DOCSLIB.ORG

Four Topics in Archaeological Chronology Zhang Chi, Annie Chan

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Four Topics in Archaeological Chronology Zhang Chi, Annie Chan Translation: Four Topics in Archaeological Chronology Zhang Chi, Annie Chan To cite this version: Zhang Chi, Annie Chan. Translation: Four Topics in Archaeological Chronology. Chinese Cultural Relics, Eastview Press, 2016. hal-03221001 HAL Id: hal-03221001 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03221001 Submitted on 10 May 2021 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Research and Exploration Four Topics in Archaeological Chronology* Chi Zhang 张弛 Professor, School of Archaeology and Museology, Peking University * he introduction of archaeological solute dating and cross-dating, the last of which is the chronology is one of the founda- combined use of the two preceding types of dating, tions of contemporary archaeology. have been a part of archaeological chronology. Thus The evolutionary theories of early far, apart from such minute improvements as the cali- Tcontemporary archaeology and the study of cultural bration of radiocarbon dates with dendrochronology history adopt the relative chronology established by and the introduction of AMS dating, little progress stratigraphy and seriation as the chronological basis has been made in these two types of dating compared for constructing the most fundamental framework of to the rapid development of many other methods human prehistory. Methods of absolute dating that of research in archaeology. If another revolution in have been introduced since the 1950s, of which ra- archaeology is to be hoped for, it is imperative to ad- diocarbon dating is representative, have changed our vance methods of archaeological dating that cater to understanding of prehistoric research in many ways, the growing needs of archaeology, since even under and are therefore considered a milestone in archaeo- the current system of archaeological chronology, logical chronology.[1] Since then, relative dating, ab- there are topics that need to be further addressed. By way of illustration, this article elaborates on four * Research for this article was conducted under the auspices of these topics. of the 2011 Key Project of the National Social Science Foun- dation of China titled “Research on Environmental Archae- RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY AND ology and Ancient Human-Nature Relationships” (Grant ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY No. 11&ZD183) and the 2012 Key Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China titled “Report on the There are two ways to express chronology in his- Research of Yangshao Settlements at Baligang, Dengzhou” tory and archaeology. One is relative dating, which (Grant No. 12&ZD190). refers to the relative association of events in time; it 184 Research and Exploration Four Topics in Archaeological Chronology serves only to reveal the chronological order, not the Seriation, which is commonly classified as a duration of time. The other is absolute dating; it is method of relative dating, can provide not only rela- the numerical age obtained by calculating the rate of tive chronological sequences but also varied time change of objects; it is also called quantitative dating. intervals, with the smallest being 20 years.[3] This In most cases, quantitative dating is measured in the level of accuracy is comparable to what is offered by commonly used solar year. Most Chinese and foreign radiocarbon dating. When calibrated with historical archaeological textbooks categorize the various meth- chronology, this method can even pinpoint the exact ods of chronology used in archaeology into these two calendar year, providing an absolute date.[4] In fact, types of dating.[2] The widely referencedArchaeology: objects also experience a certain rate of change, but Theories, Methods and Practice classifies stratigraphy, this rate is uneven since it varies according to diverse typological sequences and climate and chronology as social, economic and cultural influences, making a relative dating methods, and calendars and historical specific object’s rate of change difficult to determine. chronologies, annual cycles (tree-rings and varves), From the perspective of object change, humans, who radiocarbon dating and calibrated relative methods are comparatively short-lived, are more attuned to as absolute dating. However, since the application the seasonal cycles of the solar year and are less aware of each dating method in archaeology varies and has of long-term changes in objects. However, research- different limitations, the time scales differing accord- ers who have long studied the chronology of objects ingly, it is difficult to group these methods precisely (cultural chronology) are cognizant of the time scale into two categories. of object change and can often discern gaps in the Judging by the chronological precision and the chronological sequence of objects.