes (1989:Figure 36) also place SON-159 in Gualomi territory, whereas Jackson (1986:Table 2) puts the site in Livantolomi (Southern Pomo) territory. In the final analysis, support of the seriation is equivocal: the temporal accord of the assemblages does not obviate sample-size effects and historic-period tribelet boundaries do not necessarily speak to prehistoric social boundaries. Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain As shown in Tables 5.34 and 5.35, the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages do not form a valid seriation, although three point classes display historical continuity: 34112, 34122, and 34222 (Table 6.1). This phenomenon suggests some form of interaction between the two localities, but sample-size effects preclude a straightforward interpretation of these data. Provisional examination of the direction of these purported social interactions is provided below. Table 6.1. Obsidian Source Profiles at Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain Point Reyes Santa Rosa Plain Class Class Source 34112 34122 34222 34112 34122 34222 Annadel 3 1 4 11 18 6 Napa 4493 Valley 5 4 3 Borax LakeI Based on the limited data provided by the study assemblages, obsidian arrow points are older on the Santa Rosa Plain than Point Reyes; Napa Valley specimens are evident in the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages used in this study in 894 B.P., Annadel specimens in 745 B.P. Napa 191 Valley and Ainadel arrow points manifest in the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages 654 and 525 years earlier, respectively, than in the Point Reyes assemblages. This suggests that the general direction of materials and information concerning the manufacture of obsidian arrow points may have been from the Santa Rosa Plain to Point Reyes peninsula. Support for this hypothesis is found in the obsidian source profiles for point classes 34112, 34122, and 34222. Annadel obsidian dominates the obsidian source profiles for the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblage. Class 34122 at Point Reyes, however, is most commonly associated with Napa Valley obsidian and Class 34222 exhibits equal proportions of Annadel and Napa Valley glass. Sample size is insufficient to determine whether Napa Valley obsidian was obtained by Point Reyes peoples via the inhabitants of the Santa Rosa Plain, from another social group, or both. As discussed in Chapter 1, Jackson (1986:73, 91) suggested that after ca. 450 B.P. the Gualomi (Southern Pomo) tribelet, which controlled the Annadel obsidian source, began to manufacture non-serrated corner-notched arrow points for trade in the Central California clamshell disk bead economy. Non-serrated points were purportedly designed to facilitate ready customization of the points by trading partners such as the Coast Miwok. Jackson (1986:73, 91) proposes that after 450 B.P. (Upper Emergent Period or Phase 2 of the Late Period) this situation led to a simplification of form-a preponderance of non-serrated arrow points-and a concomitant reduction in the frequency of serrated projectile points. According to Jackson's scenario, the three point classes that may be attributable to exchange between the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages (34112, 34122, and 34222) should be distributed as follows with respect to Annadel specimens: the non-serrated classes (34112 and 34122) should be present in the Point Reyes assemblages primarily or exclusively after 450 B.P., whereas the serrated class 34222 should predominate before 450 B.P. 192 The temporal distribution of class 34112 in the Point Reyes assemblages is contrary to Jackson's (1986) expectations: an Annadel specimen of class 34112 first appears in Drakes Bay (MRN-230) about 509 B.P., before the class appears in the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages (415 B.P.). It must be cautioned, however, that the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages considered in this thesis are merely five of at least 23 recorded prehistoric sites immediately surrounding the Annadel obsidian source (Jones and Hayes 1989:Figure 3; Jones and Hayes 1993:Figure 1). As such, the possibility must be considered that class 34112 is present in other Santa Rosa Plain assemblages prior to its appearance in the Point Reyes peninsula. The 509 B.P. appearance of class 34112 in Point Reyes therefore cannot be taken as reliable falsification of Jackson's (1986) hypothesis. Class 34122 conforms to Jackson's expectations, Annadel specimens being present first in the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages (from 894 to 223 B.P.), then in Point Reyes ca. 240 B.P. Finally, the Annadel specimens of serrated point class 34222 contradict Jackson's (1986) reconstruction of late prehistoric exchange between Point Reyes and the Santa Rosa Plain. The class is present in the Santa Rosa assemblages before Point Reyes, but Annadel specimens belonging to class 34222 persist in both areas beyond 450 B.P. (200 B.P. in Point Reyes and 266 B.P. on the Santa Rosa Plain). Warm Springs Ten assemblages from Warm Springs (SON-547, SON-567, SON-544/H, SON-593-I, SON-553, SON-568, SON-556, SON-597, SON-572, and SON-593-II) were included in this study. These assemblages collectively span the interval 73-1235 B.P., or 1,162 years. As stated in Chapter 5, these assemblages do not form a valid seriation (Tables 5.23, 5.24). The seriation does not appear to be influenced by material type (Tables 5.25, 5.26), but is probably affected by sample size (Figure 5.5). Provisionally, the seriation results suggest that there was not a single 193 arrow point manufacturing tradition in Warm Springs from 73 to 1235 B.P. The seriated Warm Springs assemblages occupy the Upper Dry Creek and Warm Springs Creek drainages, which are separated by a constricted canyon referred to as the Dry Creek Narrows. Previous researchers postulated that these two areas represented portions of two or more separate settlement- subsistence systems (Baumhoff and Orlins 1979; Basgall and Bouey 1991:163, Maps 5, 6). This situation would be conducive to social differentiation and the differential transmission of knowledge between the inhabitants of Upper Dry Creek and Warm Springs Creek. In addition, the obsidian source profiles for arrow points between these two drainages differ markedly in their representation of Clear Lake (Borax Lake and Mt. Konocti) vs. southern North Coast Ranges (Annadel and Napa Valley) obsidian (Table 6.2). The mean percentage of Table 6.2. Frequency of Obsidian Sources in the Warm Springs Assemblages Warm Springs Creek Upper Dry Creek Source SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- SON- 544/H 547 553 556 567 568 572 593-1 593-Il 597 Annad n = I n = 3 n = 2 n = I n=4 n = I el 33% 13% 22% 4% 13% 33% Borax n- I n=2 n= I n=2 n= I Lake 11% 9% 4% 7% 25% Mt. n=2 n=4 n=1 n=3 n=9 n=7 n=5 n=1 Konoc 22% 17% 11% 60% 38% 58% 16% 25% Napa n=6 n=2 n= 14 n=5 n=2 n= 13 n=5 n=20 n=2 n=2 Valley 67% 67% 61% 56% 40% 54% 42% 65% 50% 67% SNCR 67 100 74 78 40 58 42 78 50 100 SNCR = Southern North Coast Ranges obsidian southern North Coast Ranges obsidian exhibited among the Upper Dry Creek assemblages is 61 percent, whereas that of the Warm Springs Creek assemblages is 80 percent. Moreover, Table 6.2 indicates that all assemblages in the Warm Springs Creek group contain greater than 50 percent southern North Coast Ranges obsidian, while fully half of the Upper Dry Creek assemblages containing less than 50 percent Annadel and Napa Valley obsidian. These trends 194 suggest that obsidian procurement for the Upper Dry Creek group focused on the Clear Lake basin, whereas the Warm Springs Creek group focused on the southern North Coast Ranges sources. This bifurcate pattern of obsidian acquisition at Warm Springs is likely to affect the distribution of arrow point classes, particularly if populations controlling access to the four principal North Coast Ranges obsidian sources manufactured their points differently in Clear Lake, than the Napa Valley or Annadel regions. Separate seriations were therefore attempted for the assemblages from each of these two drainages, as described in Chapter 5. Upper Dry Creek The Upper Dry Creek assemblages (SON-567, SON-568, SON-572, SON-593-I, SON- 593-II, and SON-597) span some 1,113 years from ca. 96 to 1235 B.P. Ordering of the Upper Dry Creek assemblages failed to produce a valid seriation on morphological or chronological grounds, yielding seven and 12 violations of the seriation model, respectively (Tables 5.27, 5.28). The seriation results, however, are correlated with sample size (Figure 5.7). Table 6.2 shows considerable variation in the percentage of Annadel and Napa Valley obsidian represented among the Upper Dry Creek assemblages, whereas the Warm Springs Creek assemblages exhibit less variation in obsidian source profiles and produce a valid seriation (see Chapter 5 and Warm Springs Creek immediately below). It appears probable that patterns of obsidian acquisition are influencing class distribution in the Upper Dry Creek assemblages, most likely due to the importation of finished or nearly finished Napa Valley and Mt. Konocti arrow points from sources controlled by significantly different populations. 195 Warm Springs Creek The Warm Springs Creek assemblages (SON-544/H, SON-547, SON-553, and SON-556) span some 1,303 years, from 73 to 1376 B.P. Ordering of the assemblages produced a valid seriation (Table 5.31), though it appears to be conditioned by sample size (Figure 5.9). All assemblages in the Warm Springs Creek group exhibit a southern North Coast Ranges focus for the acquisition of obsidian arrow points (Table 6.2). The Warm Springs Creek assemblages appear to represent a local arrow point-manufacturing tradition. The Pomoan Expansion One of the aims of this thesis was to explicate the nature and timing of the Pomoan expansion in the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs localities. Occurrence seriation of arrow points was selected as the method for exploring the Pomoan expansion because valid seriations of artifacts and assemblages from different regions imply that regular social intercourse between two or more groups occurred during the interval spanned by the seriated entities. The Point Reyes assemblages were included in the study because this locality has a culture history distinct from the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs localities. The Point Reyes assemblages therefore provided a convenient and simple test case for identifying distinct artifact-manufacturing traditions. The Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs assemblages were expected to display their own seriations with perhaps some evidence for interaction between the two localities. Within the Warm Springs seriation group, some internal differentiation of the constituent assemblages was expected since historical linguistic and linguistic prehistory studies suggest that the Southern Pomno and Kashaya languages diverged around 910 B.P. and at least two historically documented 196 Southern Pomo tribelets and possibly the Kashaya occupied Warm Springs (McCarthy 1991; Praetzellis et al. 2000). The expectation that the Point Reyes assemblages would form a valid seriation was not borne out by this study. When a seriation of the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa Plain assemblages was attempted, a valid seriation was not produced, supporting the hypothesis that the occupants of these two localities were socially distinct. These results are in accordance with the hypothesis that the Point Reyes and Santa Rosa localities were the settings for distinct cultural historical trajectories. They are also in agreement with the estimated boundaries of the Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo. The Point Reyes and Point Reyes-Santa Rosa Plain seriations provided little information concerning the Pomoan expansion, serving only to imply that Point Reyes assemblages are socially distinct from the Santa Rosa Plain assemblages. The expectation was that the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs seriations would be more revealing of Pomoan prehistory. The Warm Springs seriations provide some information relevant to the Pomoan expansion. The Warm Springs assemblages did not seriate as one entity, suggesting that more than one transmission system for the manufacture of arrow points existed in the Warm Springs locality. When seriations were attempted for the two most logical subgroups within Warm Springs, the Upper Dry Creek seriation failed to produce a valid ordering. The Warm Springs Creek seriation, on the other hand, did produce a valid seriation, indicating the presence of a distinct tradition of arrow point manufacture. Finally, the Upper Dry Creek and Warm Springs Creek assemblages exhibit different obsidian source patterns, the former having a greater Clear Lake focus and the latter a preponderance of southern North Coast Ranges obsidian, particularly Napa Valley (Table 6.2). Examination of Tables A.17 through A.25 indicates that the vast majority of obsidian arrow points were manufactured post-910 B.P., within the interval 197 hypothesized for the Southern Pomo-Kashaya linguistic divergence. The Warm Springs Creek emphasis on obsidian or obsidian arrow points from the Annadel and Napa Valley sources suggests a population well differentiated and independent of Clear Lake social groups. The Upper Dry Creek assemblages, by contrast, exhibit a greater reliance on Clear Lake obsidian (especially Mt. Konocti) during the interval following 910 B.P. (Tables A.27 through A.38). Upper Dry Creek clearly maintained ties with the Clear Lake basin. The Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs assemblages did not form a valid serdation. The seriations provided little new information concerning the Pomoan expansion. This study established that the Point Reyes point assemblages and those of the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs represent separate traditions, consistent with evidence that the Point Reyes peninsula is located in historic Coast Miwok territory and the other two localities in Southern Porno territory. The seriation also indicates that the Warm Springs Creek group had largely curtailed its ties to the Clear Lake basin, focusing on the southern North Coast Ranges. Despite a purportedly common origin, populations inhabiting Warm Springs at approximately the same time exhibit significantly different patterns of social interaction and resource procurement that speak to the complexity of the Pomoan expansion. Concluding Comments This thesis employed the occurrence seriation technique to examine research questions advanced by previous researchers working in the southern North Coast Ranges of California through the lens of projectile point morphology. Specifically, the thesis addressed the following issues. A brief recapitulation of the study findings are presented with each research question. Following this brief summary, the serdation method employed in this study is assessed. 198 1. Does the study area, consisting of the subregions Point Reyes, Santa Rosa, and Warm Springs, exhibit a prevalence of local traditions as the primary influence over projectile point morphology? o The regional-scale seriation failed to produce a valid seriation. Other factors, perhaps local manufacturing traditions, are influencing projectile point morphology. 2. Do projectile point assemblages in the three subregions examined produce valid, spatially distinct seriations? o Only two valid subregional seriations were obtained: the Santa Rosa Plain and Warm Springs Creek. The Point Reyes, Warm Springs, and Upper Dry Creek seriations all failed to produce a valid ordering. With the exception of Point Reyes, all of the seriations were affected by sample structure, rendering any interpretation of the seriations of limited applicability. 3. Can projectile point seriations from the study assemblages corroborate, falsify, or amplify the findings of previous researchers concerning exchange relationships within the study area and beyond? a Yes. The distribution of three projectile point classes shared among Point Reyes and Santa Rosa assemblages suggest historical, but not heritable, continuity between the two subregions. In addition, it was found that some serrated projectile points were exchanged after 450 B.P., in contrast to Jackson's (1986) hypothesis that serrated points were exchanged only before 450 B.P. o At Warm Springs, the two distinct seriation groups exhibit divergent obsidian source profiles, in turn implying divergent trajectories of social interaction. 199 The use of the occurrence seriation method in this study posed a number of problems for analysis. The first issue is the need to control for the effects of sample size on the number of artifact classes represented in each assemblage. Similarly, the researcher employing the occurrence seriation technique must also be mindful that assemblage duration does not correlate with the number of artifact classes represented. Where either factor is correlated with assemblage diversity, it is not likely that the researcher is actually analyzing the variable of interest (Lyman and Ames 2007:1985). Bootstrapping and Monte Carlo techniques, such as are incorporated into statistics like the Cochran-Armitage test of trend, can be used to simulate various sample sizes or assemblage durations and their effects on assemblage diversity, allowing a reliable determination of whether the sample structure is skewed. Another difficulty with the occurrence seriation approach is the matter of interpretation. Valid seriations (those that display historical and heritable continuity) are relatively straightforward to interpret as a lineage of sorts, the result of the transmission of knowledge of artifact manufacture. Nevertheless, similarities between assemblages can arise for other reasons as well, such as convergent evolution of a given technology and sorting (Wilhelmsen 2001). Exchange, especially of finished tools, also can result in assemblage similarities that have no bearing on shared history or ethnicity, as is often assumed in seriation studies. Artifact classes made in one locality and traded to another may result in a valid inter-locality seriation, particularly if the traded artifact classes are not subsequently changed in the recipient locality. Specific to the present study, a number of phenomena would have aided the analysis. First, larger sample sizes would ensure that seriation results reflect the transmission of point- manufacturing information and other means of social interaction; the interpretations in this study must be viewed with caution because of sample-size effects on the number of point classes present in the study assemblages. Critical to any study of the Pomoan expansion, the use of 200 assemblages from Clear Lake basin are essential to explain patterns of obsidian acquisition and social affinity at Warm Springs. Clear Lake assemblages were not included in the present study due to the paucity of well-dated Upper Emergent Period points. Several avenues for future research are suggested by the present thesis. Concerning Coast Miwok prehistory and interaction with Pomoan groups, the Point Reyes locality should be explored further via the addition of assemblages near Drakes Bay as well as the eastern peninsular sites such as exist on Tomales Bay. Seriations with additional assemblages would provide greater resolution concerning intra-peninsular differences in point manufacturing traditions and external relationships. MRN-216 and MRN-298 have yielded hundreds of late prehistoric arrow points (Jackson 1986; King and Upson 1970) and would likely prove to be useful assemblages if existing obsidian hydration data was supplemented by additional hydration and sourcing analysis. Exchange relationships reflected in the Santa Rosa Plain and Point Reyes assemblages, with respect to Napa Valley specimens, may be clarified by seriating assemblages from the vicinity of the Napa Valley obsidian source singly and with Santa Rosa Plain assemblages. During the early historic period, the Napa Valley obsidian source was controlled by the Wappo (Jackson 1986); the distribution of Napa Valley obsidian among the Santa Rosa Plain and Point Reyes assemblages may be conditioned in part by trade with the steward population of the Napa Valley obsidian source. Other relationships to explore via arrow-point seriation are Warm Springs-Sonoma Coast, Santa Rosa Plain-Sonoma Coast, Santa Rosa Plain-Clear Lake, and Warm Springs-Clear Lake. Finally, the transmission of arrow point traditions and actual arrow points should be regarding simply as one potential measure of social distance or historical affinity; other artifact types offer additional potential sources of information about these phenomena. Seriations of other kinds of artifacts or assemblages comprised of more than one temporally diagnostic sort of artifact should be conducted to test the results of the present study. 201 APPENDICES 202 APPENDIX A Site-Specific Data This section describes the archaeological sites from which projectile point data were obtained for the thesis. The sites are listed first by region (Point Reyes Peninsula, Santa Rosa Plain, and Warm Springs) and then in ascending order by trinomial. The general setting of each site is sketched, followed by a resume of site investigations. The major features and constituents of the sites are presented as well. A discussion of site chronometrics and the selection of projectile points for analysis rounds out each site treatment. Note that tabulated information in strikeout text indicate specimens that were eliminated from the seriation. Point Reyes Peninsula CA-MRN-202 (Tom's Point Site) The Tom's Point Site, MRN-202, is located on a small headland on the eastern shore of Tomales Bay, Marin County. Previous designations for the site include Tom's Point 2, Tom's Point 7, MRN-S297, MRN-489, and P.B. 202. First recorded in 1940, MRN-202 was described as a "shell-dirt" (presumably shell midden) some 1,300 m2 in extent and at least 1.2 m deep. Gerkin (1967, cited in Origer 1987:18) collected and catalogued more than 780 artifacts from the wave-washed surface of MRN-202 (Origer 1987:18). Origer (1982a, 1987:18) subjected 20 projectile points (10 non-serrated and 10 serrated specimens) from MRN-202 to obsidian hydration dating and visual sourcing. Only 10 of these points were included in the seriation, however, half of the points being too incomplete to characterize according to the attributes defined in Chapter 3. All analyzed artifacts were collected from the site surface by Gerkin (1967), so no internal provenience data for the projectile points are available. Because all analyzed points yielded visible hydration bands suitable for 203 deriving artifact-specific age estimates (Table A.1), the lack of intrasite provenience is of no consequence to this study. Table A. 1. Obsidian Hydration and Source Data, CA-MRN-202 Projectile Points Catalog Adjusted Age Number' Provenience Material OH OH Source2 (B.P.) Comment Class 7-449 iSurface Obsidian 1.40 1.45 Annadel 356 Cut in blade 24112 7-660 Surface Obsidian 1.00 1.04 Annadel 200 Cut in blade 34112 7-659 Surface Obsidian 1.10 1.14 Annadel 240 Cut in blade 34122 7-307 Surface Obsidian 1.60 1.66 Annadel 509 Cut in blade 34221 7-282 Surface Obsidian 1.40 1.45 Annadel 388 Cut in blade 34221 7-134 Surface Obsidian 1.00 1.04 Annadel 200 Cut in blade 34222 7-142 Surface Obsidian 1.10 1.14 Annadel 240 Cut in blade 34222 7-534 Surface Obsidian 1.10 1.14 Annadel 240 Cut in blade 34222 '7 ffaee Obsidia ' .0 1553 Atnadel 4454 Cut in blde 342 7-308 Surface Obsidian 1.40 1.45 Annadel 388 Cut in blade 34222 1. Curation facility is unknown; data taken from Origer (1982a, 1987) 2. Source determined visually by Origer (1982a, 1987) OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adjusted OH = EHT-adjusted hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A. 1 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A. 1). Ninety-five percent of this non-normal 9 distribution's values are contained between 140 and 723 B.P., suggesting that the age estimate of 1553 B.P. (on catalog number 7-8) is a statistical outlier. Viewed against the h-spread of the distribution (depicted by the ends, or hinges of the box below) of 148 years, the value of 1553 B.P. is more than three times the h-spread plus 9 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.583, p-value = < 0.0001, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 0.01%. 204 the upper hinge value of the box (388 B.P.). The age estimate of 1553 B.P. is therefore a probable outlier and may be skewing the median of 298 B.P. (Fletcher and Lock 2005:5 1). Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 1600 -- 1400 - 1200 - 1000 - m 800- 600 - 400 T 3 200 0 Figure A.1. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-MRN-202 Arrow Points The distribution of the age estimates from MRN-202 was plotted again, excluding the value of 1553 B.P. (Figure A.2). The resulting distribution is normal.' 0 The h-spread of this distribution is also 148 years and 95 percent of the distribution's values lay between 224 and 390 B.P. The maximum value of 509 B.P. is less than 1.5 times the h-spread plus 388 B.P.; the maximum value therefore is not a possible or probable outlier (Fletcher and Lock 2005:51). The median of this distribution is 240 B.P. and is not influenced by statistical outliers. The respective minimum and maximum age estimates are now 200 B.P. and 509 B.P., respectively. The assemblage duration is 309 years. '° Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.865, p-value = 0.110, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 10.97%. 205 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) m 200 + a: Figure A.2. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-MRN-202 Arrow Points, Excluding Outlier Table A.2 describes the five projectile point classes present at MRN-202. The total number of projectile points from MRN-202 used in the serdation is nine. Table A.2. