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In Vitro Effects of Ligand Bias on Primate Mu Opioid Receptor

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In Vitro Effects of Ligand Bias on Primate Mu Opioid Receptor International Journal of Molecular Sciences Article In Vitro Effects of Ligand Bias on Primate Mu Opioid Receptor Downstream Signaling Xiao Zhang 1, Shaurita D. Hutchins 2 , Bruce E. Blough 3 and Eric J. Vallender 1,2,4,* 1 Program in Neuroscience, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216, USA; [email protected] 2 Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216, USA; [email protected] 3 Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA; [email protected] 4 Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 13 May 2020; Accepted: 2 June 2020; Published: 3 June 2020 Abstract: Interest has emerged in biased agonists at the mu opioid receptor (MOR) as a possible means for maintaining potent analgesis with reduced side effect profiles. While approaches measuring in vitro biased agonism are used in the development of these compounds, their therapeutic utility will ultimately be determined by in vivo functional effects. Nonhuman primates (NHPs) are the most translational model for evaluating the behavioral effects of candidate medications, but biased signaling of these drugs at NHP MOR receptors has been unstudied. The goal of the current work was to characterize MOR ligand bias in rhesus macaques, focusing on agonists that have previously been reported to show different patterns of biased agonism in rodents and humans. Downstream signaling pathways that responded to MOR activation were identified using a luciferase reporter array. Concentration-response curves for specific pathways (cAMP, NF-kB, MAPK/JNK) were generated using six agonists previously reported to differ in terms of signaling bias at rodent and human MORs. Using DAMGO as a reference ligand, relative cAMP, NF-kB and MAPK/JNK signaling by morphine, endomorphin-1, and TRV130 were found to be comparable between species. Further, the bias patterns of across ligands for NF-kB and MAPK/JNK were largely similar between species. There was a high degree of concordance between rhesus macaque and human MOR receptor signaling bias for all agonists tested, further demonstrating their utility for future translational behavioral studies. Keywords: opioid; biased agonism; morphine; nonhuman primate; second messenger signaling 1. Introduction Recent advances in the study of G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) pharmacology have demonstrated that various intracellular pathways can be differentially activated in a ligand-specific manner, a phenomenon referred to as biased agonism [1]. Accordingly, efforts are increasing to develop drugs that selectively activate therapeutic-related pathways at GPCRs while minimizing activation of pathways associated with harmful or unwanted, but on-target, side effects, including the mu opioid receptor (MOR) [2]. Early evidence suggested that analgesia at the MOR was mediated through G-protein signaling, while side effects, particularly respiratory depression and constipation, were dependent on the recruitment of β-arrestin 2 and downstream effectors [3–6]. Given the severity of the social and financial costs of the current opioid crisis in the United States [7], developing new medications for the treatment of pain with reduced side effects is a major public health priority, and G-protein biased MOR agonists have received interest as next-generation analgesics [8,9]. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 3999; doi:10.3390/ijms21113999 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 3999 2 of 14 Several promising studies [10–14] have led to the excitement that biased ligands may be an effective alternative to traditional opioids [15,16]. Other studies in rodents, however, have not shown the same reductions in side effects [17–22]. This disconnect between in vitro assays and in vivo behavior may result from numerous factors, including binding kinetic effects on signaling [23], receptor availability [17], and cellular context [24]. Species differences in the receptor may also play a role, however. Explicit comparisons of biased agonists between human and rodent kappa opioid receptors found significant species differences [25,26], as well as magnitude, if not in rank order, for ligand bias in the MOR [27]. Due to their genetic and brain morphology similarities to humans, nonhuman primates (NHPs) are the most translational preclinical model for predicting the therapeutic and toxicological effects of candidate medications, including opioid analgesics [28–33]. The same behavioral endpoints for the development of novel opioid treatments in rodents are also routinely used in NHPs: analgesia, abuse liability, tolerance and dependence, and toxicity, including respiratory depression [34–36]. Given the increasing attention on the development of biased MOR agonists as next-generation analgesics, an important next step will be to test these compounds in NHPs; however, there are currently no published data investigating signaling bias of agonists on NHP MOR receptors. Rhesus macaques and human MORs share 98.5% identity, differing only in 6 amino acids of 400. In comparison, the mouse and rat MOR shares 94% identity (376/400) with humans. In order to meaningfully compare in vivo behavioral data across species, it will be relevant to quantify in vitro species differences. Furthermore, a comparison of signaling bias across species is necessary to understand and validate the translation relevance of these studies. Part of the reason why the majority of in vitro assays investigating signaling bias are done largely (or solely) in humans is because of the widespread use of assays for measuring β-arrestin recruitment based on enzyme fragment complementation technology. The commercially available tools for this approach, which requires the construction of modified fusion proteins for either β-arrestin or both GPCR and β-arrestin [37], only exist for human and limited rodent receptors. Apart from concerns that these chimeric proteins may not recapitulate physiological activity, this has limited the universe of receptors that are possible for study. One alternative method to identify ligand bias focuses not on the recruitment of β-arrestin, but rather the effects of receptor activation on downstream signaling pathways. β-arrestin serves as a scaffold protein for numerous downstream signaling pathways, including MAPK/JNK, MAPK/ERK, NF-kB, and others [38,39], and it is through these that the in vivo effects are presumed to be actuated [40,41]. Assays that measure the activation of these signaling pathways through luciferase reporters are commercially available and can easily be adapted to any GPCR of interest, making it well suited for the comparative studies here. The overall goal of this study was to compare relative potencies and efficacies of a series of MOR agonists that have been reported to vary in terms of signaling bias in rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and human MORs, focusing specifically on downstream signaling pathways as a downstream proxy of G-protein and β-arrestin recruitment. The overall hypothesis was that there would be a high degree of concordance in the bias factors for each of the compounds between rhesus macaque and human MORs. 2. Results 2.1. Downstream Signaling Pathway Responses to MOR Activation Activation of downstream signaling pathways in cells containing MORs from both human and rhesus macaque was assessed in the presence and absence of ligands using pathway-specific luciferase reporters (Figure1). HEK293 cell lines containing either human or rhesus macaque MORs were reverse transfected into a Cignal Finder GPCR Signaling 10-Pathway Reporter Array (Qiagen; Valencia, CA, USA) that contained inducible transcriptional factor responsive luciferase reporter constructs for common GPCR downstream signaling pathways: ATF2/3/4, cAMP, MAPK/ERK, MAPK/JNK, MEF2, 2+ Hedgehog, PI3K/AFT, IL-6, PKC/Ca , and NF-kB. Because MOR is known to be Gi-linked, forskolin Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 3999 3 of 14 wasInt. J. addedMol. Sci. to 20 the20, 2 cells1, x FOR containing PEER REVIEW the cAMP reporter. ATF, cAMP, MAPK/JNK, MAPK/ERK, and NF-kB3 of 15 pathways showed significantly higher luciferase signals than the negative control under baseline treatmentMAPK/ERK with, and saline, NF- suggestingĸB pathways an showed endogenous significantly activation higher of these luciferase pathways signals in the than cell linethe or,negative in the casecontrol of cAMP,under followingbaseline treatment forskolin with addition. saline, Downstream suggesting an signaling endogenous following activation activation of these of MORs pathways was testedin the cell using line 10 or,µ Min DAMGO.the case of FollowingcAMP, following DAMGO forskolin treatment, addition MAPK. Downstrea/JNK, MAPKm signaling/ERK, and following NF-kB wereactivation significantly of MORs upregulated was tested andusing cAMP 10 μM was DAMGO. significantly Following downregulated DAMGO fortreatment, receptors MAPK/JNK, from both species.MAPK/ERK, These and data NF demonstrate-ĸB were significantly that for DAMGO, upregulated both and rhesus cAMP macaque was significantly and human downregulated MORs showed similarfor receptors responses from on both downstream species. These pathways. data demonstrate that for DAMGO, both rhesus macaque and human MORs showed similar responses on downstream pathways. (a) (b) Figure 1. cAMP, NF-kB,NF-ĸB, MAPKMAPK/JNK/JNK,, and MAPKMAPK/ERK/ERK respondrespond toto MORMOR activation byby 10 µμM DAMGO (solid(solid bars)bars) compared to saline saline
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