[5] In this regard, time scale provided by each of the dating techniques, seriation is a method that embodies the meaning historical chronology is the only method that is ac- of absolute dating, at least when compared to such curate as to the date and time, while dendrochronol- modern scientific techniques of dating as radiocar- ogy and dating by varves are the only techniques bon dating. It differs only in terms of chronological that provide an exact time and a yearly time scale. precision, and not in terms of the difference between Other techniques that have been classified as abso- relative and absolute chronology. lute dating, such as radiocarbon dating and methods Perhaps the most meaningful relative chronol- of calibration, provide only a time bracket. Among ogy can be obtained only through Quaternary chron- them, radiocarbon dating provides the smallest ostratigraphy and archaeological stratigraphy, but time bracket, with an error margin of approximately that only applies when one is dealing with research ±30 years. Using radiocarbon dating alone, however, into early history or with simple geological sequenc- cannot provide a sufficiently precise date; to pinpoint es. In the study of Quaternary geological deposits, it the intervals within a solar year, the radiocarbon date has long been noted that dating by varves is accurate has to be calibrated with dates from techniques that to the solar year; similar patterns of annual periodic- provide a precise chronology, such as the dating of ity also occur in deep sea sediments, ice cores, lake tree rings or coral. But even with such calibration, sediments, and loess in certain areas and for certain there can still be systematic errors. Thus, even though periods of time. The deposits archaeological stratig- modern scientific techniques can offer precision to raphy considers can also offer a time scale, especially the degree of an annual time scale, they still cannot when changes in deposits are examined in broad provide accurate chronological measurements of spatial contexts. This is because archaeological stra- smaller time scales. tigraphy studies deposits that have a physical form 185 Chinese Cultural Relics » Issue Number 3-4, 2016 and contain cultural contents. The deposits cannot periodization, geological and geochemical dating, merely be explained by the laws of superposition and floral and faunal dating, radiometric chronology, ar- crosscutting relationships. From the perspective of chaeomagnetic dating, historical chronology, and research in settlement archaeology, all anthropogenic experimental methods. Their classification, however, deposits are archaeological features that have form only discriminates between materials used for dating and cultural content, making them objects of interest and does not highlight the characteristics of these in typological studies. Thus, archaeological deposits dating methods. alone can be used to establish chronological order Furthermore, from the perspective of materials and intervals of time. Climatic phases established by used for dating, most methods provide the date of the the dating of plants and animals are based on mor- artifact or geofact; only a few provide dates for the phological changes in living organisms, and at times formation or the burial of the deposit, both of which can be used to construct time intervals. Evolutionary can be dated by relative and absolute methods. As changes in the DNA of living organisms, for one, are well, among the many methods used for dating ar- of particular significance to large-scale cross-distance chaeological objects, some provide the time of their dating. The rate of cell division in humans has been deaths (or interments), whereas others provide the used to calculate age, which is consistent with the lifespan. Take radiocarbon dating and seriation, for concept of absolute chronology. example: the former provides the time of death of The aim of discussing relative chronology and short-lived organisms as well as the lifespan of long- absolute chronology from this perspective is not to lived organisms (which are mainly trees), whereas divulge the relativism embedded in archaeological the latter can only provide the period of development chronology but to illustrate the temporality of each of objects’ physical forms – that is, the
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Chinese Civilization
    Chinese Civilization PREHISTORY Sources for the earliest history Until recently we were dependent for the beginnings of Chinese history on the written Chinese tradition. According to these sources China's history began either about 4000 B.C. or about 2700 B.C. with a succession of wise emperors who "invented" the elements of a civilization, such as clothing, the preparation of food, marriage, and a state system; they instructed their people in these things, and so brought China, as early as in the third millennium B.C., to an astonishingly high cultural level. However, all we know of the origin of civilizations makes this of itself entirely improbable; no other civilization in the world originated in any such way. As time went on, Chinese historians found more and more to say about primeval times. All these narratives were collected in the great imperial history that appeared at the beginning of the Manchu epoch. That book was translated into French, and all the works written in Western languages until recent years on Chinese history and civilization have been based in the last resort on that translation. The Peking Man Man makes his appearance in the Far East at a time when remains in other parts of the world are very rare and are disputed. He appears as the so-called "Peking Man", whose bones were found in caves of Chou-k'ou-tien south of Peking. The Peking Man is vastly different from the men of today, and forms a special branch of the human race, closely allied to the Pithecanthropus of Java.