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-MRN-202 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24112 1 11.1 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34112 I 11.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34122 1 11.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 34122 1 1.1 narrow bodied, barbed 34221 2 22.2 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34222 4 44.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 206 CA-MRN-230 Site MRN-230 is located approximately 12 m above mean sea level at the tip of Bull Point overlooking Drakes Estero within Point Reyes National Seashore. The site is open to the south, but uplands shelter MRN-230 to the north, east, and west (Origer 1981:Map 2). It comprises a 0.9-m-deep, high-density shell midden that covered 700-1,000 m2 (Origer 1987:19; Polansky 1998:Table 5). Early archaeological work at MRN-230 consisted of site recordation in 1927 and 1941, followed by Beardsley's test excavation ca. 1941 (Beardsley 1954a, 1954b; Origer 1987:19). Santa Rosa Junior College students excavated MRN-230 under the direction of Ward Upson in the fall of 1978 and spring of 1979. This excavation yielded 19 obsidian artifacts, 13 of which Origer selected for obsidian hydration analysis and visual sourcing (Origer 1982b:3, Plate 1, Table 1). Polansky (1998:Table 5) characterizes MRN-230 as a semi-permanent residential site. Of the artifacts from MRN-230 housed at Point Reyes National Seashore, 11 were complete enough for the paradigmatic classification used in this study; all had been subjected to obsidian hydration and source ascription by Origer. Three sources of obsidian are present at MRN-230: Annadel, Blossom Creek (Napa Valley geochemical group), and Napa Glass Mountain (Napa Valley geochemical group) (Origer 1982b:3). Because the phenomenon of interest in this study is projectile point morphology, only obsidian hydration data were used to determine the age of the projectile point assemblage employed in the seriation (Table A.3). Table A.3. Obsidian Hydration and Source Data, CA-MRN-230 Projectile Points PORE Cat Unit Depth Material OH Adjusted Suc2 Age Comment Class No. (inches) OH Sore (B.P.) 6082 Unit 3 12 Obsidian 1.20 1.24 Annadel 284 Cut in blade 24111 207 Table A.3. Obsidian Hydration and Source Data, CA-MRN-230 Projectile Points PORE Cat Unit Depth Material OH Adjusted So2rce2 Age Comment Class No. (inches) OH (B.P.) Napa ~Blossom 6083 Unit 4 4-8 Obsidian 1.70 1.76 Valley 402 Creek; cut in 34111 Valley ~blade 6075 Surface Surface Obsidian Annadel NVH; cut in 34112 6076 Unit 8 0-4 Obsidian 1.60 1.66 Annadel 509 Cut in blade 34112 6078 Unit 8 12-16 Obsidian 1.50 1.55 Annadel 444 Cut in blade 34121 Napa ~Blossom 6068 Unit 6 4 Obsidian 1.20 1.24 Napa 185 Creek; cut n 34122 Valley blade 6077 Unit 5 20-24 Obsidian 1.30 1.35 Napa 220 Cut in blade 34122 ______~~~~~Valley ______6070 Unit 6 20 Obsidian 1.50 1.55 Napa 322 Cut in blade 34222 ______V a lle y ______Napa ~Blossom 6074 Unit 12 16-20 Obsidian 1.40 1.45 Valley 286 Creek; cut in 34222 Valley ~blade Notes: PORE Point Reyes National Seashore, National Park Service; OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adjusted OH = EHT-adjusted hydration reading; source determined visually by Origer (1982b, 1987) The age estimates of the arrow points described in Table A.3 was arrayed in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.3). The distribution is normal.]] Ninety-five percent of the distribution's values are contained between 238 and 425 B.P. None of the age estimates in Table A.3 are statistical outliers. Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.959, p-value = 0.801, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 80.08%. 208 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 5M 400 0 aD 300 an Mi 2o Figure A.3. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-MRN-230 Arrow Points The median age estimate for the point assemblage used in the seriation is 304 B.P. The assemblage contains six projectile point classes, the majority of which are expanding-stem corner-notched points (Table A.4). Based on the respective minimum and maximum age estimates of 185 and 509 B.P. (Table A.3), the assemblage duration is 324 years. Table A.4. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-MRN-230 Class F~requency Relative Frequency per Class Description ClassFrequency ~Class (%) 24111 1 11.1 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34111 1 11.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 2 22.2 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 34112 2 2.2 wide bodied, barbed 34121 1 11.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 209 Table A.4. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-MRN-230 Relative Frequency per Class Description Class Frequency Class (%) 34122 2 22.2 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34222 2 22.2 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed CA-MRN-396/H Site MRN-396/H is located slightly north of Preston Point near the mouth of Tomales Bay, Marin County. Ward Upson recorded the site in 1966 and excavated it with Santa Rosa Junior College students around 1966-1967. The site is a 0.6-0.9-m-deep shell midden that covered approximately 8,400 m2 . Site investigations produced nine corner-notched, six serrated and two concave-base projectile points (Origer 1987:19). Origer (1987:Plates 6, 12) documents 13 projectile points, all subjected to obsidian hydration analysis and visual sourcing, that are sufficiently complete for paradigmatic classification. Because obsidian hydration analysis provides the necessary data for direct age estimates of each artifact, stratigraphic analysis of MRN-396/H is unnecessary and only the projectile points used in analysis are discussed here. Table A.5 presents obsidian hydration data, source, and age estimates for the projectile points included in this study. The distribution of the age estimates of the arrow points described in Table A.5 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.4). The distribution is normal.' 2 Ninety-five percent of the distribution's values 12 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.855, p-value = 0.066, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 6.65%. 1 210 are contained between 242 and 504 B.P. None of the age estimates in Table A.5 are statistical outliers. Table A.5. Arrow Point Data from CA-MRN-396/H Catalog IMaterial OH Adjusted Source2 Age (B.P.) Commentl Comment Class Number OH 2 75-6-110 Obsidian 1.10 1.14 Napa 187 24112 ______~~~Valley Napa 2nd band: 75-6-101 Obsidian 1.40 1.45 Valley 286 2 bands 3.0 (3.1)3, 34112 1089 B.P. 75-6-116 Obsidian 1.20 1.24 Napa 217 34122 ______~~~Valley______Napa band: 75-6-168 Obsidian 1.20 1.24 Valley 217 2 bands (1.76), 34122 402 B.P. 75-6-182 Obsidian 1.10 1.14 Napa 187 34122 ______~~~~ ~~Valley______75-6-153 Obsidian 1.80 1.86 Annadel 639 34221 Napa2n band: 75-6-158 Obsidian 1.60 1.66 Valley 363 2 bands 2.0 34221 (2.07), 535 B.P. 75-6-181 Obsidian 1.80 1.86 Napa 443 34221 ______~ ~~~~~Valley______75-6-146 Obsidian 2.00 2.07 Napa 605 34222 75-6-267 Obsidian 2.10 2.18 Napa 586 34222 ______V a lley ______1. Archaeological Collections Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 2. Source determined visually by Origer (1982a, 1987) 3. Hydration rim values in parentheses are the EHT-adjusted values OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adjusted OH = EHT-adjusted hydration reading The median age estimate for the assemblage included in the seriation is 325 B.P. Table A.6 indicates that the MRN-396/H points included in the seriation belong to five artifacts classes. Based on the respective minimum and maximum age estimates of 187 and 639 B.P. (Table A.5), the duration of the MRN-396/H arrow point assemblage is 452 years. 211 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 7W 600 m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~± _'W ai 400- -cc ' In 'DO Figure A.4. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-MRN-396/H Arrow Points Table A.6. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-MRN-396/H Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24112 l 10.0 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34112 1 10.0 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 34112 1 1.0 wide bodied, barbed 34122 3 30.0 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34221 3 30.0 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34222 2 20.0 Corner-notched, expanding narrow bodied, barbed stem, serrated, 212 Santa Rosa Plain CA-SON-159 Site SON-159 is located on the north bank of Gossage Creek, on the southwestern edge of the Santa Rosa Plain. Riddell (1948) was the first to record the site. At that time, SON-159 was about 700 m2 in extent and contained archaeological deposits at least 1.2 m deep (Origer 1987:21). In 1972, 1974, 1975, and 1977, James Bennyhoff directed Sonoma State University students in excavations of SON-159 (National Park Service 2007:34,276). From among the artifacts recovered, Origer (1987:21) analyzed 43 projectile points: 17 corner-notched arrow points, 13 serrated arrow points, six shouldered lanceolate points, four non-shouldered lanceolate points, two unnotched points, and one concave-base point. Artifacts at SON-159 suggest occupation of the site during the Laguna Phase of the Middle Period (2950-1450 B.P.) and the Rincon and Gables phases of the Late Period (1450-371 B.P.) (National Park Service 2007: 34,276). Fourteen arrow points were complete enough to be classified according to the paradigmatic scheme used in this thesis; 13 yielded readable hydration rims (Table A.7). The chronological position of the seriated assemblage from SON-159 is determined based on the hydration readings from the selected projectile points since projectile point change is the phenomenon of interest in this study and all but one point yielded readable hydration bands. The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.7 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values 213 (Figure A.5). The distribution is normal.'3 Ninety-five percent of the distribution's values are contained between 311 and 573 B.P. None of the age estimates contained in Table A.7 are statistical outliers. Table A.7. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-159 Catalog Unit Depth Material Adjusted Source Age Comment Class Number' (cm) OH (B.P.) 72-1-25 Obsidian 1.20 Annadel 266 11121 72-1-10 Obsidian 24112 75-28-174 iSIO EO Obsidian 1.80 Annadel 598 Unknown 24121 ______~~~~~~~~~~~depth 72-1-107 Unit 1 40-50 Obsidian 1.30 Annadel 312 34111 72-1-21 'Surface 0 Obsidian 1.20 Napa 205 34111 ______~~~Valley 74-3-120 S02 WOI 0-10 Obsidian 1.60 Naalley 340 34112 74-3-133 S02 W01 10-20 Obsidian 2.90 Napa 969 34112 ______~~~Valley 72-1-136 Unit 1 11.5 Obsidian 1.20 Annadel 266 34121 72-1-168 Unit 1 19 Obsidian 1.40 Annadel 362 34122 72-1-130 Unit 1 15 Obsidian 1.90 Napa 460 34122 75-28-198 S12 WOI 65 Obsidian 1.10 Annadel 223 34122 72-1-18 Unit 2 43 Obsidian 2.10 Napa 549 34122 ______V a lle y b $ 10 W01 housefloor Obsidian 1.80 Annadel 598 34221 74-3-39 NIO W12 20-30 Obsidian 1.80 Annadel 598 34222 1. Archaeological Collections Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 2. Source determined visually by Origer (1982a, 1987) Adjusted OH = EHT-adjusted hydration reading The median age of the projectile point assemblage is 362 B.P. The 14 arrow points analyzed from SON-159 belong to nine point classes (Table A.8). Based on the respective '3Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.880, p-value = 0.071, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 7.10%. 214 minimum and maximum age estimates of 205 and 969 B.P. (Table A.7), the duration of the SON- 159 arrow point assemblage is 764 years. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) In 9M 800 7W a- 60D -a; G) SD ~~+- 43 2M - Figure A.5. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-159 Arrow Points Table A.8. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-159 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 11121 1 7.1 Unnotched, non-stemmed, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 24112 1 7.1 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 24121 1 7.1 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34111 2 14.3 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 215 Table A.8. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-159 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 34112 2 14.3 wide bodied, barbed 34121 1 7.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34122 4 28.6 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34221 1 7.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34222 1 7.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed CA-SON-455 (Gables Site) Site SON-455 is located along Petaluma Hill Road approximately 4.8 km south of Santa Rosa. The site was identified in the 1960s and excavated by David A. Fredrickson in 1968 when a road widening project threatened to destroy one edge of the site (Jones and Hayes 1993:Table 3; Origer 1987:22). Fredrickson found the depth of deposit to be 0.9 m. Projectile points at SON- 455 included arrow-sized and dart-sized specimens. Human remains representing a minimum of three individuals were identified at SON-456 during Fredrickson's investigation. The remains have been dated to Phase II of the Emergent Period, ca. 150-450 B.P (National Park Service 2007: 34,275). A total of 28 points from the site was initially included in the seriation, twenty- four of which yielded readable hydration rims (Table A.9). 216 Table A.9. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-455 Cat. Unit Depth Material Adjusted Source Age Commentl Class No. (cm) OH (B.P.) No visible 1-2-71 F22 10-20 Obsidian Annadel2 rim; cut in 11121 blade 1-2-135 D20 20-30 Obsidian 1.40 VNalley 2 269 Cut in blade 11121 1-2-138 No prov. Obsidian 1.30 Annadel2 312 Cut in blade 11121 1-2-262 E23 10-20 Obsidian 1.00 Annadel3 185 Cut in blade 11121 1-2-236 F20 10-20 Obsidian 1.50 Napa 304 Cut in blade 24112 ValleY2 1-2-66 F22 0-10 Obsidian 1.20 Annadel3 266 Cut in blade 24121 1-2-83 F2,0 0-40 Obsidian 1.20 Armadel 266 Cut in blade 24121 1-2-220 D18 0-10 Obsidian 1.80 Annadel3 598 Cut in blade 24121 No visible 1-2-24 F26 0-10 Obsidian Annadel3 rim; cut in 34111 blade 1-2-192 E25 30-40 Obsidian 1.20 Valley 205 Cut in blade 34111 Napa ~~~No visible 1-2-256 No prov. Obsidian NValley rim; cut in 34111 Valley2 ~~blade F-21 F21 0-60 Obsidian 1.60 Annadel3 473 Cut in blade 34111 1-2-109 F27 10-20 Obsidian 1.50 Annadel 12 415 Cut in blade 34112 1-2-38 D24 0-10 Obsidian 1.00 Annadel 3 185 Cut in blade 34112 1-2-14 F21 20-30 Obsidian 1.40 Annadel3 331 Cut in blade 34112 1-2-132 F21 0-10 Obsidian 1.00 Annadel 2 185 Cut in blade 34112 1-2-258 No prov. Obsidian 1.00 Annadel3 185 Cut in blade 34112 1-2-39 D24 0-10 Obsidian 1.40 Annadel 3 362 Cut in blade 34121 1-2-22 F23 30-45 Obsidian 1.20 Annadel 3 266 Cut in blade 34121 217 Table A.9. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-455 Cat. Unit Depth Material Adjusted Source Age Commentl Class No.' (cm) OH (B.P.) 1-2-206 Surface 0 Obsidian 1.40 Annadel3 362 Cut in blade 34121 No visible 1-2-219 D18 0-10 Obsidian Annadel2 rim; cut in 34121 blade 1-2-47 E24 30-40 Obsidian 1.70 Valley 378 Cut in blade 34122 4-2-29 F2 0-40 Obsidian 4-90 A natep 666 Cutinblade 34 1- 1-2-276 E23 40-50 Obsidian 1.70 VNalleay2 378 Cut in blade 34122 1-2-13 F21 60-70 Obsidian 1.20 Annadel3 266 Cut in blade 34122 1-2-30 F20 10-20 Obsidian 1.40 Annadel3 362 Cut in blade 34221 1-2-160 D21 40-50 Obsidian 1.40 Annadel3 362 Cut in base 34222 1-2-162 D21 80-90 Obsidian 1.30 Annadel3 312 Cut in blade 34222 1. Catalog number, Archaeological Collections Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 2. Source determined visually by Origer (1982a, 1987) 3. Source determined via XRF (Origer 1987:Appendix C) No prov. = no intrasite provenience; Adjusted OH = EHT-adjusted hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.9 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.6). The distribution is not normal.' 4 Ninety-five percent of the distribution's values are contained between 277 and 380 B.P. The value 598 B.P. is identified as a possible outlier and 14 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.885, p-value = 0.010, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower: than alpha, one should reject the null hypothesis, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 1.03%. 218 the value 666 B.P. is identified as a probable outlier. One or both of these values may be skewing the distribution's median of 312 B.P. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 700 200- l I a) a.D o1)MD Figure A.6. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-455 Arrow Points The distribution of the age estimates from SON-455 was plotted again, excluding the value of 666 B.P. (Figure A.7). The resulting distribution is normal.'5 The h-spread of this distribution is 96 years and 95 percent of the distribution's values lay between 271 and 358 B.P. The maximum value of 598 B.P. is greater than 1.5 times the h-spread plus 362 B.P., but less than 3.0 times the h-spread plus 362 B.P., identifying the age estimate as a possible outlier (Fletcher and Lock 2005:51). The median of this distribution is 312 B.P. and it is not influenced by statistical outliers. The specimen yielding the aberrant value of 666 B.P. is therefore excluded 1' Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.919, p-value = 0.062, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis Ho. The risk to reject the null hypothesis Ho while it is true is 6.2 1%. 219 from the assemblage, whereas the possible outlier of 598 B.P. is included in the assemblage. With exclusion of the 666 B.P. value, the respective minimum and maximum age estimates are 185 B.P. and 598 B.P. The assemblage duration is, therefore, 413 years. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 600 aD 4M 0) ~M Cd32M .M Figure A.7. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-455 Arrow Points, Excluding Probable Outlier A total of 27 points was finally included in the assemblage. The median age estimate for the seriated assemblage is 312 B.P. Nine projectile point classes are represented in the seriated assemblage. (,Table A.1O.) Table A.10. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-455 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 11121 4 14.8 Unnotched, non-stemmed, non-serrated, .______narrow bodied, unbarbed 24112 1 3.7 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, ______w ide bodied, barbed 220 Table A.10. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-455 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24121 3 11.1 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34111 4 14.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 5 18.5 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34121 4 14.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34122 3 11.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34221 1 3.7 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34222 2 7.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed CA-SON-456 Site SON-456 is located south of State Route 12 between Santa Rosa and Sebastopol, on the southern bank of a seasonal creek that flowed west into the Laguna de Santa Rosa. Upson (1969, cited in Origer 1987:22) recorded the site as a large midden with two loci covering more than 1,900 M2 . Upson led a crew of Santa Rosa Junior College students in an excavation of SON- 456 from 1969 to 1972. Origer and Fredrickson (1977, cited in Origer 1987:22) identified a third locus to SON-456 on the northern side of the creek, opposite the areas that Upson (1969) recorded. The site consisted of a well-developed midden containing marine shell, bone, and obsidian and chert tools and debitage (Origer 1987:22-23). Analysis of artifacts from SON-456 suggests site occupation from the Middle Archaic Period into the Upper Emergent Period, ca. 4950-223 B.P (National Park Service 2007:34,275 and Table A. 1 below). Forty-seven arrow points from CA-SON-456 were initially included in the assemblage; 41 of these artifacts yielded readable hydration rims (Table A.1 1). 221 Table A. 11. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-456 Catalog Unit Depth OH Source Age (B.P.) Comment Class Number. 2 2013 30N 20E 11 1.1 Annadel 223 Cutblade in 11121 3154 05S 40W 1.3 Nap36 1121 2570 ~~~~~~~~2 ~ 23lCaid112~~Valley 3 2570 ION 05W 6 1.2 Annadel 266 Cutbase in 11121 2 2497 55S 20E 6-12 1.2 Annadel 266 Cutblade in 24112 2621 IOS 25E 6 1.4 Valley2 269 24121 2142 30N 20E 30 1.5 Napa 304 32112 Valley, ______ 2119 20S 40W 9 1.4 Annadel 3 362 Cbluatdien 34111 NaIa 340 2865 15W11250N 1.6 ValleY2 Cutinblade 34111 3026 lOS40E 42 1.7 Napa 378 Cut in 34111 ______V_____ alleY2 blade 3000 20N 30W 15 1.4 Annadel 2 362 Cbluatdien 34112 2308 25S OE 4 1.4 Annadel2 362 blade 34112 3127 35S 05E 15 1.4 A Annadel2iade,2 362 ~bladeCut in 34112 2605 40N 25W 12 1.4 Annade 36 2 Cbluatdien 34112 2000 ON 7OW 12 1.5 Annadel 2 415 Cut in 34112 blade 2056 iON 1OW 6 1.5 AnnadeI2 415 eacuth i 34112 45 each blade 2850 05S 40W 6 1.7 Napa 378 Cut in 34112 ValleY2 473 blade 2214 ION 20E 5 1.6 Annadel3 473 Cut in 34121 base 2777 30N 50E 1.6 Annadel Cutinas 34121 2803 35S 15E 29 1.6 Annadel 2 473 Cut in 34121 blade 2294ON 15W ~9 1.6 Annadel2 43 Cut in 34122~ 222 Table A.1 1. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-456 Catalog Unit Depth OH Source Age (B.P.) Comment Class Number. 2058 I ON IOW 24 1.6 Annadel3 Cut in 34122 base 2164 205 55E 17 1.6 Annadel 2 473 Cut in 34122 blade 2310 1.6 Annadel 2 473 Cbuatsen 34122 2663 ON 5OW 11.5 1.7 Annadel2 533 Cut in 34212 blade 2304 155 OE 5 1.7 Annadel 2 533 Cut in 34212 base 2398 25N OE 18-24 1.7 Annadel3 533 Cbuatsen 34221 2980 35N O5E 17 1.7 Annadel3 53 3 Cut in 34221 base 2748 35S 15E 7 1.7 Armadel 533 Cut in 34221 2285 05N 05EII 4 1.8 Annadel2 598 Cut in 34221 blade 2666 ON 50W 1 1.8 Annadel 2 598 Cut in 34221 blade 2668 ONSOW 17 1.8 Annadel 3 598 Cut in 34221 base 2486 1OS 20E 38 1.8 Annadel2 598 Cut in 34221 blade 2153 15S 20W 31 1.8 Annadel2 598 Cut in 34221 ______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~base 2546 15S 55W 6 1.8 Annadel2 598 Cbluatdien 34221 2904 1OS 40E 12 2.1 Napa 2 549 Cut in 34221 ______Valley blade 2626 IOS 25E 8 1.9 Annadel 3 666 Cut in 34221 ______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~base 1 cut in each 2365 05N 05E 19 Annadel3 blade; 34221 diffuse hydration Cut in 3120 l OS 40E 36 Annadel2 blade; no 34221 visible rim 223 Table A. 11. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-456 Catalog Unit Depth OH Source Age (B.P.) Comment Class Cut in 2702 2ON 50E 6-12 Annadel2 blade; no 34221 visible rim 3134 35S 05E 23 2.0 Annadel3 738 Cutin 34221 base Napa ~~~~Cutin 3034 05S 40W 31 Valley 2 blade; no 34222 visible rim I cut in 2728 ON 50W 15 Napa each 34222 Valley3 blade; no visible rim 3002 20N 30W 16 2.5 Napa 746 Cut in 34221 ______V alle /2 blade 2-40 iOs05E 6 3.0 o4-0" base 3422 3064 35N 05E 30 -9 1553 Cutbase in 34224 3003 20N 20W 22 2.1 Annadel2 814 Cbutsen 34222 1. Archaeological Collections Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA (Accession No. 83- 02) 2. Source determined visually by Origer (1982a, 1987) 3. Source determined via XRF (Origer 1987:Appendix C) Depth is in inches below ground surface. All points are made of obsidian. OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adjusted OH = EHT-adjusted hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.1 1 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.8). The distribution is not normal.16 Ninety-five percent of the distribution's values are contained between 408 and 796 B.P. The h-spread of the distribution is 240 years. One age estimate (1028 B.P.) is a possible outlier, falling 1.5 times the h-spread from the upper hinge 6 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.427, p-value = < 0.0001, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 0.01%. 224 value of 602 B.P. (Fletcher and Lock 2005:51). Two age estimates (1553 and 4153 B.P.) are identifiable as probable outliers, as they are 3.0 times the h-spread from the upper hinge value of 602 B.P. (Fletcher and Lock 2005:5 1). Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 45DJ 4000~~~~~~~~~ 34n oM - m 2n I 0 Figure A.8. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-456 Arrow Points The distribution of the age estimates from SON-456 was plotted again three times, each successive iteration eliminating one probable or possible outlier, beginning with the most extreme value. The median was found to be 473 B.P. in all cases, but a normal distribution'7 of age estimates was not evident in the data until the probable outlier and two possible outliers were removed from the assemblage (Figure A.9). 1' Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.967, p-value = 0.309, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 30.86%. 225 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 9n an 7M m 0tSD MO I Figure A.9. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-456 Arrow Points, Excluding Outliers After excluding the statistical outliers, 44 arrow points were included in the SON-456 assemblage (Table A.1 1). With the statistical outliers excluded, the respective minimum and maximum age estimates are 223 B.P. and 814 B.P. The median age estimate for the assemblage is 473 B.P. Assemblage duration is 591 years. Eleven arrow point classes are represented at SON-456. (Table A.12). Table A.12. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-456 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 11121 3 6.8 Unnotched, non-stemmed, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 24112 1 2.3 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 24121 1 2.3 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 226 Table A.12. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-456 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 321122.3 1 Corner-notched, contracting stem, non- 32112 1 2.3 serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34111 3 6.