    [Show full text]
  • Part II Specialized Studies Chapter Vi
    Part II Specialized Studies chapter vi New Sites and Lingering Questions at the Debert and Belmont Sites, Nova Scotia Leah Morine Rosenmeier, Scott Buchanan, Ralph Stea, and Gordon Brewster ore than forty years ago the Debert site exca- presents a model for the depositional history of the site vations signaled a new standard for interdisci- area, including two divergent scenarios for the origins of the Mplinary approaches to the investigation of late cultural materials at the sites. We believe the expanded areal Pleistocene archaeological sites. The resulting excavations extent of the complex, the nature of past excavations, and produced a record that continues to anchor northeastern the degree of site preservation place the Debert- Belmont Paleoindian sites (MacDonald 1968). The Confederacy of complex among the largest, best- documented, and most Mainland Mi’kmaq (the Confederacy) has been increasingly intact Paleoindian sites in North America. involved with the protection and management of the site The new fi nds and recent research have resolved some complex since the discovery of the Belmont I and II sites in long- standing issues, but they have also created new debates. the late 1980s (Bernard et al. 2011; Julien et al. 2008). The Understanding the relative chronologies of the numerous data reported here are the result of archaeological testing site areas and the consequent relationship among the sites associated with these protection eff orts, the development of requires not only understanding depositional contexts for the Mi’kmawey Debert Cultural Centre (MDCC), and the single occupations but tying together varied contexts (rede- passage of new provincial regulations solely dedicated to pro- posited, disturbed, glaciofl uvial, glaciolacustrine, Holocene tecting archaeological sites in the Debert and Belmont area.
    [Show full text]
  • Ice-Core Dating of the Pleistocene/Holocene
    [RADIOCARBON, VOL 28, No. 2A, 1986, P 284-291] ICE-CORE DATING OF THE PLEISTOCENE/HOLOCENE BOUNDARY APPLIED TO A CALIBRATION OF THE 14C TIME SCALE CLAUS U HAMMER, HENRIK B CLAUSEN Geophysical Isotope Laboratory, University of Copenhagen and HENRIK TAUBER National Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark ABSTRACT. Seasonal variations in 180 content, in acidity, and in dust content have been used to count annual layers in the Dye 3 deep ice core back to the Late Glacial. In this way the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary has been absolutely dated to 8770 BC with an estimated error limit of ± 150 years. If compared to the conventional 14C age of the same boundary a 0140 14C value of 4C = 53 ± 13%o is obtained. This value suggests that levels during the Late Glacial were not substantially higher than during the Postglacial. INTRODUCTION Ice-core dating is an independent method of absolute dating based on counting of individual annual layers in large ice sheets. The annual layers are marked by seasonal variations in 180, acid fallout, and dust (micro- particle) content (Hammer et al, 1978; Hammer, 1980). Other parameters also vary seasonally over the annual ice layers, but the large number of sam- ples needed for accurate dating limits the possible parameters to the three mentioned above. If accumulation rates on the central parts of polar ice sheets exceed 0.20m of ice per year, seasonal variations in 180 may be discerned back to ca 8000 BP. In deeper strata, ice layer thinning and diffusion of the isotopes tend to obliterate the seasonal 5 pattern.1 Seasonal variations in acid fallout and dust content can be traced further back in time as they are less affected by diffusion in ice.
    [Show full text]
  • Recent Achievements in Archaeomagnetic Dating in the Iberian Peninsula: Application to Roman and Mediaeval Spanish Structures
    Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1389e1398 http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas Recent achievements in archaeomagnetic dating in the Iberian Peninsula: application to Roman and Mediaeval Spanish structures M. Go´mez-Paccard a,*, E. Beamud b a Research Group of Geodynamics and Basin Analysis, Department of Stratigraphy, Paleontology and Marine Geosciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Campus de Pedralbes, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain b Research Group of Geodynamics and Basin Analysis, Paleomagnetic Laboratory (UB-CSIC), Institute of Earth Sciences ‘‘Jaume Almera’’, Sole´ i Sabarı´s, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain Received 18 May 2007; received in revised form 25 September 2007; accepted 8 October 2007 Abstract Archaeomagnetic studies in Spain have undergone a significant progress during the last few years and a reference curve of the directional variation of the geomagnetic field over the past two millennia is now available for the Iberian Peninsula. These recent developments have made archaeomagnetism a straightforward dating tool for Spain and Portugal. The aim of this work is to illustrate how this secular variation curve can be used to date the last use of several burnt structures from Spain. Four combustion structures from three archaeological sites with ages ranging from Roman to Mediaeval times have been studied and archaeomagnetically dated. The directions of the characteristic remanent magnetization of each structure have been obtained from classical thermal and alternating field (AF) demagnetization procedures, and a mean direction for each combustion structure has been obtained. These directional results have been compared with the new reference curve for Iberia, providing archae- omagnetic dates for the last use of the kilns.
    [Show full text]
  • How to Make a Time Capsule That Tells the Story of Covid-19
    How to make a time capsule that tells the story of Covid-19 The 2020 Covid-19 pandemic will go down in the history books, but a time capsule will teach future generations all about what lockdown was really like. COVID 19 time capsules are an easy project to get involved with, plus they’re totally unique to every person. What are Covid-19 time capsules? Time capsules are containers of some kind which hold a selection of objects, picked because they have a special meaning in the time that we’re living in. For example, time capsules have been found from as early as 1874 in the UK with photographs and letters, describing daily events happening that year. Often, time capsules are buried underground, beneath floorboards or stone slabs. For example, in 2015 one was buried under the Millennium Dome in London to be opened in 2050. With the coronavirus pandemic, we are all living through an important moment in history. Many people want to help future generations learn about this time using time capsules, full of things that show what life under lockdown was like. So, how do you make your own Covid-19 time capsule? How to create a COVID-19 time capsule While everyone will make theirs differently depending on what they think is important, these are some of the basics that you should do to create your time capsule. Adding more will make it more fascinating when it’s opened! Choose your box If you’re burying your time capsule, it’s important to use a sturdy container that won’t rot or fall apart over time.
    [Show full text]
  • Inscriptional Records of the Western Zhou
    INSCRIPTIONAL RECORDS OF THE WESTERN ZHOU Robert Eno Fall 2012 Note to Readers The translations in these pages cannot be considered scholarly. They were originally prepared in early 1988, under stringent time pressures, specifically for teaching use that term. Although I modified them sporadically between that time and 2012, my final year of teaching, their purpose as course materials, used in a week-long classroom exercise for undergraduate students in an early China history survey, did not warrant the type of robust academic apparatus that a scholarly edition would have required. Since no broad anthology of translations of bronze inscriptions was generally available, I have, since the late 1990s, made updated versions of this resource available online for use by teachers and students generally. As freely available materials, they may still be of use. However, as specialists have been aware all along, there are many imperfections in these translations, and I want to make sure that readers are aware that there is now a scholarly alternative, published last month: A Source Book of Ancient Chinese Bronze Inscriptions, edited by Constance Cook and Paul Goldin (Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China, 2016). The “Source Book” includes translations of over one hundred inscriptions, prepared by ten contributors. I have chosen not to revise the materials here in light of this new resource, even in the case of a few items in the “Source Book” that were contributed by me, because a piecemeal revision seemed unhelpful, and I am now too distant from research on Western Zhou bronzes to undertake a more extensive one.