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 7 15.9 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34121 3 6.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34122 4 9.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34212 2 4.5 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34221 16 36.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34222 3 6.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed CA-SON-1250/1251 Site SON-1250/1251 is situated on opposite banks of Matanzas Creek in Bennett Valley, 1.6 km south of the Santa Rosa city limits. The site was divided into five topographically distinct areas for descriptive purposes: Hill Slope, Goat Pasture, Midden, Flat, and Hill Top. Rippey and Fredrickson (1982) conducted excavations in the Hill Slope and Goat Pasture areas. Wickstrom (1986:73-74) investigated the other three areas, in addition to conducting minor work at a sixth area termed the Creek Bank. Artifacts recovered from SON-1250/1251 include corner-notched, stemmed, concave- based, and lanceolate projectile points; cores; chert drills; biface blanks and fragments; unifaces; utilized flakes; formed flake tools; core tools; pestles; a mortar fragment; hammerstones; a 227 charmstone and steatite pipe; a smoothing stone; shell bead blanks; shell beads; and bone awls (Wickstrom 1986:Table 12). Based on the horizontal and vertical distribution of temporally sensitive artifacts and obsidian hydration readings, Wickstrom (1986:165) defined three components at SON-1250/1251 with the following hydration spans: * Component A: 0.8-1.5 pm (Annadel) * Component B: 1.6-2.5 pm (Annadel) * Component C: 2.6-3.1 pm (Annadel) Component A contained materials typical of Phase 2 of the Augustine Pattern, such as non- serrated corner-notched arrow points and clamshell disk beads. These materials were primarily located in the Midden and Flat. The Midden also contained the most diverse artifact assemblage of the five site areas and clearly represents a long-term and/or intensive occupational locus (Wickstrom 1986:171-172). Component A is notable in that it exhibits evidence for exchange- related clamshell (Saxidomus and Tresus spp.) disk bead manufacture: completed beads, partially drilled bead blanks, chipped blanks, and shell debris, as well as chert debitage, drills, and cores. The presence of non-Saxidomus and non-Tresus marine shell at the site suggests that the inhabitants of Component A had access to a wide variety of coastal resources, which may have been garnered via direct coastal access (Wickstrom 1986:172). Other: indications of trade at SON-1250/1251 include three "finely made" Napa Valley obsidian arrow points (specimens 85-3-31, 85-3-112, and 85-3-1091), which yielded hydration rim values between 0.9 and 1.2 prm (Annadel). In contrast, the Annadel obsidian points, which yielded hydration rim values in excess of 1.2 pm are less regularly flaked and less symmetrical than the Napa Valley obsidian specimens are. The well made Napa Valley obsidian, points in 228 Component A are of a "style" that possesses a distribution extending east of the site (Wickstrom 1986:172-173). Assemblage Selection A total of eight arrow points from SON-1250/1251 was included in the seriation. Seven yielded readable hydration bands (Table A.13). Table A.13. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-1250/1251 Catalog Unit Depth Material OH2 Source Age Comment I Class Number' (cm) (B .P.) S24.2 (V)3 ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~Novisible 85-3-16 S24.2 Obsidian Annadel (V)3 band. 24111 Burned? 85-3-1137 Unit 10-20 Obsidian 0.9 Annadel (v) 150 24121 6 85-3-1019 Unit 20-30 Obsidian 1.4 Borax Lake (x) 98 34122 22 85-3-1091 Uni 10-20 Obsidian 1.3 Annadel (v) 312 34122 85-3-1112 Unit 10-20 Obsidian 1.1 Napa Valley (v) 176 34122 ______10 Unit 85-3-30 2 20-30 Obsidian 1.0 Annadel (v) 185 34221 85-3-1103 Unit 20-30 Obsidian 1.3 Napa Valley (v) 236 34221 8 4-O-24 Obsdian 2,.6 Napa V~alley v 74991~1 1. Archaeological Collections Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA (Accession No. 85- 03) 2. OH = Obsidian hydration reading 3. (v) = Visual geochemical source ascription 229 The distribution of the age estimates of the arrow points described in Table A.13 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.10). The distribution is not normal.' 8 The age estimate of 799 B.P. is identifiable as' a probable outlier since it is more than three times the value of the h-spread (116 years) added to the upper hinge value of 279 B.P. (Fletcher and Lock 2005:5 1). This outlier may be influencing the median. Box plot (Xl) 800 700 x 4a 300 D Figure A.10. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON- 1250/1251 Arrow Points 18 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.714, p-value = 0.005, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 0.53%. 230 CA-SON-1269 Site SON-1269 is situated on the northern bank of Santa Rosa Creek in southern Rincon Valley, within the city of Santa Rosa. Carpenter (1980, cited in Origer 1987:28) first recorded the site as a moderate to dense scatter of obsidian tools and debitage at several discrete loci distributed over several acres of land. Roscoe (1981) conducted a data recovery excavation at SON-1269 in response to a planned development that would destroy a portion of the site. A total of 21 obsidian arrow points from SON-1269 was included in the serdation; 20 points yielded readable hydration bands. The lone point (81-3-872) that did not yield a visible hydration band was located at 40-60 cm below ground surface in Trench 11, which yielded two points with visible hydration bands. Therefore, all 21 points were considered for inclusion in the assemblage (Table A. 15). Table A.15. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON- 1269 Cat. No'. Unit Depth OH2 Source Age (B.P.) Comment Class (cm) 81-3-628 Trench 3 40-50 1.6 Annadel 53 Cutbin 11121 81-3-479 Trench 12 40-60 1.7 Annadel 5Cut in 11121 ______~~~~~~blade_ _ _ _ _ 81 -3-47 Tr-ench 12 20-40 32. Annadel 489 faint band; 34141 _ _ ~~~~~~ ~ _ ~~~~~~~~blade 81-3-813 Trench 15 20-40 1.4 Naa 269 Cu4 34112 Valley blade Cut in Napa blade; C~~~~ut~cnin- 81-3-788 Trench 15 60-90 2.2 Annadel 894 faint band, 34121 discontin- ______~~~~~~~~~uous 81-3-661 Trench 13 0-20 1.7 Annadel 534 34122 81 -3-338 S70 EO 0 1.9 Annadel 666 Cutin 34122 ______b la de _ _ _ _ _ 81-3-346 S70 E8 0 1.9 Annadel 666 ____ 34122 231 Table A.15. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-1269 Cat. No. Unit Depth OH' Source Age (B.P.) Comment Class (cm) 81-3-524 Trench 1 40-50 2.2 Annadel 894 34122 81-3-707 Trench 20 0-10 1.2 Annadel 266 34122 81-3-884 trench 11 60-70 1.3 Annadel 312 34122 81-3-883 Trench 11 60-70 1.4 Annadel 362 34122 81-3-684 Trench 13 40-60 1.4 Annadel 362 34122 81-3-360 !S60 E36 0 1.8 Annadel 598 34122 81-3-621 Trench 3 30-40 2.0 Napa 504 34122 ______Valley 81-3-789 Trench 15 60-90 2.2 Napa 596 34122 81-3-724 Trench 20 60-90 2.3 Napa 644 34122 ______V alley 81-3-872 Trench 11 40-60 Annadel Nis 34122 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rim 81-3-610 Trench 3 10-20 1.8 Napa 418 34122 ______~~~Valley ______81-3-669 Trench 13 20-40 2.5 Napa 746 34122 ______~~~~~~~Valley Faint, discontin- uous 81-3-442 Trench 17 60-80 1.2 Annadel 266 bands; 34222 2nd band: 2.2/894 B.P. 1. Cat. No. = Catalog number, Archaeological Collections Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California (Accession No. 81-3) 2. OH = Obsidian hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A. 15 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.I 1); The distribution is not normal.19 A probable outlier age estimate of 1890 B.P. is 19 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.738, p-value = 0.000, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 0.01%. 232 identifiable in the distribution, as this value is more than three times the distribution's h-spread (304 years) added to the upper hinge value of 666 B.P. (Fletcher and Lock 2005:5 1). Box plot (Age (B.P.)) mo M0D a] a~n ±_ SD Figure A. 11. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON- 1269 Arrow Points The distribution was plotted again, this time excluding the probable outlier (1890 B.P.). The resultant distribution is normal. 20 No outliers are identifiable in the distribution (Figure A.12). The outlying specimen is excluded from the seriated assemblage. In the final analysis, 20 arrow points were included in the assemblage from SON-1269. With statistical outliers excluded, the respective minimum and maximum age estimates are 266 and 894 B.P. The median age estimate for the seriated point assemblage is 534 B.P. Five point classes are represented at SON- 1269 (Table A. 16). Assemblage duration is 628 years. 20 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.942, p-value = 0.281, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 28.15%. 233 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 820 4c0 an Figure A.12. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-1269 Arrow Points, Excluding Probable Outlier Table A.16. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-1269 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 11121 2 9.4 Unnotched, non-stemmed, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34441 4- 4:8 Comer notched, expanding stem, non serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 1 4.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34121 1 4.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34122 15 71.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34222 1 4.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 234 Warm Springs CA-SON-544/H (Serene Flat) The Serene Flat Site (SON-544/H) is a two-component (Smith and Dry Creek phases) midden about 900 m upstream from the confluence of Warm Springs and Rancheria creeks. In this thesis, SON-544/H is included in the Warm Springs Creek subgroup of Warm Springs assemblages. The site covers about 900 in2 . Minor disturbances are evident at SON-544/H, resulting from a historic homestead on the site's northern periphery. Historic artifacts, including bricks, glass, and metal fragments are scattered across the site surface and to a depth of 20 cm. Grading and leveling of SON-544/H are not evident, suggesting that the historic artifacts were incorporated into the prehistoric midden through plowing (Basgall and Bouey 1984:50). Interviews with modern-day Pomo consultants suggest that the Kashaya used SON-544/H in the historic period (Praetzellis et al. 2000:28). Site Investigation Limited test excavations were conducted at SON-544/H in 1975 and full-scale excavation occurred in 1979. The 1975 investigation (consisting of a single 1 x 1 m test unit) revealed a rich midden in the upper 50 cm of the site and lesser amounts of archaeological materials from 50 to 140 cm. A wide array of materials was recovered, indicating at least two cultural components (Basgall and Bouey 1984:5 1, Table 3b; Baumhoff and Orlins 1979). During the 1979 excavation, test units were placed in order to attain maximal areal coverage. Nine I x 1 m units were excavated to depths ranging from 70 to 150 cm. The units were dug in 10-cm levels. The 1979 dig resulted in the removal of 10.8 m3 of site matrix; 3 combined with the 1975 test excavation the total volume of excavated site matrix was 12.2 M . 235 The screening strategy varied by unit; screening was conducted dry and wet, through 3-mm and 6-mm mesh (Basgall and Bouey 1984:51, Table 3b). Site Summary Soil development at SON-544/H occurred primarily via alluvial deposition from Warm Springs Creek. Three soil horizons (A-C) were evident, all of which exhibit continuity between units, though the lowest (earliest) stratum was missing in units with shallow bedrock. The correspondence between soil strata and cultural components is high, with the majority of temporally diagnostic artifacts found within 10 cm of their expected soil horizon (Basgall and Bouey 1984:52). Basgall and Bouey (1984:74) characterize the Smith Phase occupation at SON-544/H as intensive and its functional configuration broad. There is minimal evidence for on-site tool manufacture and few groundstone tools. Basgall and Bouey (1991:168, 169, Table 45) assign the Smith Phase component of the site to the most diverse and intensive occupation in their four-class functional typology for Warm Springs. Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection No 14C dates or AAR age estimates were obtained from SON-544/H. Chronological data are restricted to time-sensitive artifacts and obsidian hydration data (Basgall 1993:Tables 1 and 2; Basgall and Bouey 1984:53). Two temporally diagnostic beads were recovered from the site: a green glass trade bead and a "medium-size" clamshell disk bead (Basgall and Bouey 1984:53, 55). Basgall (1993:Table 10) classifies the clamshell disk bead as type Alc and the glass trade 236 bead as belonging to the modem period. The site was occupied from the Dry Creek Phase (900- 2500 B.P.) through the Smith Phase (900-100 B.P.) (Basgall and Bouey 1984: 69-70). Obsidian hydration analyses were conducted on projectile points and unmodified debitage from the site (Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 3c). Obsidian hydration results from unmodified debitage are not used in calculations of median assemblage age and assemblage duration, for two reasons. First, the majority of obsidian specimens from SON-544/H were subjected to obsidian hydration studies, yielding direct age estimates; data from unmodified debitage present only an indirect assessment of assemblage chronology. The second reason for excluding these data relates to more complex matters of association; the arrow points from the site may have, been imported from outside the Warm Springs area, in which case the unmodified debitage would have no bearing on temporal trends in arrow point manufacture and discard. Furthermore, other obsidian tool classes are present at SON-544/H, suggesting that the manufacture 'and maintenance of these tools could be responsible for the production of unmodified obsidian debitage. A total of 23 Rattlesnake and three unnotched triangular points was recovered from SON- 544/H (Basgall 1993:Table 7; Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 3a). Of these, 13 points were included in the seriation, nine made from obsidian and four from chert. Five of the obsidian points yielded readable hydration bands. The chronological position of the seriated point assemblage from SON-544/H relies on the obsidian hydration data derived from projectile points because projectile point change is the subject of this study and all but two chert points (70-544- 1167 and 7Q-544-1212) and one obsidian point (70-544-1212) either yielded measurable hydration bands or are in close association with such points. (Table A.17.) Given the strong association between depth and artifact age (compare Tables A. 17 and A. 18), reliance on obsidian 237 hydration data from the selected projectile points and the inclusion of chert and undated obsidian arrow points do not appear problematic. Table A.17. Arrow Point Data for SON-544/H CNaot. Unit (Dpm) Material OH OHA Source (B.ge) Comment Class 1212 Unit #1 0 Obsidian Borax OH data 24111 Lake missing 1167 Unit #1 40-50 Chert 24111 281 N27/E10 20-30 Chert 24112 647 N25/E15 20-30 Obsidian 1.70 1.82 Mt. 427 Cut in 32112 Konocti blade Na pa Cut in 681 N25/El5 60-70 Obsidian 1.40 1.50 304 34111 Valley blade 264 N27/E110 10-20 Obsidian 1.90 2.04 Valley 522 Cbtasin 34111 573 N16/E14 20-30 Chert 34111 574 N 16/E14 20 30 Obsidian 0.90 0.97 Vaallpey 141 Cblatdie 34112 Na pa Cut in 49 N23/E18 20-30 Obsidian 1.20 1.29 Va 233 Cut in 34112 Valley blade 746 N32/E21 10-20 Chert 34112 646 N25/E15 20-30 Obsidian 1.30 1.39 Napa 266 Cut in 34112 Valley blade 71 N23/E07 0-10 Obsidian 1.10 1.18 Mt. 199 Cutin 34121 Konocti ~~base Na pa Cut in 796 N32/E21 40-50 Obsidian 1.10 1.18 Valley 199 i t34212 Notes: Cat. No. = Catalog number, Accession No. 70-544, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adj. OH = EHT-adjusted obsidian hydration.. reading; obsidian sourcing by visual observation 238 Table A. 18. Component Breaks for Select Excavation Units at SON-544/H Phase Test Unit N16 E14 N23 E07 N23 E18 N25 E15 N27 ElO N32 E21 1 Smith 0-50 0-30 0-50 0-40 0-50 0-50 0-50 Creek 50-140 30-150 50-140 40-100 50-120 50-150 50-70 Component breaks are given as depth ranges in centimeters. Table derived from Basgall and Bouey (1984:Table 3b) The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A. 17 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.13). The distribution is normal.2' No statistical outliers are evident. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) mu 500 45D m. 43M 0) 2M 2M 1 OD Figure A.13. Box Plot of Age Estimates on SON-544/H Arrow Points 21 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.904, p-value = 0.317, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 31.69%. 239 The seriated assemblage from SON-544/H comprises 13 arrow points. The median age estimate for the assemblage is 250 B.P. The seriated point assemblage includes points deposited at SON-544/H between 141 and 522 B.P., giving an assemblage duration of 381 years (Table A.17). A total of seven point classes is represented at SON-544/H (Table A.19). Table A.19. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-544/H Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 2 15.4 Side-notched, expanding wide bodied, unbarbed stem, non-serrated, 24112 1 7.7 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 32112 1 7.7 Corner-notched, contracting stem, non- serrated, wide bodied, barbed Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 4 30.8 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34121 1 7.7 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34212 1 7.7 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed CA-SON-547 (Broken Bridge) The Broken Bridge site (SON-547) is a three-component (Skaggs, Dry Creek and Smith phases are all represented) midden site on a primary terrace above the confluence of Rancheria Creek and the first major tributary to Rancheria Creek. The site is included in the Warm Springs subgroup of the Warm Springs assemblages (Basgall and Bouey 1984:86). 240 Site Investigation The site was tested in 1975 and subjected to data recovery excavation in 1979. The test excavation consisted of a single 1 x 1 m test unit (Basgall and Bouey 1984:86, 87; Baumhoff and Orlins 1979).. Data recovery excavation resulted in the digging of eight 1 x 1 m units, bringing the approximate surface sample of SON-547 to 2 percent and an excavated volume of 10.8 m3 . The 1 x 1 m units were arrayed as two perpendicular, broken trenches across the site. All units were excavated in 10-cm levels with excavated materials variously dry- and wet-screened. The excavated matrix from one unit was sifted through 3-mm screens, whereas the other units were screened through 6-mm mesh (Basgall and Bouey 1984:86, 87). Site Summary The Warms Springs Project soil scientist identified five soil strata at SON-547, revealing alternating episodes of colluvial, alluvial, and anthropogenic deposition. Basgall and Bouey's (1984) analysis of the site suggests that component breaks are not correlated with the defined stratigraphic units, except perhaps for the protohistoric occupation (Basgall and Bouey 1984:87, 90). In addition to prehistoric materials, historic artifacts were recovered from SON-547, principally from the Smith Phase deposits. Historic artifacts are distributed to a depth of 70 cm at the site, indicating significant temporal mixing (Basgall and Bouey 1984:103). Site SON-547 saw human use and occupation over a span of approximately 5,000 years, including at least 600 years of the Smith Phase (100-700 B.P.). The Smith Phase component was relatively intense and yielded a diverse artifact assemblage (Basgall and Bouey 1984:107, 109). Nevertheless, the sparse representation of non-utilitarian artifacts and small ground stone tool inventory (relative to flaked stone tools) indicates that the Smith Phase component at SON-547 is 241 less complex than, for instance, SON-544/H (Basgall and Bouey 1984:109; Basgall and Bouey 1991:171, Table 45). Obsidian bifaces appear to have been brought to SON-547 in near-finished form, whereas chert bifaces were less complete when brought on-site, as evidenced by the numerous finished obsidian bifaces and dominance of chert debitage in the Smith Phase component (Basgall and Bouey 1984:107, 109). Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection Four 1'4C assays were obtained from SON-547, as were 15 AAR assays (Basgall 1993:Tables 1, 2; Basgall and Bouey 1984:Tables 6a, 6b). Taken together with obsidian hydration data obtained from unmodified debitage and cross-dating via temporally diagnostic artifacts, these chronological data document a 5,000-year site occupation spanning the Skaggs, Dry Creek, and Smith Phase. These data are not discussed in detail or tabulated in this thesis, as they are only used herein as they relate to the component breaks postulated by Basgall and Bouey (1984). For the purposes of determining whether specific arrow points should be included in the seriated assemblage, component assignments to stratigraphically recent Dry Creek Phase or Smith Phase contexts is sufficient to justify inclusion of a given artifact (see paragraph immediately below). Seven arrow points (four chert and three obsidian) from SON-547 were initially considered for inclusion in the assemblage. As indicated above, soil stratigraphic units do not appear to be correlated with component breaks at SON-547. Because four of seven arrow points are chert, precluding direct age estimates via obsidian hydration, the strength of association with archaeological deposits dating between about 100 B.P. and 1500 B.P. must be assessed. According to-Table A.20 below, two chert points (70-547-962 and 70-547-977) were recovered from Test Unit 1 (10-20 cm and 50-60 cm, respectively), one (70-547-652) from Unit N14 E7 242 (40-50 cm), and one (70-547-7) from the site surface (no horizontal provenience given). The surface find is assumed to have been deposited at SON-547 sometime within the last 1,500 years B.P. For the chert points recovered from Test Unit 1 and Unit N14 E7, a first cut at determining chronological placement is a consideration of component breaks. Basgall and Bouey (1984:Table 6f) ascribe the 0-40-cm portion of Test Unit 1 to the Smith Phase and the 40-70-cm portion to the Dry Creek Phase. The first 50 cm of Unit N14 E7 is assigned to the Smith Phase, the Dry Creek component extending from 50 to 80 cm (Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 6f). Artifact 70- 547-7, recovered from the site surface (no horizontal provenience given), is assumed to have been deposited between 100 and 1500 B.P. The other three chert points were recovered from the Smith Phase component of their respective units (70-547-642, -962, and -977) or the upper portion of the Dry Creek Phase component and can be included in the assemblage. The three obsidian points included in the seriation all yielded readable hydration rims (Table A.20). Table A.20. Projectile Points at SON-547 Catalog Unt Depth Adj. Age Number Unit (cm)l Material OH OH Source Age Comment Class 977 Test Unt 50-60 Chert 24111 1 652 N14/E07 40-50 Chert 24121 Test Unit Cut in 950 1 10-20 Obsidian 1.0 1.07 Annadel 211 blade 34112 444 Surface 0 Obsidian 2.2 2.36 Napa 674 Cut in 34112 ______~~~~~~~~~~~~Valleyblade 341 309 N9/E 10 40-50 Obsidian 3.3 3.54 Napa 1376 Cut in 34112 ______~~~~~~Valley blade 962 Test Unit 10-20 Chert 34111 7 Surface 0 Chert 34212 Note: Accession No. 70-547, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adj. OH = EHT-adjusted obsidian hydration reading 243 The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.20 was arrayed in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.14). The distribution indicates that no possible or probable outliers are contained in the assemblage. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) ff1t a. an + Hi 8M I4 Figure A. 14. Box Plot of Age Estimates on SON-547 Arrow Points The seriated assemblage from SON-547 comprises seven arrow points. The median age estimate for the assemblage is 674 B.P. The seriated point assemblage includes points deposited at SON-547 between 211 and 1376 B.P., giving assemblage duration of 1,165 years (Table A.20). A total of five point classes is represented at SON-547 (Table A.21). 244 Table A.21. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-547 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 1 14.3 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 24121 1 14.3 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34111 1 14.3 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 3 43.0 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34212 1 14.3 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed CA-SON-553 (Double Black Dirt Delta) The Double Black Dirt Delta site (SON-553) is a deep, vertically complex midden located on the northern bank of Warm Springs Creek. The site is included in the Warm Springs Creek subgroup. The site covers 2,000 m2 on the first terrace above the creek and has primary and secondary midden zones, which are bisected by minor drainages (Basgall 1981: 1, Map 1). Site Investigation The site was excavated in two phases: test excavation in 1975 (Baumhoff and Orlins 1979) and data recovery excavation in 1979 (Basgall 1981). The test excavation consisted of a single 1 x 1 m test unit that was placed in the middle of the main midden (Basgall and Bouey 1984: 134). The data recovery excavation sought to obtain detailed stratigraphic and structural data on the main midden area. Alternating 1 x 1 m units were excavated along three major and several 245 shorter transects (termed "trenches"); these cross-cut the entire terrace. Additional units were placed on the secondary midden and in the presumed housepit depression. All units were dug in 10-cm levels with sediments wet-screened through 3-mm or 6-mm mesh (Basgall and Bouey 1984:134, 135). Site Summary Based on soil color and structural variation, soils scientist J. Blackard defined eight soil horizon groups (A-H) at SON-553. Colluvial and alluvial deposition contributed to soil formation, which apparently developed over a relatively short time span. The initial three soils horizons (F-H) contained relatively little or no archaeological materials. The most recent soil horizon, Horizon A, is a rich midden, the upper 20-30 cm of which contain historic artifacts and is not stratigraphically separable from a non-historic archaeological deposit (Basgall 1981:7; Basgall and Bouey 1984:135-136). Some projectile point manufacture likely occurred at SON-553. Slightly more than 86 percent of obsidian debitage occurred as reduction debris, along with more than 72 percent of the chert. Chert was more frequent than obsidian in all debitage size categories. Two features comprising amorphous aggregates of fire-affected rock, associated with chert cores, preform bifaces, and debitage were identified at the site, indicating the manufacture of chert tools. Primary reduction material was present in small quantities (Basgall and Bouey 1984:616). Marine shell was relatively abundant at SON-553, indicating some sort of connection to the coast. Unusual finds included rounded clamshell bead blanks, some with holes, and some without. This is suggestive of shell bead manufacture at SON-553. The site is located at the only opening in the Warm Springs Creek canyon for over 1.6 km in either direction (Praetzellis et al. 2000:105-106). 