    [Show full text]
  • Archaeological Tree-Ring Dating at the Millennium
    P1: IAS Journal of Archaeological Research [jar] pp469-jare-369967 June 17, 2002 12:45 Style file version June 4th, 2002 Journal of Archaeological Research, Vol. 10, No. 3, September 2002 (C 2002) Archaeological Tree-Ring Dating at the Millennium Stephen E. Nash1 Tree-ring analysis provides chronological, environmental, and behavioral data to a wide variety of disciplines related to archaeology including architectural analysis, climatology, ecology, history, hydrology, resource economics, volcanology, and others. The pace of worldwide archaeological tree-ring research has accelerated in the last two decades, and significant contributions have recently been made in archaeological chronology and chronometry, paleoenvironmental reconstruction, and the study of human behavior in both the Old and New Worlds. This paper reviews a sample of recent contributions to tree-ring method, theory, and data, and makes some suggestions for future lines of research. KEY WORDS: dendrochronology; dendroclimatology; crossdating; tree-ring dating. INTRODUCTION Archaeology is a multidisciplinary social science that routinely adopts an- alytical techniques from disparate fields of inquiry to answer questions about human behavior and material culture in the prehistoric, historic, and recent past. Dendrochronology, literally “the study of tree time,” is a multidisciplinary sci- ence that provides chronological and environmental data to an astonishing vari- ety of archaeologically relevant fields of inquiry, including architectural analysis, biology, climatology, economics,
    [Show full text]
  • Scientific Dating of Pleistocene Sites: Guidelines for Best Practice Contents
    Consultation Draft Scientific Dating of Pleistocene Sites: Guidelines for Best Practice Contents Foreword............................................................................................................................. 3 PART 1 - OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................. 3 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 3 The Quaternary stratigraphical framework ........................................................................ 4 Palaeogeography ........................................................................................................... 6 Fitting the archaeological record into this dynamic landscape .............................................. 6 Shorter-timescale division of the Late Pleistocene .............................................................. 7 2. Scientific Dating methods for the Pleistocene ................................................................. 8 Radiometric methods ..................................................................................................... 8 Trapped Charge Methods................................................................................................ 9 Other scientific dating methods ......................................................................................10 Relative dating methods ................................................................................................10
    [Show full text]
  • Scale and Structure of Time-Averaging (Age Mixing) in Terrestrial Gastropod Assemblages from Quaternary Eolian Deposits of the E
    Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 251 (2007) 283–299 www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo Scale and structure of time-averaging (age mixing) in terrestrial gastropod assemblages from Quaternary eolian deposits of the eastern Canary Islands ⁎ Yurena Yanes a, , Michał Kowalewski a, José Eugenio Ortiz b, Carolina Castillo c, Trinidad de Torres b, Julio de la Nuez d a Department of Geosciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 4044 Derring Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, US b Biomolecular Stratigraphy Laboratory, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Madrid, C/ Ríos Rosas 21, 28003, Madrid, Spain c Departamento de Biología Animal, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda. Astrofísico Fco. Sánchez, s/n. 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain d Departamento de Edafología y Geología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Laguna, Avda. Astrofísico Fco. Sánchez, s/n. 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain Received 13 November 2006; received in revised form 10 March 2007; accepted 9 April 2007 Abstract Quantitative estimates of time-averaging (age mixing) in gastropod shell accumulations from Quaternary (the late Pleistocene and Holocene) eolian deposits of Canary Islands were obtained by direct dating of individual gastropods obtained from exceptionally well-preserved dune and paleosol shell assemblages. A total of 203 shells of the gastropods Theba geminata and T. arinagae, representing 44 samples (=stratigraphic horizons) from 14 sections, were dated using amino acid (isoleucine) epimerization ratios calibrated with 12 radiocarbon dates. Most samples reveal a substantial variation in shell age that exceeds the error that could be generated by dating imprecision, with the mean within-sample shell age range of 6670 years and the mean standard deviation of 2920 years.
    [Show full text]
  • ARTIFACTS and FEATURES DENDROCHRONOLOGY This
    4/28/2004 ARTIFACTS AND FEATURES DENDROCHRONOLOGY This article is one of an occasional series discussing matters archaeological, especially with reference to the Maturango Museum. In previous articles we have talked about why chronologies are important in archaeology, and about a few qualitative techniques for establishing dates or sequences. Today we move on to another topic, quantitative chronological techniques. The first quantitative technique to be developed and applied in archaeology was dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating. It was developed in 1928 by A. E. Douglass of the University of Arizona, an astronomer who was studying sun-spot cycles. He theorized that climatic moisture was affected by the 11-year sun-spot cycle, and concluded that the evidence should be observable in tree rings. In the course of the studies he verified that the climatic sequence of wet and dry years does in fact leave a detectable pattern in the tree ring record: in general, wet years lead to wide rings and dry years to narrow rings. The important byproduct of this for archaeology is that the sequence of wet and dry years in a given locality never repeats itself, so the tree rings contain a unique signature which allows correlating between an old log and a new one, as long as there is some overlap. Douglass, to his credit, realized that his data would be useful to archaeologists, who at that time had no methods for assigning quantitative dates. Qualitative methods such as pottery seriation, stratigraphic excavation, and marker artifacts allow construction of sequences, but not absolute dating. Dendrochronology, for the first time, would allow an archaeologist to assign a date to the event of cutting down a tree to build a structure or use as fuel.
    [Show full text]
  • Web: © the Author(S) 2015 DOI: 10.1177/2056305115621935 Reconfiguring Social Logics and Historical Sms.Sagepub.Com Boundaries
    SMSXXX10.1177/2056305115621935Social Media + SocietyAnkerson 621935research-article2015 SI: Social Media Public Space Social Media + Society July-December 2015: 1 –12 Social Media and the “Read-Only” Web: © The Author(s) 2015 DOI: 10.1177/2056305115621935 Reconfiguring Social Logics and Historical sms.sagepub.com Boundaries Megan Sapnar Ankerson Abstract The web’s historical periodization as Web 1.0 (“read-only”) and Web 2.0 (“read/write”) eras continues to hold sway even as the umbrella term “social media” has become the preferred way to talk about today’s ecosystem of connective media. Yet, we have much to gain by not exclusively positing social media platforms as a 21st-century phenomenon. Through case studies of two commercially sponsored web projects from the mid-1990s—Massachusetts Institute of Technology Media Lab’s Day in the Life of Cyberspace and Rick Smolan’s 24 Hours in Cyberspace—this article examines how notions of social and publics were imagined and designed into the web at the start of the dot-com boom. In lieu of a discourse of versions, I draw on Lucy Suchman’s trope of configuration as an analytic tool for rethinking web historiography. By tracing how cultural imaginaries of the Internet as a public space are conjoined with technological artifacts (content management systems, templates, session tracking, and e-commerce platforms) and reconfigured over time, the discourses of “read-only publishing” and the “social media revolution” can be reframed not as exclusively oppositional logics, but rather, as mutually informing the design and development of today’s social, commercial, web. Keywords social media, web history, web 1.0, web 2.0, public, read-only For a decade now, the participatory potential of social media Yet, a closer examination of web history suggests the has become synonymous with Web 2.0 platforms like boundaries separating 1.0 and 2.0 eras may do more to dis- Facebook and Twitter that facilitate the sharing of user-gen- tort our understandings of cultural and technological change.
    [Show full text]
  • A School-Wide Effort for Learning History Via a Time Capsule
    Social Education 71(5), pp 261–266, 271 ©2007 National Council for the Social Studies Elementary Education A School-Wide Effort for Learning History via a Time Capsule C. Glennon Rowell, M. Gail Hickey, Kendall Gecsei, and Stacy Klein The time is early fall of 2004. For thousands of elementary school students of “memory books” that have been cre- throughout the country, routines for beginning a new school year are similar. Students ated by students through the years? are getting to know their teachers and anticipating the activities ahead in subjects from As in any school-wide project, interest reading to social studies. They are getting acquainted with new content area books grows daily; the entire school popula- and materials and new media center library books. And across the nation, students tion is focused on one event—closing are catching up with classmates they have not seen during the summer months and down the older building and moving to getting acquainted with new classmates. a newer one. And in this context, in the fall of 2004, students, teachers, admin- For the 370 students in kindergar- the 10 principals who have served the istrators, and staff respond to a unique ten through fifth grade at Ridgedale school since its opening in 1954. call to develop a time capsule that (1) Elementary School in Knoxville, The current principal is puzzling gives a history of Ridgedale Elementary Tennessee, there is a special buzz in the over what she should say in a letter that School (1954–2005) and (2) reflects the air that makes this school year unique.
    [Show full text]