246 Basgall and Bouey (1984:155) infer two occupational episodes at SON-533, the first spanning the interval 600-400 B.P. and the second 200-100 B.P. Obsidian hydration data obtained on arrow points, however, yield age estimates in the 600-900, 400-200, and post-100 B.P. intervals, spanning all of the Smith Phase. Basgall and Bouey (1984:155) also infer high occupational intensity during both occupational episodes. Late Smith Phase occupation artifacts suggest a focus on casual subsistence and maintenance activities as well as bead manufacture. Crude bifaces/preforms and cores, on the other hand, are poorly represented in the late Smith Phase (Basgall and Bouey 1984:157, 159). Glass'trade beads are present in the SON-553 deposit and appear to be restricted to the late Smith Phase (Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 9f). These artifacts include black and white specimens that James Bennyhoff ascribes to "the late Mission period," or 138-117 B.P. (Basgall and Bouey 1984:152). Chronometrics. and Assemblage Selection Sources of chronological data at SON-553 include 14C assays, obsidian hydration data, and time-sensitive artifacts. The 1 4 C assays were obtained from hearths, which have no association with the artifacts of interest here. The radiocarbon assays, strangely, returned Dry Creek Phase dates (which Basgall and Bouey reject as contaminated samples), contrary to all indications from obsidian hydration data and temporally diagnostic artifacts. The site is assigned wholly to the Smith Phase (Basgall 1993:Table 1; Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 9b). Of the 38 arrow points recovered from SON-553, nine were too incomplete for classification or belonged to point classes underrepresented in the study area. These factors left a total of 29 arrow points (24 obsidian, five chert) to be included in the seriation. Given the Smith Phase assignment of SON-553, there is no compelling reason to exclude the chert points shown in 247 Table A.22 as pre-dating 1500 B.P. Of the 24 obsidian points included in the seriation, 23 yielded readable hydration rims. Table A.22. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-553 Cat. Cat. Unit Depl~~th(cm) Material OH Adj.AgOH Source (B.P.) Comment Class 799 E37 N22 40-50 Obsidian 1.31. 1.39.9 AnaeAnnadel 357 Cutblade in 24112 Obsidian 1.2 Mt. Cut in 105 E40;N15 90-100 Obsidian 1.129 Konocti 233 bid 24111 1109 Test Unit 70-80 Obsidian 1.4 1.50 Napa 304 24111 1 0 Valley Test Unit 01 Obian 1.8 Napa 2 cuts in 1053 1 0-10 Obsidi m 0 1.93 Valley 473 opposite 24111 blades 1478 E33 N22 90-100 Obsidian 1.0 1.07 Napa 168 Cut in 24112 0 Valley blade 985 E39 N27 0-10 Obsidian 1.0 .0.50 AnaeAnnadel 4151 blade 24112 10 Surface 0 Obsidian 1.9 2.04 Napa 522 Cut in 24112 0 Valley blade Diffuse;, 81 E38 N15 80-90 Obsidian cut in base 24112 1387 E52N18 0-10 Obsidian 1.4 1.50 Napa 304 Cut in 0 Valley base 32112 711 E39 N23 60-70 Obsidian 1.7 1.82 Mt. 427 Cut in 34111 Konocti blade 341 1371 E39 N27 90-100 Obsidian 2.1 2.25 KoMnocti 620 Cblatdien 34111 697 E39 N23 40-50 Obsidian 2.4 2.57 Va 783 Cut in 34111 ______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Valleyblade 395 E44 N15 40-50 Chert 34111 1158 E49:N22 20-30 Obsidian 1.1 1.18 VNallpeay 199 Cbaden 34112 674 E39N17 120-130 Obsidian 1.7 1.82 BLake 190 Cbluatdien 34112 626 E35 'N22 80-90 Obsidian 1.4 1.50 Va 304 blade 34112 ______V alley blade 248 Table A.22. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-553 Cat. Unit Depth Material OH Adj Source Age No. (cm) OH (B.P.) Comment Class 1420 E46;N22 10-20 Obsidian 2.0 2.15 Napa 572 Cut in 34112 l Valley base 1058 E39 N19 60-70 Obsidian 2.2 2.36 Napa 674 34112 ______~~~~~~~~~~~Valley Napa Cut in 686 E39N17 130-140 Obsidian 2.7 2.90 Valley 969 base 34112 852 E31 N22 10-20 Chert 34112 558 E42 N15 90-100 Chert 34112 435 E48'N15 130-140 Chert 34112 1247 E39 N19 60-70 Chert 34112 737 Delta #1 10-20 Obsidian 1.4 1.50 VNallpeay 304 Cbluatden 34121 984 E39 N27 0-10 Obsidian 1.7 1.82 VNaalley 427 Cbluatdien 34122 1326 E37 N24 60-70 Obsidian 1.1 1.18 Mt. 199 Cut in 34111 Konocti blade 1127 Surface 0 Obsidian 1.0 1.07 Borax 73 Cut in 34212 Lake blade 1254 E39 N19 90-100 Obsidian 1.2 1.29 Valley 233 Cut in 34212 Cut in 612 E35 N22 50-60 Obsidian 1.8 1.93 Annadel 688 blade 34222 Notes: Cat. No. = Catalog number, Accession No. 70-553, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adj. OH = EHT-adjusted obsidian hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.22 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.15). The distribution is normal.22 The distribution indicates that no possible or 22 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.943, p-value = 0.205, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal disiribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 20.45%. 249 probable outliers are contained in the assemblage. All 29 arrow points presented in Table A.22 are included in the assemblage. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 000 a: : 2so7W 0 MD So 0) Figure A. 15. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-553 Arrow Points The striated assemblage from SON-553 consists of 29 arrow points. The obsidian points in the seriated assemblage were deposited at SON-553 between 73 and 969 B.P., yielding an assemblage duration of 896 years. The median age estimate is 357 B.P. Nine point classes are represented at SON-553 (Table A.23). Table A.23. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-553 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 3 10.3 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 24112 5 17.2 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 32112 1 3.4 Corner-notched, contracting stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 250 Table A.23. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-553 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 34111 5 17.2 0 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 34111______17 ______2 ______wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 10 34.5 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34121 1 3.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34122 1 3.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34212 2 6.9 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide 34212 2 6.9 bodied, barbed 34222 1 3.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, Inarrow bodied, barbed CA-SON-556 (Oregon Oak Place) The Oregon Oak Place site (SON-556) is a deep midden site, situated on the primary terrace above the Warm Springs Creek-Little Soda Creek confluence. For the purposes of this study, the site is included in the Warm Springs Creek subgroup. The site occupies approximately 1,000 M2 . The surface midden contains a ca. 10-m diameter depression, the remnant of an aboriginal structure. Ethnographic data suggests that the depression was a late-1800s Kashaya occupation site with a roundhouse (Basgall and Bouey 1984:177-178). Site Investigation Two phases of excavation were conducted at SON-556: test excavation in 1975 and data recovery in 1979 (Basgall and Bouey 1984:179; Baumhoff and Orlins 1979; Hayes 1982). During the test excavation, one 1 x 1 m test unit was dug to a depth of 2.2 m. The 1979 data recovery investigation consisted of excavation in distinct portions of SON-556: the southern edge of the site and the housepit area (Basgall and Bouey 1984:179). 251 Along the southern edge of SON-556, five 2 x 2 m units were excavated in an east-west transect at 3-m intervals. Excavation proceeded in 10-cm levels and horizontal provenience was managed in the four constituent 1 x 1 m quadrats of the 2 x 2 m exposures. All excavated material was wet- and dry-screened through 6-mm mesh; a sample from the westernmost four units was screened through 3-mm mesh. In the housepit area, investigators dug 28 units measuring 1.0 x 1.0 m, eleven 1.0 x 0.5 m units, and five 0.5 x 0.5 units. The tracking of vertical provenience varied; some units were dug in 10-cm levels, others by visible stratigraphy. All units in the housepit area were excavated to 50 cm or to the bottom of the apparent housefloor (Basgall and Bouey 1984:179). Site Summary The Oregon Oak Place site is a three-component (Skaggs, Dry Creek, and Smith phases) midden situated at the western end of a large alluvial bench. The project soils scientist identified 11 soil strata; at the site, including bedrock. Alluvial soils generally dominated the eastern excavation units and were marginally represented in the western units. Archaeological deposits were thickest in the eastern and upper portion of the site deposit. Colluvial deposition and bioturbation appear to have been potent sources of stratigraphic mixing (Basgall and Bouey 1984:177, 179-180). Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection Temporal definition of SON-556 was achieved via 14C and AAR assays, obsidian hydration data, and temporally sensitive artifacts. These four sources of temporal data indicate site use from the Smith Phase through the middle Skaggs Phase (Basgall 1993:Tables 1, 2; 252 Basgall and Bouey 1984:Tables 12a, 12b). The stratigraphic patterning of points assigned to the Rattlesnake series is generally good, with 42 of 51 specimens (82 percent) occurring within Smith Phase contexts (Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 12e), as determined by radiometric and obsidian hydration age estimates. Component breaks for units yielding arrow-sized projectile points are depicted in Table A.24 below. Table A.24. Component Breaks in Select Units from CA-SON-556 Unit Smith Phase Dry Creek Phase Skaggs Phase N15 E10 0-70 70-240 240-300 N15 EO 0-70 70-200 200-370 N14 E5 0-70 70-200 200-350 N14 E6 0-70 70-200 200-350 N14 E1O 0-70 70-240 240-300 N15 EO 0-70 70-200 200-370 N22 E13 0-50 N21 E14 0-50 N14 Ell 0-70 70-240 240-300 Note: Component breaks are given in centimeters Of the 51 arrow points recovered from SON-556, only 14 (10 obsidian and four chert) were complete enough for paradigmatic classification. Of the nine obsidian points included in the analysis, eight yielded readable hydration rims. These eight specimens are eligible for inclusion in the assemblage, as all yielded direct age estimates that fall within the last 1,500 years B.P.; 253 artifact 70-556-12, while not subjected to obsidian hydration analysis, was found on the site surface and can reasonably be assumed to date within the last 1,500 years (Table A.25). The chert points are in agreement with the component breaks shown in Table A.24, with the possible exception of artifact 70-556-1822, which is located in the upper portion (100-110 cm) of the Dry Creek component of Unit N14 E6. Based on point morphology and radiocarbon date of 902 B.P. obtained from midden charcoal at the 80-90-cm level in Unit N14 E6 (Basgall 1993:Table 1; Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 12a), the point is assumed to date to the late Dry Creek Phase, between 900 B.P. and 1500 B.P. Table A.25. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-556 Catalog Depth MaterialdOHgO Number Unit (cm) Materal OH OH Source (B.P.) Class 12 E10 N15 0 Obsidian Napa 24111 ______V alley24 1 479 E05 N15 80-90 Obsidian 2.60 2.79 VNaalley 905 34111 582 E10 N15 40-50 Obsidian 1.40 1.50 Napa 304 34212 ______V a lley ______956 E05 N14 20-30 Chert 34112 996 E06 N14 20-30 Obsidian 0.90 0.97 Annadel 174 34212 1120 Ei0 N14 70-80 Chert 34111 1477 E05 N14 70-80 Obsidian 1.80 1.93 Annadel 688 34112 1654 E05 N14 90-100 Obsidian 1.70 1.82 KMncti 427 24111 1830 E05 NA 110 120 Obsidian 3433.3N3 Nap 1616 34112 1865 EO N15 220-230 Obsidian 2.40 2.50 Napa 741 34112 ______V alley743 1 2 3989 E13 N22 40-50 Obsidian 2.10 2.25 Napa 620 34112 ______~~Valley 62 341 1822 E06 N14 100-110 Chert 34111 2562 E14 N21 0-10 Chert 34112 803 El I N14 30-40 Obsidian 24111 Notes: Accession No. 70-556, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH obsidian hydration reading; Adj. OH = EHT-adjusted obsidian hydration reading 254 The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.25 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.16). The resulting distribution is normal.23 The distribution indicates, however, that artifact 70-556-1830 is a possible outlier because the age estimate of 1616 B.P. is more than 1.5 times the h-spread of 386 plus 786 years (Fletcher and Lock 2005:51). This artifact is therefore excluded from the seriated assemblage. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) U0D- in - 60 400- zo0 0 - Figure A. 16. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-556 Arrow Points 23 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.901, p-value = 0.297, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 29.65%. 255 The distribution of age estimates was plotted a second time without 70-556-1830. The resulting distribution is normal. 24 Figure A. 17 demonstrates that no statistical outliers are present in the distribution. A total of 13 arrow points is therefore included in the seriated assemblage, Box plot (Age (B.P.)) DO- ma: 600- o n 4X ano200D Z D * Figure A.17. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-556 Arrow Points, Excluding Possible Outlier which was deposited between 174 and 905 B.P., or a total duration of 731 years. The median age estimate is 620 B.P. Four point classes are represented in the SON-556 assemblage (Table A.26). 24 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.967, p-value = 0.879, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 87.91%. 256 Table A.26. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-556 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 3 23.1 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed Coiner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 34111 3 23.1 wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 5 38.5 Coiner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34212 2 15.4 Comner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed CA-SON-567 (Homestead Pasture) The Homestead Pasture site (SON-567) is located toward the northwestern boundary of the Warm Springs project area. It is a midden situated on the northern bank of Dry Creek and is included in this study in the Upper Dry Creek subgroup of Warm Springs assemblages. It is situated in a small meadow that was used as a pasture in historic times, bound on the east and west by intermittent streams. The initial augering and surface inspection of SON-567 indicated an approximate surface area of 35 x 35 m (Basgall and Bouey 1984:246-247). A graded dirt road extends along the eastern periphery of SON-567, then turns sharply west to traverse the southern site margin, cutting into the midden. The meadow area was probably cultivated during the historic period: several burnt tree stumps were seen on the western edge of the meadow. An old fence line "bisects the midden along its southern edge," above and adjacent to the dirt road. Historic artifacts were distributed across the site surface. Historic disturbances were most likely associated with SON-567-H (Basgall and Bouey 1984:246-247). 257 Site Investigation Limited excavations were conducted in 1975, revealing an abundant archaeological deposit to 80 cm below ground surface, the upper 40 cm of which contained a considerable quantity of historic artifacts (Basgall and Bouey 1984:247). Auger testing and the distribution of surface materials indicated that the deepest and richest archaeological deposit was along the southern edge of the terrace. Accordingly, the bulk of 1979 excavations were conducted in this area, with a smaller number of units placed in peripheral areas to acquire limited horizontal sampling of the site (Basgall and Bouey 1984:247). One extensive, contiguous exposure, termed Trench A, was excavated along the southern site margin; 1 x 1 m units were excavated in other areas (Basgall and Bouey 1984:247). A total of 14 units was excavated in 1979, including five in Trench A (E0/N20-24) (Basgall and Bouey 1984:Table 18g). All excavation proceeded in 10-cm levels. Most material was wet-screened through 6- mm mesh. The W1/S24 and W6/S15 exposures were wet-screened through 3-mm mesh. The 1975 Test Unit was dry-screened through 6-mm mesh. Respectively, these excavation and screening techniques yielded volumetric excavation of 8.2 M3 , 1.0 M3 , and 1.0 m3 (Basgall and Bouey 1984:247-248). Site Summary This site is likely a strictly Smith Phase manifestation. Five soil horizons were identified during site investigations. Excavation and pedological investigation indicate that midden development resulted from alluvial and colluvial processes, with alluvial processes dominating along the southern site margin and near the drainages. An apparently short-term alluvial 258 depositional event interrupted human occupation of SON-567 (Basgall and Bouey 1984:248, 249). Basgall and Bouey (1984:261) suggest that the historic materials present are intrusive to the indigenous deposit at SON-567, citing no clear evidence for Indian-Euroamerican interaction. Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection No radiocarbon dating was conducted at this site and no AAR age estimates were obtained (Basgall 1993:Tables 1, 2; Basgall and Bouey 1984:249). Obsidian hydration data on unmodified debitage and the presence of temporally diagnostic artifacts at SON-567 indicate site occupation throughout the Smith Phase; only three obsidian hydration age estimates are consistent with a Dry Creek Phase assignment (see Basgall and Bouey 1984:249, Table 18a; Table A.27). Although 26 Rattlesnake points were recovered from SON-567, specimens too incomplete for classification and those belonging to point classes underrepresented in the study area reduced the total number of points considered for inclusion in the assemblage to 13 (seven obsidian and six chert). All seven obsidian points analyzed yielded measurable hydration rims. Table A.27. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-567 Cat. Unit Depth Material OH Adj. Source Age Comment Class 205 E06 S21 70-80 Chert 24111 28 EO-S24 30-40 Obsidian -3,70 391 N 48 G _ X~~~al-y _ blade 123 E14 S15 10-20 Chert 34111 324 E06 S15 80-90 Obsidian 1.10 1.18 Mt. 199 Cut in 34112 I Konocti base 445 EO S20 10-20 Obsidian 1.20 1.29 Mt. 233 Cut in 34112 Konocti blade 284 EO S28 0-10 Obsidian 1.30 1.39 Napa 266 Cut in 34112 ______I__ _ _ V alley _ _ __ blade _ _ _ 259 Table A.27. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-567 Cat. Unit Depth Material OH Adj. Source Age Comment Class No. (cm) OH (B.P.) 162 E06 S21 0-10 Chert 34112 252 W10 10-20 Chert 34112 S25 ______76 W06 30-40 Chert 34112 S15 _ _ _ 71 W6 20-30 Obsidian 1.40 1.50 mooti 304 bladen 34212 34 ~oE06S15 60 70 Obsidian 2 24-0 M 567 Cut in 32 _ _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Kei~reeiblade 312 345 EO S28 30-40 Obsidian 1.20 1.29 Napa 233 Cut in 34212 ______Valley ______blade 38 EO S24 40-50 Chert I I _ 34212 Notes: Cat. No. = Accession No. 70-567, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH obsidian hydration reading; Adj. OH = EHT-adjusted obsidian hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.27 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A. 18). The resulting distribution is not normal.2 5 The distribution depicted in Figure A.19 identifies a possible outlier value of 1683 B.P., a value between 1.5 and 3.0 times the h- spread of the distribution (202.5 years) plus the upper hinge value of 435.5 B.P. (Fletcher and Lock 2005:51). This possible outlier is likely influencing the position of the median age (here 266 B.P.) of the assemblage and is outside the 1,500-year period considered in this study. Accordingly, the distribution of obsidian hydration age estimates was plotted again without the possible outlier (Figure A.20). The resulting distribution is normal. 25 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.620, p-value = 0.000, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 0.05%. 260 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) EOD o 0 4 40 Figure A.18. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-567 Arrow Points Box plot (Age (B.P.)) m4M 30D .T3M an -I 1 !M Figure A.19. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-567 Arrow Points with Possible Outlier (1683 B.P.) Eliminated 261 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 3D 2m0 TO 0) 0) 23+ Figure A.20. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-567 Arrow Points with Probable Outlier (567 B.P.) Eliminated A total of 11 arrow points is included in the SON-5 67 assemblage. The points were deposited at the site between 199 and 304 B.P., yielding an assemblage duration of 105 years. The median age for the assemblage is 233 B.P. Four point classes are represented at SON-567 (Table A.28). Table A.28. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-567 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 1 7.7 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed Corner notched, contracting stem, non serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34111 1 7.7 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 46.2 ~Comrner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 341125 46.2 ~~~~~~~widebodied, barbed 34212 4 30.7 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed 262 CA-SON-568 (Smiley) The Smiley site (SON-568) is a multi-component (Smith, Dry Creek, and Skaggs phases) midden located on the west bank of Dry Creek, 900 m upstream from the confluence with Cherry Creek. The site is situated on a primary terrace at 115 m above mean sea level and extends over 1,600 M2. The site is included in the Upper Dry Creek subgroup for the purposes of this study (Basgall and Bouey 1984:302). Site Investigation Site investigation was conducted in two phases: a test excavation phase in 1975 and a data recovery phase in 1980. The 1975 test excavation consisted of two 1 x 1 m test units. The 1980 data recovery excavation emphasized block excavation of the main terrace zone of SON- 568. Limited excavation was conducted on the lower bench and the southern housepit; excavation of the lower bench deposit was curtailed upon the discovery of a human cremation. Main terrace excavation consisted of a series of 1 x 1 in control units excavated to archaeologically sterile sediments in 10-cm levels. Excavated sediments from the control units were wet-screened through 3-mm or 6-mm mesh (Basgall and Bouey 1984:304). Site Summary Soil formation at SON-568 resulted from alluvial and colluvial processes, depositing four major soil horizons in the excavated portion of the site (Basgall and Bouey 1984:307-309). Three distinct site loci are discernible at SON-568: the main terrace, lower bench, and housepit area (Basgall and Bouey 1984:302). The Dry Creek Phase occupation of the main site terrace lasted from approximately 2500 to 1000 B.P. Although diverse artifact classes were recovered 263 from Dry Creek Phase contexts-indicating a broad functional orientation-inferred artifact discard rates suggest that this occupation was sporadic (Basgall and Bouey 1984:330-331, 338). By contrast, the Smith Phase occupation, which included the housepit area, was generally intensive and its functional orientation broad. The housepit area contained evidence of drill and/or shell bead manufacturing, indicative perhaps of production for exchange (Basgall and Bouey 1984:336-337). Basgall and Bouey (1984:311) note that the Rattlesnake points at SON- 568 exhibit more recent hydration readings than does the debitage. This implies that projectile points were not manufactured at SON-568 but obtained elsewhere, reinforcing the notion that the drills, shell bead material, and associated artifacts in the housepit area mark production for exchange during the Smith Phase. Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection Chronological data were obtained at SON-568 through radiocarbon and AAR assays, obsidian hydration analysis, and time-sensitive artifacts. Seven 14C assays were obtained from SON-568 and five AAR dates were obtained on unmodified faunal bone fragments (Basgall and Bouey 1984:310, Tables 22b, 22c). These data indicate that the site was occupied during the Skaggs, Dry Creek, and Smith phases. Component breaks were defined for the site, with a high level of correspondence between the postulated breaks and vertical provenience of obsidian hydration-dated and temporally diagnostic artifacts (see Tables A.29, A.30). Table A.29. Component Breaks (cm) for Units with Arrow Points, CA-SON-568 Unit Smith Phase Dry Creek Phase Skaggs Phase Unit #1 0-40 40-60 60-170 ElONIO 0-40 40-60 60-120 264 Table A.29. Component Breaks (cm) for Units with Arrow Points, CA-SON-568 Unit Smith Phase Dry Creek Phase Skaggs Phase E14N1O 0-40 40-60 60-130 E12 N12 0-40 40-60 60-80 E9N11 0-40 40-60 60-80 E10 N12 0-40 40-60 60-100 E7N1I 0-30 30-40 E8 N12 0-40 40-60 E8 Ni l 0-40 40-60 E6Nl4 0-30 30-40 E7 N12 0-30 30-40 E8 N14 0-30 30-60 60-100 E9 N14 0-40 40-60 60-80 E8 N3 0-40 E5 N14 0-30 30-60 60-70 E7 N13 0-30 30-40 E13 N12 0-40 40-60 60-100 E14 Ni1 0-40 40-60 60-100 E13 Nl1 0-40 40-60 60-100 E14 N12 0-40 40-60 60-100 E14 N6 0-30 30-60 60-100 E13 N8 0-40 40-60 60-80 E12 N8 0-20 E7 N7 0-40 40-60 60-90 S22 W2 0-40 S23 W3 0-50 50-80 A total of 43 arrow points-19 chert and 24 obsidian-was complete enough for paradigmatic classification. Twenty-three of the obsidian points yielded readable hydration rims. Comparison of Tables A.29 and A.30 indicates that all arrow points-including chert points- considered for inclusion in the seriated assemblage were recovered from Smith Phase contexts, as is expected of points conforming to the Rattlesnake series description. Obsidian hydration- 265 derived age estimates on the points in Table A.30 also agree with the stratigraphic position of individual specimens. The sole exception to these trends is artifact 70-568-320, a chert point. This artifact was recovered from a Skaggs Phase context. Although the point is almost certainly intrusive to the Skaggs Phase context, it has no demonstrable association beyond morphology with late Dry Creek Phase or Smith Phase contexts. Artifact 70-568-320 is therefore excluded from the seriation. Table A.30. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-568 266 Table A.30. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-568 Cat. Unit Depth Material OH Adj. Source Age Comment Class No. (cm) OH (B.P.) 323 N12 0-10 Obsidian 2.50 2.68 Komnocti 843 Cut in 34111 N12 Konocti ~~~~~~~~~blade341 583 N12 10-20 Chert 34111 Nil Napa 64 Cut in 341 755 ND1 20-30 Obsidian 2.20 2.36 Valley 674 blade 34111 E09 Napa Cut in 930 N14 30-40 Obsidian 2.30 2.47 Valley 730 blade 34111 No visible 13 10E 0-10 Obsidian Napa hydration 34111 NIO 01 ObiinValley band; cut in base E08 Napa Cut in 860 Nil 20-30 Obsidian 2.20 2.36 Valley 674 base 34111 E07 1506 N07 20-30 Chert 34111 E05 1aacut in 354 N 14 0-10 Obsidian 1.80 1.93 Valley 473 each 34111 E13 .. Napa Cut in 1054 N08 0-20 Obsidian 1.70 1.82 Valley 427 blade 34112 861 E08 20-30 Chert 34112 NII 418 N12 0-10 Chert 34112 186 Surface 0 Obsidian 2.20 2.36 Konocti 674 Cut in 34112 Konocti ~~base E12 m.Cti 1256 N12 40-60 Obsidian 2.40 2.57 Konocti 783 blade 34112 E07 389 N13 0-10 Chert 34112 909 N12 30-40 Chert 34112 536 E08 10-20 Chert 34112 Ni1 22 Nl 0-10 Chet341 267 Table A.30. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-568 Cat. Uni Depth Adj. Age Comment C No.Unit (cm) Material OH OH Source (.. omn ls 849 Nl12 20-30 Chert 34112 3-O WUnit #l 60 70 Chei4 3444 93 5 E08 30-40 Obsidian 2.30 2.47 Kmncti 730 Cut in 34112 N13 Knciblade 1463 W02 20-30 Chert 34112 S22 1122 N08 10-20 Chert 34112 N08 M.Cti 1235 N12 40-60 Obsidian 1.10 1.18 Mt. 199 base 34112 1476 W03 20-30 Obsidian 1.20 1.29 Annadel 307 Cut in 34122 S23 blade 2 cuts on opposite 444 E146 30-40 Obsidian 1.20 1.29 Komcti 234 blades, 34122 N06 Konocti ~~~~~~~~~2nd reading missing E07 693 N13 10-20 Chert 34122 608 E13 10-20 Chert 34122 Nil 637 E08 10-20 Chert 34122 754 E14 20-30 Obsidian 2.30 2.47 mt. 730 Cut in 34222 Nil Konocti blade 679 N14 10-20 Obsidian 1.30 1.39 VNallpeay 266 Cbluatden 34212 789 E06 20-30 Obsidian 2.40 2.57 Valley 783 Cbluatden 34212 842 N 12 20-30 Chert 34212 692 N13 10-20 Chert 34212 Notes: Cat. No. = Catalog number, Accession No. 70-568, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adj. OH = EHT-adjusted obsidian hydration reading 268 The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.30 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.21). The resulting distribution is normal.26 No statistical outliers are evident in Figure A.21. No additional arrow points need to be excluded from the assemblage. Box plot (Age (B.P.)) a. IMen an+ CD 4:n ZnD 0 Figure A.21. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-568 Arrow Points A total of 42 arrow points is included in the seriated assemblage. The points were deposited at SON-568 from 141 to 1021 B.P. for an assemblage duration of 880 years. The median age of the assemblage is 620 B.P. A total of seven point classes is represented at SON- 568 (Table A.31). 26 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.939, p-value = 0.173, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 17.25%. 269 Table A.31. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-568 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 : 7 16.7 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 24112 3 7.1 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34111 8 19.1 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34112 14 33.3 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34122 5 11.9 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34212 4 9.5 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34222 1 2.4 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed CA-SON-572 (Banded Rock Pool Site) The Banded Rock Pool site (SON-572) is a three-component (Skaggs, Dry Creek, and Smith phases) midden located on a secondary terrace 35 m above and 80 m distant from Dry Creek. The site is assigned to the Upper Dry Creek subgroup. The midden, horseshoe in shape, covers about 370 m 2. Toward and adjacent to the creek are three small mounds of midden, formerly part of a larger terrace and likely associated with the main site (Basgall and Bouey 1984:268). Site Investigation The Banded Rock Pool site was excavated in two phases: a test excavation in 1975 and data recovery in 1981 and 1982. The 1975 excavation consisted of a single 1 x 1 m test unit dug 270 to 1.5 m below ground surface. The data recovery excavation focused on the midden area, although some units were dug along the site periphery. The units excavated in 1981 measured 1 x 1 m and were excavated in 10-cm arbitrary levels. Various screening strategies were employed during data recovery: dry-screening, wet-screening, 3-mm and 6-mm mesh. A total of 45 units and three trenches was excavated at SON-572, resulting in a volumetric sample of approximately 45 m3 (Basgall and Bouey 1984:268, 269). Site Summary The SON-572 soil matrix was primarily colluvium, originating on the surrounding hills slopes. The vertical provenience of artifacts known to belong to the Smith Phase occupation corresponds to the upper soil horizon (Horizon A) at the site. The site was occupied over a span of approximately 5,000 years. Smith Phase occupation, based on obsidian hydration age estimates of 199 B.P. or earlier (see Table A.34) and the lack of historic artifacts in the deposit, suggest that SON-572 was abandoned prior to the onset of Euroamerican influence in the Warm Springs vicinity. Basgall and Bouey (1984:292) estimate that approximately 88.3 tools were deposited at SON-572 every 100 years during the Smith Phase occupation, suggesting an intensive residential pattern. The functional orientation during this interval was broad, representing a full-spectrum subsistence and equipment maintenance system. The flaked stone tool profile during the Smith Phase was dominated by finished bifaces, most made from obsidian (Basgall and Bouey 1984:291, 292, 294). The Dry Creek Phase occupation was also characterized as intensive, although Basgall and Bouey's estimated rate of tool deposition during this phase was 27.3 tools per 100 years. The functional orientation of SON-572 during the Dry Creek Phase is similarly broad when compared to the Smith Phase occupation, but less so (Basgall and Bouey 1984:292, 295). 271 Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection Chronological data at SON-572 was obtained via a single 14C assay, three AAR dates, obsidian hydration dating, and time-sensitive artifacts (Basgall 1993:Tables 1 and 2; Basgall and Boucy 1984:271, Tables 20a-c). These data indicate that the Smith Phase and early to middle Dry Creek Phase components occupy the upper 50 cm of the site (see Table A.34). A total of 37 Rattlesnake series points was recovered from SON-572. Of these, 19 were complete enough for paradigmatic classification. Seven of these points are made of chert, the remainder of obsidian. All obsidian points were subjected to obsidian hydration and are considered candidates for inclusion in the assemblage. Because the chert points were recovered from contexts between the surface and 50 cm, which are ascribed to the Smith and Dry Creek phases, they are considered for inclusion in the seriated assemblage (Table A.32). Table A.32. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-572 Cat. Unit Depth Mat OH Adj. Source Age Comments Class No. (c)OH (.. 1840 Surface 0 Obs 1.1 1.18 Napa 199 Cut in blade 34121 ______~ ~~~~~ ~ ~~Valley______W02 1239 SO nc 0-10 Obs 1.2 1.29 Napa 233 Trench Valley 34122 mt. 2 cuts, both same 675 Unit'#1 0-10 Obs 1.4 1.50 304 blade; 2nd 34121 Konocti reading missing 981 EO S04 20-30 Obs 1.7 1.82 Napa 427 34222 E03 Mt. 2 cuts-I base, 1 1901 S8 10-20 Obs 2.2 2.36 Knc 674 blade; 2nd cut 34122 2.2 (2.36) 272 Table A.32. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-572 Cat. Unit Depth Mat. OH Adj Source Age Comments No. (cm) OH (.. Class EO S02, Mt. 2 cuts- 1 base, I 869 Tre~nch 20-30 Obs 2.3 2.47 730tblade; 2nd cut 34122 1~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~Knci2.3 (2.47) 172 E02 102 b . .7 mt. 73 2 cuts, 1 blade, 1 1702 ES02 10 20 Obs 2.4 2.57 Koncti 783 (32base;2ndcut3.0 34121 502 Konocti ~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~(3.22)____ EO S03, mt. 2 cuts-I base, 1 917 Trench 10-20 Obs 2.5 2.68 Konocti 843 blade; 2nd cut 34222 I 2.5 (2.68) E02 mt. 2 cuts-i base, 1 1581 S08 0-10 Obs 2.5 2.68 Konocd 843 blade; 2nd cut 24121 ______~~~~~~~~~~~~(3.22) _ ~~ _ ~~~3.0 _ _ E04 203 b . .9 mt. 95 2 cuts-i base, 1 1970 S08 20-30 Obs 2.6 2.79 Konocti 905 blade; 2nd cut 24121 ______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2.8(3.0) EO SOI, N 2 cuts-1 base, 1 1328 Trench 0-10 Obs 3.0 3.22 Napa 1165 2bct- bas, 34112 III Valley 3.0 (3.22) EO S06, Napa 2 cuts, 1 blade, 1 1091 Trench 30-40 Obs 3.1 3.33 Vapa 1235 notch; 2nd cut 24121 I Valley diffuse hydration 125 EO N04 30-40 Cht 34122 463 SE076 30-40 Cht 34222 2012 E02 20-30 Cht 34122 E02 1480 sTrench 40-50 Cht 34222 1717 E02 0-10 Cht 34122 662 Surface 0 Cht 34121 1859 W02 10-20 Cht S08 34222 Notes: Cat. No. = Catalog number, Accession No. 70-572, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; Mat. = Material; Obs = obsidian; Cht = chert; OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adj. OH = EHT-adjusted obsidian hydration reading 273 The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.32 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.22). The resulting distribution is normal. 27 No statistical outliers are evident in Figure A.22, so all 19 points in Table A.34 are included in the seriated assemblage. The median assemblage age is 730 B.P. and the assemblage spans 1,036 years, from 199 B.P. to 1235 B.P. Five arrow point classes are represented at SON-572 (Table A.33). Box plot (Age (B.P.)) mn Ed 0 4~0 0_ Figure A.22. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-572 Arrow Points 27 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.939, p-value = 0.511, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 51.10%. 274 Table A.33. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-572 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24121 3 15.8 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 34112 I 5.3 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34121 4 21.1 34122 6 31.6 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, barbed 34222 5 26.3 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, narrow bodied, barbed CA-SON-593-I (Treganza 4) The Treganza 4 site (SON-593-I) is situated on a knoll at the southern perimeter of a primary terrace on Dry Creek. The primary terrace measures 300-350 m east-west and 150-200 m north-south. The site is bordered on the south by Dry Creek, on the north by Hot Springs Road, and on the east by a small, intermittent stream (Basgall and Bouey 1984:339). Site Investigation Data recovery-phase excavation focused on the housepit depressions, although some units were dug in non-feature portions of the midden. Excavation was by 10-cm levels in 1 x 1 m units. Various constituent recovery strategies were employed, including dry-screening, wet- screening, and different screen sizes (3-mm and 6-mm). Surface collection units were also used at SON-593-1. A total of 79 units was excavated at the site for a 1.9 percent (77.75 M2 ) areal sample and a 35.5 m3 volumetric sample (Basgall and Bouey 1984:341). 275 Site Summary Occupational intensity at SON-593-I was relatively intense and is characterized by a highly diverse artifact assemblage. The large quantity of hafted drills at SON-593-I and marine shell waste speaks to considerable shell bead production. The quantity of hammerstones and anvils attest to a secondary (by comparison with shell bead production), but important focus on lithic production (Basgall and Bouey 1984:366, 369). Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection Chronometric data from SON-593-I were obtained via three AAR assays on unmodified faunal bone, obsidian hydration age estimates, and time-sensitive artifacts (Basgall 1993:Table 2; Basgall and Bouey 1984:344, Tables 23b, 23c). This study relies on the hydration results from obsidian arrow points, as the data derived from them provided age estimates directly bearing on the phenomena of interest. A total of 34 arrow points from SON-593-I was initially considered for inclusion in the assemblage (Table A.34). All of these points were made of obsidian; 32 of the specimens yielded readable hydration bands. Table A.34. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-593-I Catalog i Depth Material OH Adjusted AegSource Comment C Number (cm) OH (B.P.) 1494 N30 0-10 Obsidian 2.40 2.57 Napa 783 Cut in 24111 N30 ~~~~~~~~Valleyblade 241 1282 N34 10-20 Obsidian 1.00 1.07 Annadel 211 bCaden 24111 112-2 E44 30 40 Obsidia 20 An"Cut in N 32- blade 276 Table A.34. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-593-I Number Unit Depth Material OH AdJusted Source (B.P.) Comment Class 633 E34 10-20 Obsidian 2.40 2.57 Borax 454 Cutin 24111 N126 Lake blade 749 E47 0-10 Obsidian 2.50 2.68 Boax 505 Cut in 24111 N34.5 Lake base 1174 E15 0-10 Obsidian 1.10 1.18 mt. 199 Cut in 24111 N27 Konocti blade 1131 N29 20-30 Obsidian 1.00 1.07 Napa 168 Cut in 24111 N29 ~~~~~~~~Valleybase241 2 cuts- I blade, 1 E16 Naabase; 2nd 55 N29 20-30 Obsidian 1.50 1.61 Napa 344 reading: 24111 N29 ~~~~~~~~~Valley5. (6.01), 3492 B.P. 774 N3E47 30-40 Obsidian 1.50 1.61 Napa 344 Cut in 24111 N34.5 Valley blade 12 N24 10-20 Obsidian 1.70 1.82 Napa 427 Cutbl 2411i1 N24 ~~~~~~~~Valleyblade 241 734 E46 50-60 Obsidian 1.90 2.04 Napa 521 Cut in 24111 N34.5 ~~~~~~~~Valleyblade E46 N33.5, Cut in 691 E46 0-10 Obsidian Mt. blade; no 24111 N34.5, Konocti visible E47 band N33.5 288 E14 20-30 Obsidian 0.90 0.97 Napa 141 Cut in 24111 N29 Valley blade Diffuse 973 E26 30 40 Obsidian Napa hydration 24111 N:33 304 biinValley band; cut I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~inblade 1399 N27 10-20 Obsidian 1.10 1.18 Napa 199 Cut in 24112 N27 ~~~~~~~~Valleyblade 241 ElI 8NaaCti 1042 N29 20-30 Obsidian 1.30 1.39 VNaalley 266 bCluatde 24112 E04 Napa Cut in 131 N20 20-30 Obsidian 1.60 1.72 Napae 386 Cutd in11 277 Table A.34. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-593-I 278 Table A.34. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-593-I Catalog Unit Depth Material OH Adjusted Source Age Comment Class Number (cm) OH (B.P.) 2 cuts- same 1071 E36 20-30 Obsidian 0.90 0.97 Napa 141 blade; 34122 N23 Valley second value ______missing 2 cuts- opposite 1959 N324 30-40 Obsidian 1.00 1.07 Napa 168 blds 34122 N32 ~~~~~~~~Valley2nd reading ______m issin g Notes: Accession No. 70-5931, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH = obsidian hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.34 was arrayed in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.23). The resulting distribution is not normal.28 The distribution identifies one probable outlier (2846 B.P.) and two possible outliers (905 and 1126 B.P.). These outliers were successively eliminated from the assemblage and the distribution replotted in Figure A.24. 28 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.543, p-value = < 0.0001, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 0.01%. 279 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 3Un 0 Iso _0 0 * Figure A.23. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-593-1 Arrow Points Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 9 7W . 0 s) 4(M 300 - 1M I Figure A.24. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-593-I Arrow Points with Outliers Removed 280 The resulting distribution is not normal,2 9 revealing a possible outlier of 783 B.P. and a median age estimate of 266 B.P. The distribution of obsidian hydration-derived age estimates was plotted again, this time without the value of 783 B.P. (Figure A.25). Box plot (Age (B.P.)) 7Al T CL ax 4) 0) 323+ 2a0 Figure A.25. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-593-I Arrow Points with Possible Outlier 783 B.P. Removed Figure A.25 depicts a non-normal distribution30 with no statistical outliers and median age estimate of 266 B.P. Because the median age estimate of the assemblage did not change with 29 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.884, p-value = 0.004, alpha = 0.050. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is lower than the significance level, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 0.42%. 30 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.898, p-value 0.01, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level, one should reject the null hypothesis HO, and accept the alternative hypothesis Ha. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is lower than 1.03%. 281 the elimination of the 783 B.P. value, it is unlikely that this value is a statistical outlier and it was reincorporated into the assemblage. A total of 31 arrow points was included in the seriated assemblage. The arrow points in the assemblage were deposited at SON-593-1 between 141 and 783 B.P. The median age of the assemblage is 266 B.P. and the assemblage duration is 642 years. A total of seven point classes are represented at SON-593-1 (Table A.35). Table A.35. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-593-1 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 13 41.2 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 241123 8.8 ~~~~~~~~Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 241123 8.8 ~~~~~~~~widebodied, barbed 24121 1 2.9 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 341119 26.5 ~~~~~~~Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 341119 26.5 ~~~~~~~widebodied, unbarbed Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 34112 4 11.8 wide bodied, barbed 34121 1 2.9 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, narrow bodied, unbarbed 341222 59 ~~~~~~~~Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, 341222 5.9 ~~~~~~~narrow bodied, barbed CA-SON-593-Hl (Treganza 3 Site) The Treganza 3 site (SON-593-11) is a multicomponent site with a deep, well developed midden spanning the Skaggs, Dry Creek, and Smith phases. It is situated on an extensive primary terrace about 120 m north of Dry Creek. Accordingly, this site is assigned to the Upper Dry 282 Creek subgroup of Warm Springs assemblages for the purposes of this thesis. SON-593-II has been graded along its western and southwestern margins. The majority of archaeological materials were identified in an area covering 340 m2; sparse surface and subsurface materials were found beyond this primary locus (Basgall and Bouey 1984:371). Site Investigation Site SON-593-II was test excavated in 1975 and data recovery was carried out in 1980. The test excavation phase consisted of a single test unit placed in the midden. The test unit was dug to a depth of 2.2 m. The data recovery excavation was designed to obtain broad coverage of the remainder of the midden and a profile of the site's structure. Excavation units measuring 1 x 2 m were excavated in areas where stratigraphy was judged intact. Provenience was managed within these exposures in 1 x 1 m units and 10-cm levels. Four test units were excavated outside of the primary midden area, but did not result in the identification of any substantial subsurface deposits. A total of seventeen 1 x 1 m units was excavated during the 1980 season. Most units were screened through 6-mm mesh; two were screened through 3-mm mesh. All excavated matrix was wet-screened. Combining both phases of excavation, 28.8 m3 of SON-593-II was excavated (Basgall and Bouey 1984:372, 373). Site Summary The Smith Phase occupation at SON-593-II was relatively high, the Dry Creek Phase occupation slightly less so. Assemblage diversity for the Smith Phase was moderate, whereas that of the Dry Creek Phase was high. Early stages of biface production may have taken place elsewhere, judging by the preponderance of finished bifaces compared to preforms in the Smith 283 Phase deposit. The Dry Creek Phase deposit contained fewer finished bifaces relative to preforms, compared to the Smith Phase occupation (Basgall and Bouey 1984:392, 394, 396). Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection Occupation of SON-593-II spans the Skaggs, Dry Creek, and Smith phases. Site chronology was determined via six 1 4C and six AAR assays, as well as obsidian hydration measurements and time-sensitive artifacts. The Smith Phase component is defined by two AAR age estimates (one Smith Phase age estimate was rejected because it occurred in an otherwise Skaggs Phase context), temporally diagnostic artifacts, and obsidian hydration readings. The Dry Creek Phase occupation was defined based on one 14C assay, one AAR assay, temporally diagnostic artifacts, and obsidian hydration readings (Basgall 1993:Tables 1, 2; Basgall and Bouey 1984:Tables 24b-24d). A total of seven arrow points from SON-593-II was initially considered for inclusion in the seriation (Table A.36). Four of the points were made of obsidian, whereas three were made of chert. All of the obsidian specimens yielded readable hydration bands consistent with a Smith Phase or early Dry Creek Phase assignment. Although not directly associated with dated material (excepting other temporally diagnostic artifacts), the chert points shown in Table A.36 were recovered from the upper 30 cm of SON-593-II, which in Unit N12 E13 and Test Unit 1 are assigned to the Smith Phase occupation. All seven points, therefore, are assumed to have been deposited at SON-593-I1 within the last 1,500 years B.P. and are included in the seriated assemblage. 284 Table A.36. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-593-II Cat. Unit Depth Material OH Adj OH Source Age Comment Class No. (cm) (B.P.) Test 493 Unit 10-20 Chert 24111 E1 908 E13 0-10 Chert 24111 NI2 2 cuts- opposite 33 E12 0-10 Obsidian 1.3 1.39 Borax 96 blades; 24112 N20 Lake 2nd reading missing E13 Double 914 N12 10-20 Chert side 24112 notches 1030 EQ 10-20 Obsidian 2.3 2.47 Napa 730 Cut in 34111 N19 Valley blade EOI1 Mt. 90 Cut in341 130 20-30 Obsidian 2.6 2.79 Konocti 905 34212 N20 Kntiblade 1038 E1 20-30 Obsidian 2.8 3.10 Mt. 1089 Cut 34212 N19 Kntiblade Notes: Cat. No. = Catalog number, Accession No. 70-59311, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH = obsidian hydration reading; Adj OH = EHT-adjusted hydration reading The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.36 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.26). The resulting distribution is normal,3 ' exhibiting no statistical outliers. 3' Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.906, p-value = 0.461, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 46.06%. 285 Box plot (Age (B.P.)) Jaoo T eon 0e + 0) 0 IM MO Figure A.26. Box Plot of Age Estimates on SON-593-II Arrow Points A total of seven arrow points is included in the seriated assemblage from SON-593-II. The median age estimate for the assemblage is 818 B.P. The points were deposited between 96 and 1089 B.P., yielding an assemblage duration of 993 years. Four arrow point classes are represented at SON-593-II (Table A.37). Table A.37. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at SON-593-I1 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 2 28.6 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 24112 2 28.6 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34111 1 14.2 Corner-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 34212 2 _J 28.6 --- ~Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed 286 CA-SON-597 (Treganza 7 Site) The Treganza 7 site (SON-597) is a single-component Smith Phase midden. It is located on a knoll that occupies the primary terrace above the confluence of Yorty and Brush creeks. The main site locus is bordered by Brush Creek on the south and east, on the west by Yorty Creek, and on the north is contiguous with the rest of the terrace. A small area of midden was separated from the main locus after Brush Creek shifted channels. The main site is 35 x 35 m, whereas the secondary locus measures 10 x 3 m, for a total area of 730 i 2 . The site surface is open, marred by a faint jeep trail and two depressions, one of which is a housepit (Basgall and Bouey 1984:536, 542). Site Investigation The site was excavated in two phases: a 1975 test excavation and a 1980 data recovery phase. The 1975 test phase consisted of a 1 x 1 m unit. The data recovery excavation consisted of 20 units measuring 1 x 1 m. Excavation proceeded in 10-cm levels. All excavated matrix was wet-screened through 6-mm (16 units) or 3-mm (four units) mesh. The combined excavations resulted in a 3.6-percent areal sampling of the site (26.5 M2 ) and a 15.4-M3 volumetric sample (Basgall and Bouey 1984:542, 543). Site Summary The artifactual inventory of SON-597 consisted of arrow-sized projectile points, finished and preform bifaces, a uniface, flake tools, cores, debitage, a mortar, a pestle, millingslabs, handstones, hammerstones, anvils, and miscellaneous groundstone. The ecofactual inventory was 287 small and p6or-quality, consisting of badly preserved faunal remains (Basgall and Bouey 1984:554, Tables 37e, 37f). Chronometrics and Assemblage Selection A total of six arrow points from SON-597 was considered for inclusion in the seriated assemblage (Table A.38). Four of these points were made of obsidian, two of chert. All obsidian specimens yielded readable hydration bands. Table A.38. Arrow Point Data from CA-SON-597 Cat. Unit Depth Material OH Adj. Source Age Comment Class No. (c)OH (B.P.) 2 cuts-I E17 blade, 1 238 N16 0-10 Obsidian 1.2 1.29 Annadel 307 base; 2nd 24111 reading ______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~missing 219 N16 0-10 Chert 24112 Gut in W02 .. Napa blade; N13 21020 Obsidian - 3.13 Na4" 2nd band 344-2 Va-14" r~~eading 2 cuts- opposite 193 E9 N12 30-40 Obsidian 1.6 1.72 Napa 386 blades; 34212 Valley 2nd rim: faint band E0 1 510 N12 10-20 Chert 34212 NO12 502 N12 0-10 Obsidian 1.1 1.18 Napa 199 Cut in _ N __12______Valley fracture 34 1 Notes: Catalog number, Accession No. 70-597, Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Davis; OH = obsidian hydration reading; 288 The distribution of age estimates for the arrow points described in Table A.38 was plotted in box-plot form to test for statistical outliers that may be skewing the median of the values (Figure A.27). The resulting distribution is normal 32 and exhibits a single possible outlier (value of 1302 B.P.). This value was eliminated from the assemblage because it is the sole Dry Creek Phase indicator in an otherwise Smith Phase occupation. A total of five arrow points was included in the seriated assemblage. The median age estimate for the assemblage is 307 B.P. The points were deposited at SON-597 between 199 and 386 B.P., yielding an assemblage duration of 187 years. Three arrow point classes are represented at SON-597 (Table A.39). Box plot (Age (B.P.)) So 0 hi 600 400 1- 0 Figure A.27. Box Plot of Age Estimates on CA-SON-597 Arrow Points 32 Shapiro-Wilk test: W = 0.768, p-value = 0.056, alpha = 0.05. Test interpretation: HO: The sample follows a normal distribution. Ha: The sample does not follow a normal distribution. As the computed p- value is greater than the significance level alpha = 0.05, one should accept the null hypothesis HO. The risk to reject the null hypothesis HO while it is true is 5.59%. 289 Table A.39. Projectile Point Classes and Class Frequencies at CA-SON-597 Class Frequency Relative Frequency per Class Description Class (%) 24111 1 20.0 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, unbarbed 24112 1 20.0 Side-notched, expanding stem, non-serrated, wide bodied, barbed 34212 3 60.0 Corner-notched, expanding stem, serrated, wide bodied, barbed 291 Warm Springs Weather Data Weather Database: WRMSPRNG.C (NCDC #9440, Warm Springs Dam) Observer: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Location: Sonoma County; Nearest City: Skaggs Springs; Latitude: 38 deg 43 min N; Longitude: 123 deg 00 min W; Elevation: 224 ft Available data: UC IPM database records begin/end: June 1, 1973/November 29, 1998; Reporting interval: Daily Stored variables: Air Temperature, max/min: Daily max/min measured at 5 feet. Air Temperature at observation time: Pan Evaporation: Daily total measured 7 days per week. Precipitation: Daily total measured. Weather Type: Observer's estimate of weather condition at observation time. Variables with computed averages: precipitation, air temperature, evaporation Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 01-01 57 35 01-02 56 34 01-03 55 35 01-04 55 37 01-05 56 37 01-06 55 36 01-07 57 37 01-08 57 38 01-09 57 39 01-10 57 38 292 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 01-11 58 36 01-12 58 36 01-13 58 36 01-14 57 36 01-15 56 36 S 01-16 59 39 01-17 58 39 01-18 60 39 01-19 58 38 01-20 59 37 01-21 60 36 01-22 61 37 01-23 60 38 01-24 62 37 01-25 62 37 01-26 64 39 01-27 63 38 01-28 61 37 01-29 62 36 01-30 60 35 01-31 61 36 02-01 61 37 02-02 62 37 02-03 63 37 02-04 62 36 02-05 61 35 02-06 61 37 02-07 64 38 02-08 62 38 02-09 62 39 02-10 61 39 02-11 62 38 02-12 62 41 02-13 62 42 02-14 63 39 02-15 61 39 02-16 61 40 02-17 63 41 293 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 02-18 61 39 02-19 61 41 02-20 62 39 02-21 63 39 02-22 65 40 02-23 65 37 02-24 67 38 02-25 66 38 02-26 65 40 02-27 66 40 02-28 66 40 02-29 66 40 03-01 63 41 03-02 62 41 03-03 65 42 03-04 65 40 03-05 64 39 03-06 66 41 03-07 66 41 03-08 67 42 03-09 65 43 03-10 64 43 03-11 66 41 03-12 65 41 03-13 64 40 03-14 67 40 03-15 67 40 03-16 66 41 03-17 67 41 03-18 68 42 03-19 70 40 03-20 69 41 03-21 68 41 03-22 66 41 03-23 64 42 03-24 64 41 03-25 67 42 03-26 67 43 294 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 03-27 67 43 03-28 69 42 03-29 70 42 03-30 70 43 03-31 70 42 04-01 68 42 04-02 68 42 04-03 69 42 04-04 73 41 04-05 68 42 04-06 68 43 04-07 72 42 04-08 69 43 04-09 70 45 04-10 70 43 04-11 70 44 04-12 71 43 04-13 74 43 04-14 74 43 04-15 69 42 04-16 70 43 04-17 70 44 04-18 71 43 04-19 73 43 04-20 74 46 04-21 73 46 04-22 71 46 04-23 67 46 04-24 69 44 04-25 70 44 04-26 75 45 04-27 79 46 04-28 78 48 04-29 79 47 04-30 76 47 05-01 74 47 05-02 76 46 05-03 77 47 295 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 05-04 78 46 05-05 78 46 05-06 78 46 05-07 77 46 05-08 77 47 05-09 76 46 05-10 77 47 05-11 78 46 05-12 80 48 05-13 80 48 05-14 79 49 05-15 77 48 05-16 78 48 05-17 78 48 05-18 79 47 05-19 77 46 05-20 77 47 05-21 76 47 05-22 81 48 05-23 78 49 05-24 78 50 05-25 81 49 05-26 79 50 05-27 79 50 05-28 79 49 05-29 80 49 05-30 80 50 05-31 80 50 06-01 84 51 06-02 83 51 06-03 81 49 06-04 81 51 06-05. 81 51 06-06 81 53 06-07 82 51 06-08 85 51 06-09 87 51 06-10 85 52 296 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 06-11 83 51 06-12 82 50 06-13 82 49 06-14 82 51 06-15 83 52 06-16 82 52 06-17 82 50 06-18 84 50 06-19 84 51 06-20 85 51 06-21 86 51 06-22 87 52 06-23 83 51 06-24 85 52 06-25 84 51 06-26 85 52 06-27 82 51 06-28 80 51 06-29 82 52 06-30 85 52 07-01 88 53 07-02 87 52 07-03 87 50 07-04 87 50 07-05 87 51 07-06 89 51 07-07 89 51 07-08 88 52 07-09 86 52 07-10 89 52 07-11 87 51 07-12 89 50 07-13 89 52 07-14 89 52 07-15 86 50 07-16 86 51 07-17 88 52 07-18 88 53 297 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 07-19 88 51 07-20 86 52 07-21 87 52 07-22 87 51 07-23 88 53 07-24 89 52 07-25 89 51 07-26 86 52 07-27 88 52 07-28 88 52 07-29 88 51 07-30 89 51 07-31 88 51 08-01 91 50 08-02 91 50 08-03 91 52 08-04 91 52 08-05 93 53 08-06 93 52 08-07 94 54 08-08 94 52 08-09 92 51 08-10 89 51 08-11 89 51 08-12 89 50 08-13 87 52 08-14 87 51 08-15 87 50 08-16 89 51 08-17 87 51 08-18 85 51 08-19 87 51 08-20 86 52 08-21 86 51 08-22 88 50 08-23 87 51 08-24 88 50 08-25 85 50 298 Table B.2.. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 08-26 87 50 08-27 89 52 08-28 91 51 08-29 89 51 08-30 88 52 08-31 89 51 09-01 90 50 09-02 91 51 09-03 90 51 09-04 90 52 09-05 89 52 09-06 86 51 09-07 87 51 09-08 88 50 09-09 84 50 09-10 84 50 09-11 87 51 09-12 86 50 09-13 85 50 09-14 81 48 09-15 83 50 09-16 81 50 09-17 81 49 09-18 80 50 09-19 82 49 09-20 87 49 09-21 85 49 09-22 85 49 09-23 85 49 09-24 85 49 09-25 82 49 09-26 81 49 09-27 81 49 09-28 85 50 09-29 83 50 09-30 84 50 10-01 81 49 10-02 83 49 299 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 10-03 87 49 10-04 84 50 10-05 83 50 10-06 81 47 10-07 84 47 10-08 83 46 10-09 81 48 10-10 81 46 10-11 81 46 10-12 81 46 10-13 80 47 10-14 80 47 10-15 80 47 10-16 81 45 10-17 81 44 10-18 77 44 10-19 75 44 10-20 77 45 10-21 76 45 10-22 73 45 10-23 74 47 10-24 74 48 10-25 73 46 10-26 74 45 10-27 73 46 10-28 69 47 10-29 67 44 10-30 70 44 10-31 72 43 11-01 71 44 11-02 74 44 11-03 75 43 11-04 74 43 11-05 71 43 11-06 70 44 11-07 69 45 11-08 66 42 11-09 66 41 300 Table B.2. Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 11-10 66 41 11-11 67 42 11-12 68 40 11-13 66 41 11-14 65 40 11-15 64 39 11-16 63 39 11-17 64 41 11-18 64 41 11-19 63 40 11-20 61 38 11-21 60 40 11-22 60 40 11-23 61 41 11-24 61 39 11-25 62 38 11-26 61 38 11-27 60 38 11-28 60 38 11-29 60 37 11-30 62 35 12-01 62 37 12-02 61 37 12-03 62 39 12-04 61 37 12-05 61 37 12-06 61 38 12-07 61 38 12-08 61 37 12-09 61 37 12-10 60 38 12-11 59 38 12-12 57 35 12-13 57 35 12-14 59 35 12-15 57 35 12-16 58 35 12-17 58 35 301 Table B.2.: Maximum and Minimum Air Temperatures at Warm Springs Date Air Temperature Month/Day Max/Min (F) 12-18 57 35 12-19 56 34 12-20 53 34 12-21 53 34 12-22 54 34 12-23 55 32 12-24 56 32 12-25 56 32 12-26 54 33 12-27 54 33 12-28 57 34 12-29 55 36 12-30 55 36 12-31 56 35 302 APPENDIX C Projectile Point Illustrations 303 i i I .tVI a C ~d -f IIz i b_ : i i ., : I ! ;j .s , .~~~ . _ ._ I I .s ; n . k I . . n; * r, q, r a' S i f U' V w x i 4 : I, 2 3 4 5: Plate I i i, -:i ,mmf Source;I Origer 1982a:Plate I I 304 112 t PLATEi Specimen Catalog # Site Length Width Thickness Weight Corner-notctied, a 78-17-49 CA-SON-20a 18.7* 14.8* 4.7 1.2 b g CA-SON-159 24.4* 14.5* 2.8 0.9 c h 22.8* 15.4 3.0 0.7 d I 33.0* 19.3 4.4 2.4, e 72-1-18 28.5* 16.6 4.3 1.5 !1' 72-1-21 " 25.0 15.6 3.6 1.0 9 72-1-107 23.4* 16.7 4.5 1.4 Vh 72-1-130 " 36.7 12.5 4.3 1.3 v/i 72-1-135 " 29.6* 15.4 3.6 1.2 /i 72-1-136 23.5 14.7 3.7 0.9 k 72-1-168 23.2* 14.1* 4.5 1.3 1 74-3-15 22.0* 19.0, 3.2 1.3 m 74-3-120 22.0 12.7* 2.8 0.6 n 74-3-133 25.8* 16.2 4.5 1,5 a 74-3-227 25.5* 15.3 4.5 1.5 p 75-28-174 27.3* 13.9* 5.6 2.2 q 75-28-198 H 24.8* 17.6 4.9 1.6 r 75-28-244 " 14.8* 13.5 4.3 0.7 s F-21 CA-50N-455 20.0* 17.0 5.0 1.5 vt - 38.2 18.4 4.4 2.2 u 1-2-5 " 11.6* 13.3 2.8 0.4 vlv 1-2-8 2?.9 16.8 3.3 1.0 w 1-2-13 23.5* 12.0* 3.2 0.9 x 1-2-14 25.0* 16.2 3.3 1.1 = incomplete Plate I Key (Origer 1982a:112) all measurements in millimeters/grams 305 Q. b c ci uk-.. a A~~~~~~ffi:~~~~~~~-42^- _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~id~ 92.' -- ; Plate 2 .S Source OriSe 19kPlate 306 t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~11 PLATE Z Specimen Catalog a Site Length Width Thickness Weight Corner-notched a 1-2-20 CA-SON-455 24.8* 15.9* 4.5 1.5 b 1-2-22 27.2* 14.2 4.6 1.3 c 1-2-24 28.9 17.6 4.2 2.0 d 1-2-29 n 29.7 13.9* 3.8 1.1 ffe 1-2-38 26.4* 16.3 3.8 1.1 If 1-2-39 25.9* 14.4 3.4 1.1 9 1-2-43 1n3.2* 14.8 4.7 1.0 h 1-2-47 23.5* 15.3 4.2 1.4 i 1-2-56 25.2 14.1 4.1 0.9 ; 1-2-66 18.8* 16.2 3.7 1.0 k 1-2-79 24.4* 12.9 3.9 0.9 1 1-2-83 33.4 15.0 3.3 1.3 m 1-2-868 16.4* 16.0* 4.0 0.8 n 1-2-108 13.3* 14.3 3.2 0.4 o 1-2-109 25.1* 14.4 3.0 1.0 p' 1-2-132 21.8* 15.6* 3.4 1.1 q 1-2-177 29.4 12.2 3.6 1.1 r 1-2-192 21.1* 14.7* 3.7 0.9 s 1-2-206 23.2* 17.1 3.8 1.1 t 1-2-207 20.5* 18.1* 4.4 1.5 u 1-2-219 "43.2* 14.7 6.Z8 3.5 v 1-2-220 22.0* 12.9 4.0 1.1 w 1-2-228 25.6* 15.1 5.3 1.7 x 1-2-236 25.3* 15.8 3.5 1.0 * = incomplete Plate 2 Key (Origer 1982a) all measurements in millimeters/grams 307 a b c d e f g h i jkI m n 0 p q r Plate3 in v Origer 1982a:Pl 3u Plate 3 _ __ Orger 1982a:Plate 3 308 PLATE f Specimen Catalog f Site Length Width Thickness Weight Corner-notched a 1-2-256 CA-SON-455 30.2* 17.3 4.4 2.0 -'b '1-2-258 25.6 16.4 3.4 1.0 c 1-2-276, 16.1* 14.9 3.1 0.6 d 1-2-315 20.6* 16.2 3.2 1.0 /e 2056 CA-SON-456 26.1 13.4 3.7 1.1 1f 2065 33.7 16.9 3.5 1.2 9 2142 24.0* 13.9* 4.t 1.2 h , 2221 15.7* 9.6 2.6 0.6 i 2308 21.3* 14.8 3.0 0.9 ; 2319 21.4* 13.9* 3.9 1.0 k 2358, ,24.6* 16.7 4.2 1.4 Vl ' 2365 23.5 15.3 3.0 0.8 m 2408 17.0* 13.3* 4.6 1.0 n 2497 20.1* 16.1 4.0 1.0 o 2570 20.8* 13.9* 5.0 1.1 L,-p 2617 34.1 13.1 4.1 1.2, q 2621 36.3* 18.9 5.0 2.9 r 2697 21.2* 14.9* 2.7 0.8 s 2704 17.2* 13.'5 4.2 1.0 t 272B 27.6* 13.2* 4.9 1.4 VU 2850 34.9 14.4 4.3 1.7 v 2851 18.0* 13.,6 4.0 0.9 w 2872 26.7* 15.5 3.8 1.4 x 2956 20.1* 1.6.'0 4.1 1.0 * = incomplete Plate 3 Key (Source: Orger 1982a:Plate 3) all measurements in millimeters/grams 309 'a b C d 0 f A 4 h i k 6I i1 m n 0 p q r t- I'x. s t U v w x y t Plate 4 wawwmm Source: Onger 1982a:Plate 4 310 1 15 PLATE Specimen Catalog # Site Length Width Thickness Weigth Corner-notched a 3000 CA-SON-456 13.7* 14.2* 2.7 0.6 Ab 3026 20.0 10.7 3.3 0.6 Vc 3058 24.9 15.0 4.4 1.0 Vd 3127 20.2, 14.2 4.5 1.1 e 3154 31.6* 15.4 4.0 1.4 Vf 3234 n34.1 18.4 4.5 2.2 I9 TO/177 CA-SON-655 24.6 14.7 4.2 1.2 h TO/24 23.9* 14.3* 5.3 1.9 vi T0/26 32.9 16.7 3.4 1.6 j TO/27 35.0 17.8 3.5 1.5 k TO/29 24.3* 15.7 3.2 1.2 1 TO/39 19.B* 13.5* 5.4 1.3 m TO/40 26.6 15. 7* 3.6 1.2 n TO/185 20.1* 12.2* 4.6 1.2 O TO/212 29.4* 16.7* 4.0 1.6 p TO/213 23.3* 16.8 4.8 1.9 q 73-1-13 CA-SON-678 1B.2* 14.0* 4.1 1.0 r 73-1-15 28.7* 14.9 3.3 1.2 s 73-1-26 22.9* 14.0 2.5 0.9 t 73-1-107 CA-SON-704 24.2* 15.9* 4.2 1.6 u TO/293 CA-SON-744 19.7* 16.3 2.8 0.8 v 79-4-158 CA-SON-1048 22.2* 12.6* 4.9 i.1 1/w 79-11-9 CA-SON-1195 45.1 12.7 6.1 2.3 x 79-11-16 22.2* 14.0* 4.5 1.3 v/y 79-11-17 31.0 14.6 4.0 1.6 * = incomplete Plate 4 Key (Origer l982a) all measurements in millimeters/grams 311 - i 'A I _I i iI o b c d S t i i g! I I h i i k i m in 0 p I 4 r a, Ii I I £~~~~.4: s t U V w i1 Plate 5 _Source: Origer 1982a 6 312 / ~~~~~~116 PLATEr' Specien, Catalog # Site Length Width Thickness Weight Corner-notched a 81-3-441 CA-SON-1269 1?.5* 15.0* 4.0 1.1 b 81-3-447 n 17.6* 11.3* 4.2 0.9 c 81-3-491 14.2* 15.6 4.4 0.9 d 81-3-788 30.8* 13.7 6.8 2.6 e 81-3-790 29.1* 13.2* 3.6 1.3 f 81-3-813 21.0* 16.4* 4.1 1.3 9 79-8-43 CA-NAP-376 27.4* 13.7 2.8 i.1 h 79-8-44 19.0* 15.5 5.1 1;.5 i 79-8-63 11.0* 18.1 3.7 0.7 j 79-8-135 n 27.9* 16.9* 4.8 2.0 k 79-8-158n 23.3* 15.5 4.6 1.7 1 79-8-160 28.7* 14.7 3.9 1.2 m 79-8-162 19.8* 15.1* 3.2 0.9 n 79-8-169 26.1* 14.1 3.7 1.2 o 79-8-181 20.6* 151.2 3.1 1.1 p 79-8-184 24.9* 17.4 3'.5 1.1 I/q 7-8 CA-MRN-202 49.3 17.0 5.5 3.1 r 7-17 34.2 14.6* 3.9 2.0 s 7-134 25.7* 13.3 4.4 1.3 J/t 7-142 38.4 12.9 3.9 1.4 u 7-299 16.8* 15.8* 3.9 1.2 u 7_449 2B.2* 17.4 4.3 1.B w 7-500 26.2* 14.8 3.9 1.5 x 7-534 31.7* 17.6 3.7 1.8 * = incomplete Plate 5 Key (Origer l 982a) all measurements in millimeters/grams 313 .,. 82 fk~~ . C d e f O. A. is_; A. - i . _ 6:, .. A__ _E I0 ._. :: ' Le 0 h Ii' At I . 4_ _ i l a m n 0 p q : I :: I r s I U v w I Plate 61 - m.... : = C Source: Origer 1982a 1 -- 314 315 i _ f ~~~I _ f _ i _. I : : _ I I i 14Sr8: a, i b C d . 9 h i jI k 'I I is I I ' I I m § h 0 p' q i: .0 a lI t U v V X Plate 7 i Source: Origer 1982a 316 7 PLATEy1f Specimen Catalog A Site Length Width Thickness Weight Serrated a 75-28-264 CA-SON159 32.6* 14.4* 4.8 2.2 b 77-11-? M V29.6* 15.6 4.7 2.2 ~c 73-16-6 CA-SON-445 32.2* 14.1 5.5 2.0 d 1-2-30 CA-SON-455 18.7* 15.9 5.6 2.3 Ve 1-2-70 39.5 12.1 4.9 1.8 /7 1-2-160 47.3 19.5. 5.6 3.4 9 1-2-162 41.7 15.2 4.2 1 .5 h 2000 CA-SON-456 37.7* 14.2 4.4 1.4 i 2058 36.8* 16.0 4.5 2.5 ; -2119 33.7* 16.0 3.9 1.2 k 2153 29.3* 1'2.2* 4.4 1.5 1 2164 28.3 13.5 4.8 1.2 m 2214 32.2 11.6 4.0 1.2 n 2227 20.9* 12.1 3.6 0.6 o 2236 24.5* 14.2 5.1 1.7 p 2272 24.4 11.3 3.7 0.8 q 2285 25.9* 15.6 4.5 1.7 r 2294 24.5* 15.7 4.0 1.0 s 2304 26.8 11.1 5.1 1. 2 t 2310 38.0 13.6 4.2 1.6 u 2316 24.2 17.2 4.6 1.0 v 2398 33.0* 14.6* 4.5 1.9 w 2430 19.2* 13.2 3.2 0.7 x 2484 31.3* 14.7 4.2 1.6 * = incomplete' all measurements in millimeters/grams Plate 7 Key (Origer 1982a) 317 i i 'A a,: b c d e f j f 44 I 9 h i .k I a IA m I - " m II o p q .r I i I i i 'I.. I s t U v w x Plate8 4 _ SXurce: ge _ .~~~~ ~~...... -- Plate 8 Source: Oirger 1982a 318 319 I S I, a b C d a f *1$ 9 h i i k l S m n 0 p q r s t U v w X Plate 9 W-I ; Source: Origer 1982a, 320 120 PLATE Speciren Catalog I Site Length Width Thickness Weight Serrated a TO/23 CA-SON-655 25.4 14.6* 4.3 1.2 b TO/25 34.9* 17.5 5.7 2.4 c TO/187 n 20.5* 13.2* 3.7 0.8 d TO/211 36.4* 13.2 5.3 1.9 e 73-1-33 CA-SON-671 19.8* 12.9* 4.3 1.8 f a CA-SoN-677 17.7* 13.5 3.0 0.5 g b 21.2* 12.8* 3.8 1.1 h 73-1-i4 CA-SON-678 20.2* 13.7 3.3 1.0 i TO/310 CA-SON-744 25.9* 18.0 4.0 1.7 j 77-9-234 CA-SON-977 20.7* 14.3* 5.2 1.5 k 79-4-187 CA-SON-1048 25.6* 13.1 5.1 1.1 1 380-1-17 CA-SON-1082 27.2* 15.0 4.7 1.7 m 82-1-35 25.4* 13.6 5.0 2.1 n 79-11-13 CA-SON-1195 20.5* 10.1* 4.3 0.9 o 81-3-320 CA-SON-1269 27.4* 16.3 6.8 2.4 p 81-3-321 25.7* 13.5* 5.6 2.5 q 81-3-323 15.8* 12.7* 5.1 1.0 r, 81-3-338 19.0* 14.6* 4.0 1.1 s 81-3-341 24.3* 12.3 3.3 1.1 t 81-3-346 22.4* 17.1 4.1 1.6 u 81-3-360 19.7* 13.5 3.8 1.2 v 81-3-442 " 32.7* 16.7 4,.4 2.2 w 81-3-502 22.7* 13.5* 6.3 2.2 x 81-3-514 23.1* 14.4 4.2 1.5 * = incomplete Plate 9 Key (Source: Orger 1982a:Plate 9) all mreasurements in millimeters/grams 321 I''1,,'iw X a b c d eQ f 4 9 ~~~h j k I I , Ft~~~~~~~~~~ m - 0 p q r S t U V W 1 Platte 10 Source: Origer l1982a 322 121 PLATE X - Specimen Catalog # Site Length Width Thickness Weight Serrated a 81-3-524 CA-SON-1269 20.5* 17.0 4.7 1.8 b B1-3-610 n 40.3* 13.8* 6.4 3.2 c 81-3-613 18.7* 12.3 3.8 1.1 d 81-3-621 19.0* 14.6 4.1 1.5 e 81-3-661 20.5* 13.4 3.1 1.2 f 81-3-669 25.1* 13.5* 4.7 2.0 V9 81-3-684 n 37.5 14.7 4.7 2.3 h 81 -3-6857 29.3* 14.4* 4.2 1.9 81-3-70?'/i " 29.3 10.8 3.1 1.1 j 81-3-714 13.2* 13.9 3.4 0.8 Vk 81-3-724 47.0 15.7 5.1 2.6 1 81-3-757n 10.6* 12.7 3.0 0.6 m 81-3-789 n 43.8* 15.8 6.0 3.5 n 81-3-858 16.1* 14.5* 3.1 1.0 o 81-3-872 27.2* 15.5 4.9 1.9 P 81-3-883 31.2* 14.3* 5.9 2.2 q 81-3-B84 30.6* 15.1 5.0 2.2 r 81-3-919 n12.4* 14.4 2.8 0.7 s 81-3-1056 46.0* 18.5 6.3 4.0 t 79-8-45 CA-NAP-376 35.8* 16.5 4.5 2.2 u 79-8-67 29.9* 15.2 5.2 2.1 v 79-8-69 n 36.0* 12.3 .4.0 1.6 WI 79-8-70 27.7* 14.1 4.3 1.7 x 79-8-73 33. 5* 14.3 5.1 2.2 * = incomplete Plate 10 Key (Origer 1982a) all measurements in milli"eters/grams 323 a b c d e I g h i j k I Ir m n 0 p q r Plate 11 2 Source: Origer 1982a ON:MM 324 PLATE I I Specimen Catalog # Site Hydration Source Serrated a 79-8-77 CA-NAP-376 1.8 N b 7I9-8-718 It2.4 N c 79-8-81 dh N d 79-8-84 1.9 N a 79-8-87 2.2 N f 79-8-93 1.8/2.9 A g 79-8-95 1.6N h 79-8-97 1.9/2.3 N i 79-8-102 2.1 N j 79-8-108 2.7 N k 79-8-110 1.9 N 1 79-8-112" 2.2 N m 79-8-118 1.6 N n 7-1 CA-MN-202 1.6 A o 7-6 1-5 A p 7-132 2.1 A q 7-155 1.2 A r 7-282 1.4 A s 7-307 1.6 A t 7-308 1.4 A u 7-482 1.7 A v 7-725 1.4 A w 7-761 1.4 A Source: Origer 1982a 325 326 1 23 PLATE XII Specimen Catalog # Site Length Width Thickness Weight Serrated a 75-6-146 CA-MRN-396 28.0* 12.9* 4.6 1.5 b- 75-6-153 33.3* 15.6* 5.4 2.5 c -?5-6-158 35.7* 13.3* 6.5 2.5 di 75-6-1 81 it 35.9 12.6 4.2 1.2 e 75-6-245 32.8* 13.6 5.0 2.3 f' 75-6-267 19.*7* 13.7*' 3.9 0'.9' Gunther-like 9 81-3-493 CA-SON-1269 ?3.3 11.2 2.8 0.9 Convex Stemmed h 3208 CA-SON-456 48.6 21.0 9.2 6.8 i 2822 nf 21.8* 20.9 7.5 3.3 Large Side/Corner-notched 72-2-472 Hector Lee Coll. 30.3* 22.7 6.7 3.5 k 72-2-477 44.3* 24.2 7.7 8.8 1 3012 CA-SON-w456 37.2* 22.1 6.8 5.5 m T0/159 CA-SON-655 42.0* 27.1' 9.6 11.3' n TO/1 66 24.9* 25.2 7.9 5.9' 0 73-1-9 CA-SON-671 33.S* 25.8 6.0 4.5' p 73-1-105 CA-SON-704 40. 7* 24.6 9.6 9.4 q 77-9-71 CA-SON-979 34.8* 21.5 6.8 4.0 r 77-9-729 '29.2 18.3 .6.5 2.9 S 81 -9-44 CA-SON-1343 40.4* 22.5 '8.6 7.9 t 77-9-756 CA-SON-979 19'.0* 19.9* 5.8 2.2 * = incomplete Plate 12 Key (Origer 1982a) all measurements in millimeters/grams 327 4i PORE 8075 PORE 6077 PORE 6O08 A, A A PORE 6070 PORE 6078 PORE 6080 PORE 8079 PORE 6082 A a PORE 6083 PORE 6081 PORE 6076 PORE 0007 PORE 60166 PORE 6074 Palac 13. Points rum CA-MRN-230 Courtesy, University of California, Davis 328 4, 70-544-1212 70-544-1167 70-544-681 70-544-796 70-544-49 4I' 44 70-544-574 70-544-746 70-544-573 70-544.647 70-544-281 M 70-544-71 70-544-646 70-544-264 Plate 14. Points from CA-SON-544/H Courtesy, University of California, Davis 329 Plate 15. Points from CA-SON-547 (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 330 a 70-533-985 70-553-674 70-553-1127 70-553-984 4 ft~~a 70-553-799 70-553-1387 70-553-81 70-553-10 70-553-1053 4 41 Ha35 70-553-1109 70-553-1247 70-553-711 70-553-450 70-553-39 5 4' IU 1%. Plate 16. Points from CA-SON-553 (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 331 'I - {I - b. C. 4l V / _ . O.- d. i e. f.: 9. Scale 1:1 F~igure $51 Corner-notched projectile points from CA-SON-556: a) obsidian, #479, E5,iNl5, 80-90 cm;: b) obsidian, #1654, E5/N14, '90-,OOcm; c) chert, #1822, E6/N14, 100-110 cm; d) obsidian, #1830, E5/N14, 110-120 cm; e) obsidian, #1865, EO/N15t, 220-2:30 cm; f) chert, #3669, E14/N24, 20-30 cm; g) obsidians #3989, E1'3/N22, 40-50 cm. Plate 17. Points from CA-SON-556 (adapted from Hayes 1982:Figure 5) 332 ,A. . UV A - a. b. CC. l Id.. e. f. 9. t! h. Scale 1:1 Figue6 Conernothed proj~ectilje points from CA-SON 556: a) obsiin #582', ElO/N15, -40-50''cm; b) chert:, #3135,, E,11/N20, `40-10 m; c) chert, #3136, E11/N20, 0-10 cm; d) obsidan, #70-12, E10/0i15 surfae; e) obsidian, 6E6/N4, 20-30 c )6, 0 m; g) chert E1/1,70-80 cm; h)obsWidin 1477 IS/N14., 70-80 CM. Plate 17b. Points from CA-SON-556 (adapted from Hayes 1982:Figure 6) 333 Plate 17c. Points from CA-SON-556 (adapted from Hayes 1982:Figure 7) 334 - I-G " I F,. I 0. b. C, I VP .d. e. .f. Scale 1:1 Figure 14. Proj-ectile points, incipient and preform, from CA-SO4-556: a)- preform, chert, #521, E6/N15, 70-80 cm; b) incipient, chert, #665,, E1O/N14, 40-50 cm;, c) preform, chert, #81:0, Ell/N14, 40-50 cm; d) preform, obsidian, #1821, E6/N14, 100-110 cm; e) preform, chert, #2370, E.14/N20, 0-10 cm; 7fi) incipient, chert, #70-1449;, ETO/N15, 60-70 cm. Plate 17d. Points from CA-SON-556 (adapted from Hayes 1982:Figure 14) 335 Plate 17e. Points from CA-SON-556 (adapted from Hayes 1982:Figure 13) 336 Plate 18. Points from CA-SON-567 (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 337 l7 I 7o-568-637 70-568-398 70-568-806 70-568-334 70-568-755 ma,qp In a. I 701568-186 70-568-754 70-568-935 70-568-930 70-568-323 IS 4 70-568-1463 70-568-861 70-568-849 70-568-693 70-568-909 A_ 70-568-608 70I568 13 70-568-320 70-568-536 70-568-679 70-568-444 70-568-279 70-568-893 70-568-1054 70-568-66 Plate 19. Projectile Points from CA-SON-668 M M 6. ''A"', Plate 19. Points from CA-SON-568 (Courtesy of University of California, Davis) 338 Plate 20. Points from CA-SON-568 (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 339 7 70-572-858 70-572-868 70-572-869 70-572-917 70-572918 1 70-572-1091 70-572-1193 70-572-1328 70-572-1581 70-572-1701 4 4 70572-1702 70-572-1901,, 70-572-1970 70-572-662 70-572-1761 Al 4 70-572-1717 70-572-2012 70-572-1859 70-572-1122 70-572-1198 i 4 4jj V 70-572-675 70-572-463 70-572-1839 70-572-1480 70-572-1239 .. 'A' 70-572-981 70-572-1840 Plate 21. Projectile Points from CA-SON-572 Plate 21. Points from CA-SON-572 (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 340 kI ads 4. 70-5931-288 70-5931-710 70-5931-1282 70-5931-1773 70-5931-1362 a 70-5931-738 70-5931-774 70-5931-1042 70-5931-12 70-5931-214 70-5931-2001 70-5931-496 70-5931-1634 70-5931-633 70-5931-792 kA 6 Ag 70-5931-1759 70-5931-1959 70-5931-1494 70-5931-131 70-5931-1711 A 70-5931-247 70-5931-1405 70-5931-1445 70-5931-1422 70-5931-98 Plate 22. Projectile Points from CA-SON-593-1 Plate 22. Points from CA-SON-593-I (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 341 P6 - 70-5931-1399 70-5931-55 70-5931-183 70-5931-99 70-5931-1 131 Ah 70-5931-1710 70-5931-1132 70 5931-120 70-5931-2075 * 70-5931-749 70-5931-691 70-5931-973 70-5931-1873 70-5931-2047 705931-1174 *~~~~1 - 70-5931-233 70-5931-1071 70-5931-734 70-5931-119 Plate 23. Points from CA-SON-593-I (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 342 4 '1 7 70-59311-1038 70-59311-130 70-59311-1030 70-59311-33 70-59311-493 -4, 70-59311-914 70-59311-908 A.@ 70-597-502 70-597-510 70-597-219 70-597-238 70-597-193 70-597-528 Plate 24. Projcctilc Points from CA-SON-593-11 and CA-SON-597 COurtcsN. U nixcrsitS oftalifirmnia. I)a is Plate 24. Points from CA-SON-593-I and CA-SON-597 (Courtesy, University of California, Davis) 343 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbott, Alysia L., Robert D. Leonard, and George T. Jones 1996 Explaining the Change from Biface to Flake Technology: A Selectionist Application. In Darwinian Archaeologies, edited by Herbert D. G. Maschner, pp. 33-42. Plenum Press, New York. Addinsoft 2008 XLSTAT. Version 2008.6.03. Addinsoft, New York. Ames, Kenneth M. 1996 Archaeology, Style, and the Theory of Coevolution. In Darwinian Archaeologies, edited by Herbert D. G. Maschner, pp. 109-131. Plenum, New York. Arnold, Jeanne E. 1992 Complex Hunter-Gatherer-Fishers of Prehistoric California: Chiefs, Specialists, and Maritime Adaptations of the Channel Islands. American Antiquity 57:60-84. Bamforth, Douglas B. 1997 Cation-Ratio Dating and Archaeological Research Design: Response to Harry. American Antiquity 62:121-129. Barrett, S. A. 1908 The Ethno-geography of the Pomo and Neighboring Indians. University of California Publicationsin American Archaeology and Ethnology 6:1-33. Barton, C. Michael 1997 Stone Tools, Style, and Social Identity: An Evolutionary Perspective. In Rediscovering Darwin: Evolutionary Theory in Archeological Explanation, edited by C. Michael Barton and Geoffrey A. Clark, pp. 141-156. Archeological Papers 7. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia. Barton, C. Michael, and Geoffrey A. Clark (editors) 1997 Rediscovering Darwin: Evolutionary Theory in Archeological Explanation. Archeological Papers 7. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia. Basgall, Mark E. 1981 Archaeological Investigations at CA-SON-553 (Double-Black-Dirt Delta Site). July. Prepared for San Francisco District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco, Contract No. DACW07-78-C-0043. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-16002. 1982 Archaeology and Linguistics: Pomoan Prehistory as Viewed from Northern Sonoma County, California. Journalof California and GreatBasin Anthropology 4:3-22. 344 1987 Resource Intensification among Hunter-Gatherers: Acorn Economies in Prehistoric California. Research in Economic Anthropology 9:21-52. 1993 Chronological Sequences in the Southern North Coast Ranges, California. In There Grows a Green Tree: Papers in Honor of David A. Fredrickson, edited by Greg White, Patricia Mikkelsen, William R. Hildebrandt, and Mark E. Basgall, pp. 167-195. Publication 11. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Davis, California. Basgall, Mark E., and Paul D. Bouey 1984 Prehistory of Northern Sonoma County: The Warm Springs Dam Project. Vol. II. July. Anthropological Studies Center, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Prepared for San Francisco District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco, Contract No. DACW07-82-C-0022. 1991 The Prehistory of North-Central Sonoma County. Archaeology of the Warm Springs Dam-Lake Sonoma Locality, Vol. I. January. Sacramento District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento, California. Basgall, Mark E., and William R. Hildebrandt 1989 Prehistory of the Sacramento River Canyon, Shasta County, California. Publication 9. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Davis, California. Basgall, Mark E., Wendy Pierce, and Shelly Tiley 2006 Between the Ocean and the Bay: Phase II Investigations at Ten ArchaeologicalSites Along SR-101, Marin and Sonoma Counties, California (CA-MRN-192, MRN-194, MRN- 195, MRN-196, MRAT-197, MRN-325, MRN-326, MRN-327, MRN-507, and MRN-526). January. Archaeological Research Center, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Sacramento. ARC Technical Report 05-105. Prepared for Office of Cultural Resource Studies, District 04, California Department of Transportation, Oakland. Baumhoff, Martin A. 1985 North Coast Range Point Types. Appendix A in Ethnography and Prehistory of the North Coast Range, California, edited by Helen McCarthy, William R. Hildebrandt, and Laureen K. Swenson, pp. 172-214. Publication 8. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, University of California, Davis. Baumhoff, Martin A., and Robert I. Orlins 1979 An Archaeological Assay on Dry Creek, Sonoma County, California. Contributions 40. Archaeological Research Facility, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. Beardsley, Richard K. 1948 Cultural Sequences in Central California Archaeology. American Antiquity 14:1-28. 1954a Temporal and Areal Relationships in Central California Archaeology, Part One. Archaeological Survey Reports 24. University of California, Berkeley. 345 1954b Temporal and Areal Relationships in Central California Archaeology, Part Two. Archaeological Survey Reports 25. University of California, Berkeley. Beck, Charlotte 1998 Projectile Point Types as Valid Chronological Units. In Unit Issues in Archaeology: Measuring Time, Space, and Material, edited by Ann F. Ramenofsky and Anastasia Steffen, pp. 21-40. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Bentley, R. Alexander, and Stephen J. Shennan 2003 Cultural Transmission and Stochastic Network Growth. American Antiquity 68:459- 485. Bettinger, Robert L. 1991 Hunter-Gatherers:Archaeological and Evolutionary Theory. Plenum Press, New York. Bettinger, Robert L., Robert Boyd, and Peter J. Richerson 1996 Style, Function, and Cultural Evolutionary Processes. In DarwinianArchaeologies, edited by Herbert D. G. Maschner, pp. 133-164. Plenum, New York. Bettinger, Robert L., and Jelmer Eerkens 1997 Evolutionary Implications of Metrical Variation in Great Basin Projectile Points. In Rediscovering Darwin: Evolutionary Theory and Archeological Explanation, edited by C. Michael Barton and Geoffrey A. Clark, pp. 177-191. Archeological Papers 7. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia. 1999 Point Typologies, Cultural Transmission, and the Spread of Bow-and-Arrow Technology in the Prehistoric Great Basin. American Antiquity 64:231-242. Bieling, David G. 1998 Archaeological Investigations at CA-MRN-254, the Dominican College Site, San Rafael, Marin County, California. February. Holman & Associates, San Francisco. Submitted to Dominican College, San Rafael, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Study S-20000. 2000 Archaeological Investigations at CA-Mrn-255/H, Larkspur, Marin County, California. November. Holman & Associates, San Francisco. Submitted to Sanitary District No. I of Marin County, Larkspur, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Study S-23626. Binford, Lewis R. 1980 Willow Smoke and Dogs' Tails: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation. American Antiquity 45:4-20. 346 Bliege Bird, Rebecca, and Eric Alden Smith 2005 Signaling Theory, Strategic Interaction, and Symbolic Capital. Current Anthropology 46:221-248. Bouey, Paul D. 1986 The Intensification of Hunter-Gatherer Economies: Archaeological Indicators of Change and Complexity in the North Coast Ranges of California. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. Boyd, Robert, and Peter J. Richerson 1987 The Evolution of Ethnic Markers. CulturalAnthropology 2:65-79. Bright, William 1964 Preface. In Studies in California Linguistics, edited by William Bright, pp. vii-viii. University of California Publications in Linguistics Vol. 34. University of California Press, Berkeley. Brown, Barbara, Frank H. Brown, and Alan Walker 2001 New Hominids from the Lake Turkana Basin, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 41:29-44. Cannon, Michael D. 2001 Archaeofaunal Relative Abundance, Sample Size, and Statistical Methods. Journal ofArchaeological Science 28:185-195. Carpenter, N. 1980 An Archaeological Investigation of the Folio Gardens Property. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Study S-1914. Carr, Christopher 1995a A Unified Middle-Range Theory of Artifact Design. In Style, Society, and Person: Archaeological and Ethnological Perspectives, edited by Christopher Carr and Jill E. Neitzel, pp. 171-258. Plenum Press, New York. 1995b Building a Unified Middle-Range Theory of Artifact Design: Historical Perspectives and Tactics. In Style, Society, and Person: Archaeological and Ethnological Perspectives, edited by Christopher Carr and Jill E. Neitzel, pp. 151-171. Plenum Press, New York. Carr, Christopher, and Jill E. Neitzel (editors) 1995 Style, Society, and Person: Archaeological and Ethnological Perspectives. Plenum Press, New York. Cheshier, Joseph, and Robert L. Kelly 2006 Projectile Point Shape and Durability: The Effect of Thickness:Length. American Antiquity 71:353-363. 347 Childs, S. T. 1991 Style, Technology, and Iron Smelting in Bantu-Speaking Africa. Journal of AnthropologicalArchaeology 10:332-359. Christenson, Andrew L. 1997 Side-Notched and Unnotched Arrowpoints: Assessing Functional Differences. In Projectile Technology, edited by Heidi Knecht, pp. 131-142. Plenum Press, New York. Clark, Matthew, Randy S. Wiberg, Richard D. Ambro, and Miley P. Holman 1992 Evaluative Report of Test Excavations at Sites CA-Mrn-529 and CA-Mrn-530/530E for National Register of Historic Places Eligibilityfor the Novato Creek Flood Control Project, Marin County, California. March. Holman & Associates, San Francisco. Prepared for Marin County Flood Control and Water Conservation District, San Rafael, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-14285. Compas, Lynn 1998 Research Design, Case Study, and Proposed Management Plan: Post-Contact Coast Miwok Settlement Patterns and Resource Procurement Strategies in Point Reyes National Seashore. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Cultural Resources Management, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. On file, National Park Service, National Park Service Archaeology Records, Point Reyes National Seashore Archives, PORE 8060, Box 5, Folder 3. Point Reyes Station, California. Crossland, R. A. 1973 Factors Affecting Language Change. In The Explanation of Culture Change: Models in Prehistory, edited by Colin Renfrew, pp. 633-641. Gerald Duckworth, Gloucester Crescent, United Kingdom. David, Nicholas, and Carol Kramer 2001 Ethnoarchaeology in Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Davy, Douglas M., and Brian A. Ramos 1994 A Statistical Analysis of Gunther Series Projectile Points from Two Northern California Sites. Proceedings of the Societyfor CaliforniaArchaeology 7:143-157. Dawkins, Richard 1990 The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene. New ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Dempsey, Paul, and Martin Baumhoff 1963 The Statistical Use of Artifact Distributions to Establish Chronological Sequence. American Antiquity 28:496-509. Dethlefsen, Edwin, and James Deetz 1966 Death's Heads, Cherubs, and Willow Trees: Experimental Archaeology in Colonial Cemeteries. American Antiquity 31:502-510. 348 Dietz, Stephen A. 1976 Echa-Tamal: A Study of Coast Miwok Acculturation. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University. Dixon, Roland B., and Alfred L. Kroeber 1919 Linguistic Families of California. University of CaliforniaPublications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 16:47-118. Dougherty, John W. 1990 The Obsidian Projectile Points of the King-Brown Site: CA-SAC-29, Sacramento County, California. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Sacramento. Dowdall, Katherine M. 1995 Temporal Contrasts in Archaeological Site Usage on the Northern Sonoma Coast. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. 2002 Late Holocene Cultural Diversity on the Sonoma Coast. In Catalysts to Complexity: Late Holocene Societies of the California Coast, edited by Jon M. Erlandson and Terry L. Jones, pp. 282-302. Perspectives in California Archaeology 6. Costen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. Drennan, Robert D. 1996 Statisticsfor Archaeologists:A Commonsense Approach. Plenum Press, New York. Duncan, Faith L. 1992 Botanical Reflections of the Encuentro and the Contact Period in Southern Marin County, California. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. Dunnell, Robert C. 1978 Style and Function: A Fundamental Dichotomy. American Antiquity 43:192-202. 1996 Aspects of the Application of Evolutionary Theory in Archaeology. In Evolutionary Archaeology: Theory and Application, edited by Michael J. O'Brien, pp. 86-97. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Dunning, Patricia A. 1996 On the Trail to the Coast, a View from CA-Men-2136: The Zeni Site. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Social Sciences, San Jose State University, San Jose, California. 349 Edwards, Robert L. 1968 Archaeological Survey of Point Reyes Peninsula and a Settlement Pattern Hypothesis. On file, National Park Service, National Park Service Archaeology Records [1934-2003], Point Reyes National Seashore Archives, PORE 8060, Box 2, Folder 7. Point Reyes Station, California. 1970 A Settlement Pattern Hypothesis for the Coast Miwok Based on an Archaeological Survey of Point Reyes Peninsula. Chapter V in Contributions to the Archaeology of Point Reyes National Seashore: A Compendium in Honor of Adan E. Treganza, edited by Robert E. Schenk, pp. 105-114. Paper 6. Treganza Museum of Anthropology, San Francisco State College, San Francisco. Eerkens, Jelmner W., and Carl P. Lipo 2005 Cultural Transmission, Copying Errors, and the Generation of Variation in Material Culture and the Archaeological Record. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24:316-334. Eidsness, Janet P. 1985 Prehistoric Archaeology within Chimariko Territory, Northwest California. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park. Ericson, Jonathan E. 1981 Exchange and Production Systems in California Prehistory: The Results of Hydration Dating and Chemical Characterization of Obsidian Sources. International Series 110. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford. Evans, Clifford, and Betty J. Meggers 1960 A New Dating Method Using Obsidian Part II, an Archaeological Evaluation of the Method. American Antiquity 25: 523-537. Findlow, Frank J., Suzanne P. De Atley, and Jonathon E. Ericson 1978 A Tentative Hydration Rate for the Obsidian from the Borax Lake Source, Lake County, California. In Obsidian Dates II: A Compendium of Obsidian Hydration Determinations Made at the UCLA Obsidian Hydration Dating Laboratory, edited by Clement W. Meighan and P. I. Vanderhoeven, pp. 133-137. Monograph VI. Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. Flenniken, J. J., and P. J. Wilke 1989 Typology, Technology, and Chronology of Great Basin Dart Points. American Anthropologist 91:149-185. Fletcher, Mike, and Gary R. Lock 2005 Digging Numbers: Elementary Statistics for Archaeologists. 2nd ed. Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph 33. Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, Oxford. 350 Foster, Michael K. 1996 Language and the Culture History of North America. In Languages, edited by Ives Goddard, pp. 64-110. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 17, William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Fredrickson, David A. 1973 Early Cultures in the North Coast Ranges, California. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis. 1974 Cultural Diversity in Early Central California: A View from the North Coast Ranges. Journal of CaliforniaAnthropology 1:41-53. 1984 The North Coastal Region. In California Archaeology, by Michael J. Moratto, pp. 471-527. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida. 1994 Central California Archaeology: The Concepts of Pattern and Aspect. In Toward a New Taxonomic Framework for Central California Archaeology: Essays by James A. Bennyhoff and David A. Fredrickson, edited by Richard E. Hughes, pp. 75-79. Contributions 52. Archaeological Research Facility, University of California, Berkeley. Fredrickson, David A., and Thomas M. Origer 1995 Temporally Sensitive Attributes of Late Period Serrated Arrow Points in Sonoma County, California. Paper presented at the 29th Annual Meeting of the Society for California Archaeology, Eureka. Manuscript in possession of Thomas M. Origer, Tom Origer & Associates, Santa Rosa, California. Fredrickson, Vera-Mae, and David W. Peri 1984 Mihilakawna and Makahmo Pomo: The People of Lake Sonoma. Sacramento District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento, California. Friedman, Irving, and R. Smith 1960 A New Dating Method Using Obsidian: Part I, the Development of the Method. American Antiquity 25:476-522. Friedman, Irving, Fred W. Trembour, and Richard E. Hughes 1997 Obsidian Hydration Dating. In ChronometricDating in Archaeology, edited by R. E. Taylor and Martin J. Aiken, pp. 297-321. Plenum Press, New York. Gerkin, A. 1967 Archaeological Site Record for CA-Mrn-202. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Gero, Joan M. 1989 Assessing Social Information in Material Objects: How Well Do Lithics Measure Up? In Time, Energy and Stone Tools, edited by Robin Torrence, pp. 92-105. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 351 Gerow, Bert A. 1974 Comments on Fredrickson's "Cultural Diversity". Journal of California Anthropology 2:239-246. Gerow, Bert A., with Roland W. Force 1968 An Analysis of the University Village Complex.' with a Reappraisal of Central California Archaeology. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. Goerke, Elizabeth B., and Richard A. Cowan 1983 The Pacheco Site (Marin-152) and the Middle Horizon in Central California. Journal of New World Archaeology 6:1-98. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Study S-5787. Gould, Stephen J. 1989 Wonderful Life. The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History. W. W. Norton & Company, New York. GraphPad Software 2005 Quick Calcs Online Calculators for Scientists: t Test Calculator. GraphPad Software, La Jolla, California. Electronic document, http://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ ttestl.cfm ?Format=SD, accessed July 25, 2009. Halpern, Abraham M. 1964 A Report on a Survey of Porno Languages. In Studies in California Linguistics Vol. 34, edited by William Bright, pp. 88-93. University of California Press, Berkeley. Harrington, Mark R. 1948 An Ancient Site at Borax Lake. Southwest Museum Papers 16. Southwest Museum, Los Angeles. Harry, Karen G. 1995 Cation-Ratio Dating of Varnished Artifacts: Testing the Assumptions. American Antiquity 60:118-130. Hayes, John F. 1982 Archaeological Investigations at CA-SON-556 (The Oregon Oak Place Site). June. Prepared for San Francisco District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco. Contract No. DACW07-78-C-0043. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-16000. Heizer, Robert F. 1941 Archaeological Evidence of Sebastian Rodriquez Cermeno's California Visit in 1595. CaliforniaHistorical Society Quarterly 20(4): 1-32. 352 Hill, Jane H. 2004 Evaluating Historical Linguistic Evidence for Ancient Human Communities in the Americas. In The Settlement of the American Continents: A MultidisciplinaryApproach to Human Biogeography, edited by C. Michael Barton, Geoffrey A. Clarke, David R. Yesner, and Georges A. Pearson, pp. 39-48. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Hughes, Richard E. 1992 California Archaeology and Linguistic Prehistory. Journal of Anthropological Research 48:317-338. Hull, Kathleen L. 2001 Reasserting the Utility of Obsidian Hydration Dating: A Temperature-Dependent Empirical Approach to Practical Temporal Resolution with Archaeological Obsidians. Journal ofArchaeologicalScience 28:1025-1040. Hunt, Terry L., Carl P. Lipo, and Sarah L. Sterling 2001 Posing Questions for a Scientific Archaeology. In Posing Questions for a Scientific Archaeology, edited by Terry L. Hunt, Carl P. Lipo, and Sarah L. Sterling, pp. 1-21. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut. Jackson, Robert J., and David A. Fredrickson 1978 Archaeological Investigations at CA-Lak- 702. 01-Lak-20-P.M. 42.28. October. 3 vols. The Archaeology Laboratory, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Submitted to California Department of Transportation, Sacramento. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Jackson, Thomas L. 1984 Obsidian Trade Across Ethnic Boundaries: A California Case in Points. Paper presented at the 50th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Denver. 1986 Late Prehistoric Obsidian Exchange in Central California. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. 1989 Reconstructing Migrations in California Prehistory. American Indian Quarterly 13:359-368. Jackson, Thomas L., and Peter D. Schulz 1975 Typology, Trade, and Trace Analysis. Journal ofNew World Archaeology 1:1-8. Jaffke, Todd D. 1997 A Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Morphological Variation Among Gunther Barbed Projectile Points of the Central North Coast Ranges, Mendocino County, California. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Cultural Resources Management, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. 353 Jobson, Robert W. 1991 Morphological Segregation of Two Late Time Markers from Northern California: Gunther Barbed and Rattlesnake Series Projectile Points. Appendix B in The Prehistory of North-CentralSonoma County: Archaeology of the Warm Springs Dam-Lake Sonoma Locality, by Mark E. Basgall and Paul D. Bouey, pp. 315-336. Vol. I. January. Sacramento District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento, California. Johnson, Ernest N. 1940 The Serrated Points of Central California. American Antiquity 6:167-169. Jones, George T., Donald K. Grayson, and Charlotte Beck 1983 Artifact Class Richness and Sample Size in Archaeological Surface Assemblages. In Lulu-Linear Punctuated: Essays in Honor of George Irving Quimby, edited by Robert C. Dunnell and Donald K. Grayson, pp. 55-74. Anthropological Papers 72. University of Michigan. Jones, M., P. J. Sheppard, and D. G. Sutton 1997 Soil Temperature and Obsidian Hydration Dating: A Clarification of Variables Affecting Accuracy. Journal ofArchaeologicalScience 24:505-516. Jones, Sian 1997 The Archaeology of Ethnicity: Constructing Identities in the Past and Present. Routledge, London. Jones, Terry L., and John F. Hayes 1989 Archaeological Data Recovety at CA-SON-120, Sonoma County, California. October. Environmental Branch, California Department of Transportation, San Francisco. 04-Son-12, P.M. 29.1, 04334-112241. On file, Archaeological Research Program, California State University, Chico. 1993 Problems and Prospects in Sonoma County Archaeology. In There Grows a Green Tree: Papers in Honor of David A. Fredrickson, edited by Greg White, Patricia Mikkelsen, William R. Hildebrandt, and Mark E. Basgall, pp. 197-216. Publication No. 11. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Davis, California. Jordan, Peter, and Stephen Shennan 2003 Cultural Transmission, Language, and Basketry Traditions Amongst the California Indians. Journal ofAnthropologicalArchaeology 22:42-74. Justice, Noel D. 2002 Stone Age Spear and Arrow Points of California and the Great Basin. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. 354 Kaufman, Thomas S. 1978 Obsidian Hydration Analysis of 15 Specimens from the Borax Lake Obsidian Quarry, Lake County, California. In Obsidian Dates II: A Compendium of Obsidian Hydration Determinations Made at the UCLA Obsidian Hydration Dating Laboratory, edited by Clement W. Meighan and P. I. Vanderhoeven, pp. 148-155. Monograph VI. Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. 1980 Early Prehistory of the Clear Lake Area, Lake County, California. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles. Kelly, Isabel 1978 Coast Miwok. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 414-425. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. King, Ronald F., and Ward F. Upson 1970 Protohistory on Limantour Sandspit: Archaeological Investigations at 4-Mrn-216 and 4-Mrn-298. Chapter VI in Contributions to the Archaeology of Point Reyes National Seashore: A Compendium in Honor of Adan E. Treganza, edited by Robert E. Schenck, pp. 115-194. Papers No. 6. Treganza Anthropological Museum, San Francisco State College, San Francisco. King, Thomas F. 1967 Test Excavations at Mrn-375, the Palo Marin Site in Pt. Reyes National Seashore, Marin County, California. April. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-13115. 1970 The Dead at Tiburon: Mortuary Customs and Social Organization on Northern San FranciscoBay. September. Occasional Paper 2. Northwestern California Archaeological Society, Petaluma, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-242. 1974 Flight to New Pigeonholes: Comments on Fredrickson. Journal of California Anthropology 2:233-239. King, Thomas F., Ward Upson, and Ralph Milner 1966 Archaeological Investigations in the San Antonio Valley, Marin and Sonoma Counties, California. Occasional Paper 1. Northwestern California Archaeological Society, Petaluma, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-2286. Knecht, Heidi 1997 Projectile Points of Bone, Antler, and Stone: Experimental Explorations of Manufacture and Use. In Projectile Technology, edited by Heidi Knecht, pp. 191-212. Plenum Press, New York. 355 Kornbacher, Kimberly D. 2001 Building Components of Evolutionary Explanation: A Study of Wedge Tools from Northern South America. In Posing Questions for a Scientific Archaeology, edited by Terry L. Hunt, Carl P. Lipo, and Sarah L. Sterling, pp. 23-72. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut. Kroeber, A. L. 1976 Handbook of the Indians of California. Reprint. Dover, New York. Originally published 1925 as Bulletin 78, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Layton, Thomas N. 1990 Western Pomo Prehistory: Excavations at Albion Head, Nightbirds' Retreat, and Three Chop Village, Mendocino County, California. Monograph 32. Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. Lee, Richard 1969 Chemical Temperature Integration. Journal of Applied Meteorology 8:423-430. LeTourneau, Philippe D. 1998 The "Folsom Problem". In Unit Issues in Archaeology. Measuring Time, Space, and Material, edited by Ann F. Ramenofsky and Anastasia Steffen, pp. 52-73. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Levy, Richard S. 1979 The Linguistic Prehistory of Central California: Historical Linguistics and Culture Process. Unpublished manuscript in possession of Richard S. Levy. Lightfoot, Kent G., and Edward M. Luby 2002 Late Holocene in the San Francisco Bay Area: Temporal Trends in the Use and Abandonment of Shell Mounds in the East Bay. In Catalysts to Complexity: Late Holocene Societies of the California Coast, edited by Jon M. Erlandson, Terry L. Jones, and Jeanne E. Arnold, pp. 263-281. Perspectives in California Archaeology 6. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. Lightfoot, Kent G., and William S. Simmons 1998 Culture Contact in Protohistoric California: Social Contexts of Native and European Encounters. Journalof Californiaand Great Basin Anthropology 20:138-170. Lillard, Jeremiah B., Robert F. Heizer, and Franklin Fenenga 1939 An Introduction to the Archeology of Central California. Bulletin 2. Sacramento Junior College, Sacramento, California. 356 Lipo, Carl P. 2001 Community Structures among Late Mississippian Populations of the Central Mississippi River Valley. In Posing Questionsfor a Scientific Archaeology, edited by Terry L. Hunt, Carl P. Lipo, and Sarah L. Sterling, pp. 175-216. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut. Lipo, Carl P., James K. Feathers, and Robert C. Dunnell 2005 Temporal Data Requirements, Luminescence Dates, and the Resolution of Chronological Structure of Late Prehistoric Deposits in the Central Mississippi River Valley. American Antiquity 70:527-544. Lipo, Carl P., Mark E. Madsen, Robert C. Dunnell, and Tim Hunt 1997 Population Structure, Cultural Transmission, and Frequency Seriation. Journal of AnthropologicalArchaeology 16:301-333. I Little, Michael A. 1997 Adaptation, Adaptability, and Multidisciplinary Research. In Biological Anthropology: The State of the Science, edited by Noel T. Boaz and Linda D. Wolfe, pp. 145-168. 2nd ed. International Institute for Human Evolutionary Research, Bend, Oregon. Loud, Llewellyn L. 1918 Ethnogeography and Archaeology of the Wiyot Territory. University of California Publicationsin American Archaeology and Ethnology 14(3):221-436. Lyman, R. Lee, and Kenneth M. Ames 2007 On the Use of Species-Area Curves to Detect the Effects of Sample Size. Journal of ArchaeologicalScience 34:1985-1990. Lyman, R. Lee, and Michael J. O'Brien 2000 Measuring and Explaining Change in Artifact Variation with Clade-Diversity Diagrams. Journal ofAnthropologicalArchaeology 19:39-74. Lyman, R. Lee, Steve Wolverton, and Michael J. O'Brien 1998 Seriation, Superposition, and Interdigitation: A History of Americanist Graphic Depictions of Culture Change. American Antiquity 63:239-261. Lyman, R. Lee, Michael J. O'Brien, and Robert C. Dunnell 1997 The Rise and Fall of Culture History. Plenum Press, New York. MacEachern, Scott 1998 Scale, Style, and Cultural Variation: Technological Traditions in the Northern Mandara Mountains. In The Archaeology of Social Boundaries, edited by Miriam T. Stark, pp. 107-131. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. 357 McCarthy, Helen 1985 Linguistics and Its Implications for California Ethnography and Culture History. Chapter II in Ethnography and Prehistory of the North Coast Range, California, edited by Helen McCarthy, William R. Hildebrandt, and Laureen K. Swenson, pp. 20-34. Publication 8. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Davis, California. 1991 Ethnographic Context. Chapter 3 in The Prehistory of North-Central Sonoma County: Archaeology of the Warm Springs Dam-Lake Sonoma Locality, Vol. I, by Mark E. Basgall and Paul D. Bouey, pp. 33-44. January. Sacramento District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento, California. McGeein, D. J., and W. C. Mueller 1955 A Shellmound in Marin County, California. American Antiquity 21:52-62. McLendon, Sally 1973 Proto-Pomo. University of CaliforniaPublications in Linguistics 71. University of California Press, Berkeley. Maschner, Herbert D. G. (editor) 1996 DarwinianArchaeologies. Plenum Press, New York. Meighan, Clement W. 1955 Archaeology of the North Coast Ranges, California. University of California Archaeological Survey Report 30:1-39. 1988 Progress in Obsidian Dating Studies. In Obsidian Dates IV: A Compendium of Obsidian Hydration Determinations Made at the UCLA Obsidian Hydration Dating Laboratory, edited by Clement W. Meighan and Janet L. Scalise, pp. 3-9. Monograph No. 29. Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. Meighan, Clement W., and C. Vance Haynes 1968 New Studies on the Age of the Borax Lake Site. Masterkey 42:4-9. 1970 The Borax Lake Site Revisited. Science 167:1213-1221. Melander, Ronald N., and Charles M. Slaymaker, III 1969 The Salvage Archaeology of 4-Mrn-168, the Pacific Telephone Site, Ignacio, California. April. Archaeological Survey, San Francisco State College, San Francisco. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Study S-17455. 358 Meyer, Jack 2003 An Overview of Geoarchaeological Research Issues for the PRNS - GGNRA. Part I in Archaeological Research Issues for the Point Reyes National Seashore Golden Gate National Recreation Area for Geoarchaeology, Indigenous Archaeology, Historical Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology, edited by Suzanne B. Stewart and Adrian Praetzellis, pp. 1-47. November. Anthropological Studies Center, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Prepared for Golden Gate National Recreation Area, National Park Service, San Francisco. Electronic document, http://www.sonoma.edu/asc/projects/pointreyes/index.htm, accessed May 19, 2007. Michels, Joseph W. 1969 Testing Stratigraphy and Artifact Reuse through Obsidian Hydration Dating. American Antiquity 34:15-22 1982 The Hydration Rate Constants for Annadel Farms Obsidian, the Oakland Area of California. MOHLAB Technical Report No. 12. Mohlab State College, State College, Pennsylvania. 1986 The Hydration Rate ConstantsforNapa Glass Mountain Obsidian, the Oakland Area of California. Revised ed. MOHLAB Technical Report No. 14. Mohlab State College, State College, Pennsylvania. Michels, Joseph W., and C. Bebrich 1971 Obsidian Hydration Dating. In Dating Techniques for the Archaeologist, edited by Henry N. Michael and Elizabeth K. Ralph, pp. 164-221. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Milliken, Randall, Richard T. Fitzgerald, Mark G. Hylkema, Randy Groza, Tom Origer, David G. Bieling, Alan Leventhal, Randy S. Wiberg, Andrew Gottsfield, Donna Gillette, Viviana Bellifemine, Eric Strother, Robert Cartier, and David A. Fredrickson 2007 Punctuated Culture Change in the San Francisco Bay Area. In CaliforniaPrehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity, edited by Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, pp. 99-123. AltaMira, Lanham, Maryland. Moratto, Michael J. 1970 History of Archaeological Research at Point Reyes, California. Chapter III in Contributions to the Archaeology of Point Reyes National Seashore: A Compendium in Honor ofAdan E. Treganza, edited by Robert E. Schenk, pp. 97-104. Paper 6. Treganza Museum of Anthropology, San Francisco State College, San Francisco. 1984 CaliforniaArchaeology. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida. Moratto, Michael J., Lynn M. Riley, and Steven C. Wilson 1974 Shelter Hill: Archaeological Investigations at MRN-14, Mill Valley, California. Papers 15. Treganza Anthropology Museum, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, and Miwok Archaeological Preserve of Marin, Novato, California. 359 Morgan, Christopher T. 2008 Reconstructing Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Radii: A Case Study from California's Southern Sierra Nevada. Journal ofArchaeologicalScience 35:247-258. l National Park Service 2007 Notice of Inventory Completion: Anthropological Studies Center, Archaeological Collections Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA. Federal Register 72(1 19): 34,275-34,276. Neff, Hector, and Daniel 0. Larson 1997 Methodology of Comparison in Evolutionary Archaeology. In Rediscovering Darwin: Evolutionary Theory in ArcheologicalExplanation, edited by C. Michael Barton and Geoffrey A. Clark, pp. 75-94. Archeological Papers 7. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia. Neiman, Fraser D. 1995 Stylistic Variation in Evolutionary Perspective: Inferences from Decorative Diversity and Ifiterassemblage Diversity in Illinois Woodland Ceramic Assemblages. American Antiquity 60:7-36. Nelson, Nels C. 1909 Shellmounds of the San Francisco Bay Region. University of CaliforniaPublications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 7:309-356. O'Brien, Michael J., Daniel S. Glover, R. Lee Lyman, and John Darwent 2003 Trees and Clades. Chapter 6 in Cladistics and Archaeology, edited by Michael J. O'Brien and R. Lee Lyman, pp. 167-199. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. O'Brien, Michael J., and R. Lee Lyman 1999 Seriation, Stratigraphy, and Index Fossils: The Backbone of Archaeological Dating. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York. 2000 Applying Evolutionary Archaeology: A Systematic Approach. Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Press, New York. 2003 Cladistics and Archaeology. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. O'Brien, Michael J., R. Lee Lyman, John Darwent, and Daniel S. Glover 2003 Taxa, Characters, and Outgroups. Chapter 5 in Cladistics and Archaeology, edited by Michael J. O'Brien and R. Lee Lyman, pp. 125-166. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Olmsted, David L. 1985 Linguistic Evidence Concerning Pomo Migrations. Appendix B in Ethnography and Prehistory of the North Coast Range, California, edited by Helen McCarthy, William R. Hildebrandt, and Laureen K. Swenson, pp. 216-221. Publication 8. University of California, Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Davis, California. 360 Origer, Thomas M. 1981 Archaeological Investigations at CA-Mrn-230, Point Reyes National Seashore, Marin County, California. July. Santa Rosa Junior College, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Santa Rosa, California. Submitted to Division of Cultural Resource Management, Western Region, National Park Service, Federal Antiquities Permit 79- CA/001. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-17457. 1982a Temporal Control in the Southern North Coast Ranges of California: The Application of Obsidian Hydration Analysis. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco. 1982b Hydration Analysis ofArtifacts from CA-MRN-230, Marin County, California. May 3. Obsidian Hydration Laboratory, Cultural Resources Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. On file, National Park Service, Treganza Archaeology Records, Point Reyes National Seashore Archives, PORE 6679, Box 5, Folder 15. Point Reyes Station, California. 1987 Temporal Control in the Southern North Coast Ranges of California: The Application of Obsidian Hydration Analysis. Papers in Northern California Anthropology No. 1. Northern California Anthropological Group, Berkeley, California. 1989 Hydration Analysis of Obsidian Flakes Produced by Ishi during the Historic Period. In CurrentDirections in California Obsidian Studies, edited by Richard E. Hughes, pp. 69-77. Contributions 48. Archaeological Research Facility, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. 1992 Investigations at CA-Mrn-601: An ArchaeologicalSite on the West Flank of Burdell Mtn., Marin County, California. February. Submitted to EIP Associates, San Francisco. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-13498. Origer, Thomas, and David A. Fredrickson 1977 An Archaeological Survey of the Proposed Santa Rosa Wastewater Disposal System, Sonoma County, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-477. 1980 The Laguna Archaeological Research Project, Sonoma County, California. April. Anthropological Studies Center, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Submitted to Public Works Department, City of Santa Rosa, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-2043. Oswalt, Robert L. 1964 A Comparative Study of Two Pomo Languages. In Studies in CaliforniaLinguistics 34, edited by William Bright, pp. 149-162. University of California Press, Berkeley. 361 Peter, Jesse 1921 Archeological Site Survey Record for CA-SON-84. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. 1923 Survey of Tomales Bay, Bodega Bay, and Sonoma County Coast Sites. Archaeological Survey Manuscripts 436. Unpublished manuscript on file, Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. Pfeffer, Michael T. 2001 The Engineering and Evolution of Hawaiian Fishhooks. In Posing Questions for a Scientific Archaeology, edited by Terry L. Hunt, Carl P. Lipo, and Sarah L. Sterling, pp. 73-95. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut. Plavcan, J. Michael, and Carel P. van Schaik 1997 Interpreting Hominid Behavior on the Basis of Sexual Dimorphism. Journal of Human Evolution 32:345-374. Plog, Stephen 1978 Social Interaction and Stylistic Similarity: A Reanalysis. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol.1, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 144-182. Academic Press, New York. Polansky, Barbra 1998 A Prehistoric Archaeological Settlement Pattern Model for the Point Reyes Peninsula. Unpublished Master's thesis, Cultural Resources Management, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Praetzellis, Mary, Adrian Praetzellis, and Suzanne B. Stewart 2000 Before Warm Springs Dam: A History of the Lake Sonoma Area. Revised. Original submitted 1985, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Electronic document, http://www.sonoma.edu/asc/proj ects/WarmSprings/index.html#contents. Accessed September 10, 2007. Anthropological Studies Center, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Renfrew, Colin 1987 Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Riddell, Francis 1948 Site Record for CA-SON-159. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. 362 Rippey, Deborah A., and David A. Fredrickson 1982 Archaeological Test Excavation of CA-Son-1250 and CA-Son-1251 Near the Bennett Valley Road Bridge at Matanzas Creek, Sonoma County, California. January. The Cultural Resources Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Submitted to County of Sonoma. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-5788. Rogers, Alexander K. 2006 Induced Hydration of Obsidian: A Simulation Study of Accuracy Requirements. Journal of ArchaeologicalScience 33:1696-1705. 2007 Effective Hydration Temperature of Obsidian: A Diffusion Theory Analysis of Time- Dependent Hydration Rates. JournalofArchaeological Science 34:656-665. 2008a Field Data Validation of an Algorithm for Computing Obsidian Effective Hydration Temperature. Journal ofArchaeologicalScience 35:441-447. 2008b Obsidian Hydration Dating: Accuracy and Resolution Limitations Imposed by Intrinsic Water Variability. Journal ofArchaeological Science 35: 2009-2016. Rondeau, Michael F. 1996 When Is an Elko? In Stone Tools: Theoretical Insights into Human Prehistory, edited by George H. Odell, pp. 229-243. Plenum Press, New York. Roop, William, Margaret Duddy, and Katherine Flynn 1981 Report on the Limited Salvage Excavations Conducted within 04-Mrn-524, a PrehistoricBurial Site in Novato, California. August. Archaeological Resource Service, Novato, California. Prepared for City of Novato, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Study S-5652. Roscoe, James M. 1981 An Archaeological Study of CA-Son-1269, a PrehistoricSite on Santa Rosa Creek. October. Cultural Resources Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-2836. Rosenthal, Jeffrey 2007 Worsaae's Law and Obsidian Hydration Dating-An Evaluation of the Method. Draft. Unpublished paper in the possession of Jeffrey Rosenthal. Far Western Anthropological Research Group, Davis, California. Ross, Clarence S., and Robert L. Smith 1955 Water and Other Volatiles in Volcanic Glasses. The American Mineralogist 40:1071-1089. 363 Rouse, Irving 1986 Migrations in Prehistory: Inferring Population Movement from Cultural Remains. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. Rowe, John H. 1961 Stratigraphy and Seriation. American Antiquity 26:324-330. Russell, Matthew A. 2007 Research Proposal, Point Reyes National Seashore-Encounter at Tamal Huye: The Archaeology of Intercultural Engagement in Sixteenth-Century Northern California. May 21. Permit ID No. PORE-2007-SCI-0031. Electronic document, https: //science l .nature.nps.gov/research/dbdownload/PORE-34468-prop.doc?docld= 11206. Accessed July 14, 2007. Research Permitting and Reporting System, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Sackett, James R. 1985 Style and Ethnicity in the Kalahari: A Reply to Wiessner. American Antiquity 50:154-159. Sampson, C. Garth 1985 Nightfire Island: Later Holocene Lakemarsh Adaptation on the Western Edge of the Great Basin. Anthropological Papers 33. Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene. Sawyer, Jesse 0. 1980 The Non-genetic Relationship of Wappo and Yuki. In American Indian and Indoeuropean Studies: Papers in Honor of Madison S. Beeler, edited by Kathryn Klar, Margaret Langdon, and Shirley Silver, pp. 209-219. Mouton Publishers, The Hague. Schenk, Robert E. (editor) 1970 Contributions to the Archaeology of Point Reyes National Seashore: A Compendium in Honor of Adan E. Treganza. Paper 6. Treganza Museum of Anthropology, San Francisco State College, San Francisco. Shackley, M. Steven 2000 The Stone Tool Technology of Ishi and the Yana of North Central California: Inferences for Hunter-Gatherer Cultural Identity in Historic California. American Anthropologist 102:693-712. Shaul, David L., and N. Louanna Furbee 1998 Language and Culture. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, Illinois. Shennan, Stephen 1988 Quantifying Archaeology. Academic Press, San Diego, California. 364 Shipley, William F. 1978 Native Languages of California. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 80- 90. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Shott, Michael J. 1997 Transmission Theory in the Study of Stone Tools: A Midwestern Example. In Rediscovering Darwin: Evolutionary Theory and Archeological Explanation, edited by C. Michael Barton and Geoffrey A. Clark, pp. 193-204. Archeological Papers 7. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia. Slaymaker, Charles 1977 The Material Culture of Cotomko'tca: A Coast Miwok Tribelet in Marin County, California. Papers 3. Miwok Archaeological Preserve of Marin, San Rafael, California. 1982 A Model for the Study of Coast Miwok Ethnogeography. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis. UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor. Soule, William E. 1975 Archeological Investigations at Men-584, Mendocino County, California. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Sacramento. Stark, Miriam T. 1999 Social Dimensions of Technical Choice in Kalinga Ceramic Traditions. In Material Meanings: Critical Approaches to the Interpretation of Material Culture, edited by Elizabeth S. Chilton, pp. 24-43. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Sterling, Sarah L. 2001 Social Complexity in Ancient Egypt: Functional Differentiation as Reflected in the Distribution of Standardized Ceramics. In Posing Questions for a Scientific Archaeology, edited by Terry L. Hunt, Carl P. Lipo, and Sarah L. Sterling, pp. 145-173. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut. Stevenson, Christopher M., James J. Mazer, and Barry E. Scheetz 1998 Laboratory Obsidian Hydration Rates: Theory, Method, and Application. In Archaeological Obsidian Studies: Method and Theory, edited by M. Steven Shackley, pp. 181-204. Plenum Press, New York. Stewart, Suzanne B. 1993 Upper Archaic Diversity in the Warm Springs Locality, Sonoma County, California. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Cultural Resources Management, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. 365 2003 An Overview of Research Issues for Indigenous Archaeology for the PRNS- GGNRA. Part II in Archaeological Research Issues for the Point Reyes National Seashore Golden Gate National Recreation Area for Geoarchaeology, Indigenous Archaeology, Historical Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology, edited by Suzanne B. Stewart and Adrian Praetzellis, pp. 49-246. November. Anthropological Studies Center, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Prepared for Golden Gate National Recreation Area, National Park Service, San Francisco. Electronic document, http://www.sonoma.edu/asc/projects/pointreyes/index.htm, accessed May 19, 2007. Sundahl, Elaine 1982 The Shasta Complex in the Redding Area, California. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico. Thomas, David H. 1970 Archaeology's Operational Imperative: Great Basin Projectile Points as a Test Case. In Annual Report 12, edited by N. N. Leonard III, J. A. Rasson, and D. A. Decker, pp. 31-60. Archaeological Survey, University of California, Los Angeles. 1981 How to Classify the Projectile Points from Monitor Valley, Nevada. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 3:7-43. Thomas, David H., and Susan L. Bierwirth 1983 Material Culture of Gatecliff Shelter: Projectile Points. In The Archaeology of Monitor Valley 2: Gatecliff Shelter, by David H. Thomas, pp. 177-211. Anthropological Papers Vol. 59, Pt. 1. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Treganza, Adan E. 1958 Salvage Archaeology in the Trinity Reservoir Area, Northern California. University of CaliforniaArchaeological Survey Report 43:1-38. Tremaine, Kim J. 1993 Temporal Ordering of Artifact Obsidians: Relative Dating Enhanced through the Use of Accelerated Hydration Experiments. In There Grows a Green Tree: Papers in Honor of David A. Fredrickson, edited by Greg White, Patricia Mikkelsen, William R. Hildebrandt, and Mark E. Basgall, pp. 265-275. Publication 11. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, Davis, California. Tremaine, Kim, Thomas Origer, and David A. Fredrickson 1986 CA-YOL-139: An Archaeological Site on Davis Creek, Near Knoxville, Yolo County, California. September. Cultural Resources Facility, Anthropological Studies Center, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Prepared for Homestake Mining Company, Walnut Creek, California. On file, Archaeological Research Program, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico. 366 University of California 2007 How to Manage Pests, California Weather Data: Station Description, WRMSPRNG.C (NCDC #9440, Warm Springs Dam). University of California Integrated Pest Management Program Online, Davis, California. Electronic document: http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/calludt .cgi/WXDESCRIPTION?STN=WRMSPRNG.C, accessed September 23, 2007. Statewide IPM Program, Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. Upson, Ward F. 1969 Site Record for CA-SON-456. Santa Rosa Junior College, Santa Rosa, California. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. 1973 The Gossage-Washoe Archaeological Project: Excavations at SDA-30A and 4-Son- 518. Fall. Prepared for Sonoma County Water Agency, Santa Rosa, California. Resolution No. DR40864. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park. Study S-279. Von der Porten, Edward P. 2000 Archaeological Investigations at Limantour Spit, Point Reyes National Seashore, 1997-1998: A Search for the Campsite, Boatbuilding Site, and Cache of the Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeio Expedition of 1595 and the Drake Plate of Brass Post Location. Drake Navigators Guild. Federal Antiquities Permit WR-1979-97-CA-3. On file, National Park Service, National Park Service Archaeology Records, Point Reyes National Seashore Archives, PORE 8060, Box 5, Folder 4. Point Reyes Station, California. Webb, Nancy M. 1971 A Statement of Some Phonological Correspondences Among the Pomo Languages. International Journal of American Linguistics Memoir 26:1-55. Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics. Whistler, Kenneth W. 1977 Wintun Prehistory: An Interpretation Based on Linguistic Reconstruction of Plant and Animal Nomenclature. Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistic Society 3:157-174. 1980 Pomo Prehistory: A Case for Archaeological Linguistics. Paper delivered December 1, 1977, revised April 1980. 1988 Pomo Prehistory: A Case for Archaeological Linguistics. In Archaeology and Linguistics, edited by Ann M. Mester and Colin McEwan, pp. 64-98. Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society Vol. 15. Urbana, Illinois. 367 White, Gregory G. 1979 The Round Valley Indian Reservation Cultural Resources Study Artifact Collection. In Cultural Resources Study of the Round Valley Indian Reservation, Mendocino and Trinity Counties, California, by Suzanne B. Stewart and David A. Fredrickson. On file, Northwest Information Center, California Historical Resources Information System, Rohnert Park, California. Study S-1853. 1984 The Archaeology of Lak-510, Near Lower Lake, Lake County, California. March. Cultural Resources Facility, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. Submitted to California Department of Transportation, Sacramento. On file, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento. 2002 Regional Implications. In Cultural Diversity and Culture Change in Prehistoric Clear!Lake Basin: FinalReport of the Anderson Flat Project, by Gregory G. White and David A. Fredrickson, pp. 541-554. Publication 13. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, University of California, Davis. 2003 Testing and Mitigation at Four Sites on the Level(3) Long Haul Fiber Optic Alignment, Colusa County, California. May 15. Reports 42. Archaeological Research Program, California State University, Chico. Prepared for Kiewit Pacific Corporation, Concord, California. White, Greg, and Eric Allison 2002 Projectile Points. In Cultural Diversity and Culture Change in Prehistoric Clear Lake Basin: Final Report of the Anderson Flat Project, by Gregory G. White and David A. Fredrickson, pp. 221-260. Publication 13. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, University of California, Davis. White, Gregg, David A. Fredrickson, and Jeff Rosenthal 2002 Archaeology. In Cultural Diversity and Culture Change in Prehistoric Clear Lake Basin: Final Report of the Anderson Flat Project, by Gregory G. White and David A. Fredrickson, pp. 41-52. Publication 13. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, University of California, Davis. White, Greg, and Jack Meyer 2002 Project Chronology and Components. In CulturalDiversity and Culture Change in Prehistoric ClearLake Basin: Final Report of the Anderson Flat Project, by Gregory G. White and David A. Fredrickson, pp. 421-443. Publication 13. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, University of California, Davis. Wickstrom, Brian P. 1986 An Archaeological Investigation of Prehistoric Sites CA-SON-1250 and CA-SON- 1251, Southern Sonoma County, California. Unpublished Master's thesis, Cultural Resources Management, Department of Anthropology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California. 368 Wiessner, Polly 1983 Style and Social Information in Kalahari San Projectile Points. American Antiquity 48:253-276. 1985 Style or Isochrestic Variation? A Reply to Sackett. American Antiquity 50:160-166. 1997 Seeking Guidelines through an Evolutionary Approach: Style Revisited among the !Kung San (Ju/'hoansi) of the 1990s. In Rediscovering Darwin: Evolutionary Theory and Archeological Explanation, edited by C. Michael Barton and Geoffrey A. Clark, pp. 157-176. Archeological Papers 7. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia. Wilhelmsen, Kris H. 2001 Building the Framework for an Evolutionary Explanation of Projectile Point Variation: An Example from the Central Mississippi River Valley. In Posing Questions for a Scientific Archaeology, edited by Terry L. Hunt, Carl P. Lipo, and Sarah L. Sterling, pp. 97-144. Bergin & Garvey, Westport, Connecticut. Winterhalder, Bruce, and Eric A. Smith 1992 Evolutionary Ecology and the Social Sciences. In EvolutionaryEcology and Human Behavior, edited by Eric A. Smith and Bruce Winterhalder, pp. 3-24. Aldine de Gruyter, Hawthorne, New York. 2000 Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty-Five. EvolutionaryAnthropology 9:51-72. Wobst, H. Martin 1999 Style in Archaeology or Archaeologists in Style. In Material Meanings: Critical Approaches to the Interpretation of Material Culture, edited by Elizabeth S. Chilton, pp. 118-132. The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Zeanah, David W., and Robert G. Elston 2001 Testing a Simple Hypothesis Concerning the Resilience of Dart Point Styles to Hafting Element Repair. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 23:93- 124.