Introduction – Liberal, Humanist, Modernist, Queer? Reclaiming Forster’S Legacies

Home , Paul Scott (novelist), Staying On, The Householder

Notes

Introduction – Liberal, Humanist, Modernist, Queer? Reclaiming Forster’s Legacies

1. For another comprehensive monograph on different models of intertextuality, see Graham Allen, Intertextuality (2000). 2. See Bloom (1973). Bloom’s self-consciously idiosyncratic study has received mixed responses; its drive against formalist depersonalization has been appreciated by prominent thinkers such as Jonathan Culler, who affirms that ‘[t]urning from texts to persons, Bloom can proclaim intertextuality with a fervor less circumspect than Barthes’s, for Barthes’s tautologous naming of the intertextual as “déjà lu” [“already read”] is so anticlimactic as to preclude excited anticipations, while Bloom, who will go on to name precursors and describe the titanic struggles which take place on the battlefield of poetic tradition, has grounds for enthusiasm’ (1976, p. 1386; my translation). Other critics, such as Peter de Bolla, have attempted to find points of compromise between intertextuality and influence. He offers that ‘the anxiety that a poet feels in the face of his precursor poet is not something within him, it is not part of the psychic economy of a particular person, in this case a poet, rather it is the text’ (1988, p. 20). He goes on to add that ‘influence describes the relations between texts, it is an intertextual phenomenon’ (p. 28). De Bolla’s attempt at finding a crossroads between formalist intertextuality and Bloomian influence leans perhaps too strategically towards Kristeva’s more fashionable vocabulary and methodology, but it also points productively to the text as the material expression of literary influence. 3. For useful discussions and definitions of Forster’s liberal humanism, including its indebtedness to fin de siècle Cambridge, see Nicola Beauman, 1993; Peter Childs, 2007; Michael Levenson, 1991; Peter Morey, 2000; Parry, 1979; David Sidorsky, 2007. 4. Crews discusses the case of Forster’s childhood home in Stevenage, which became the site of the post-war satellite town (1962, p. 21). 5. Aziz’s trial in A Passage to India is perhaps Forster’s most explicit political critique of British rule in India. In this episode, the institutions of the Raj are taken to task with no uncertainty, and British racial and political upper- handedness is denounced within the official spaces of the Anglo-Indian courtroom. The fragile illusion of social equality is broken when Aziz’s friend Mahmoud Ali passionately denounces Mrs Moore’s absence from the proceedings, whose hospitability to Aziz might have helped his case. Aziz’s friend Mahmoud Ali states to the Indian Magistrate Mr Das in no uncertain terms: ‘I am not defending a case, nor are you trying one. We are both of us slaves. […] This trial is a farce, I am going’ (Chapter 24, p. 227). Mahmoud Ali’s passionate and somewhat histrionic speech does not spare any sym- pathy for the judicial power of the British and denounces racial ‘slavery’ in unequivocal terms. Said, in fact, appreciates Forster’s anti-colonial gesture in

207 208 Notes

this particular episode and states that ‘[p]art of the extraordinary novelty of Aziz’s trial […] is that Forster admits that “the flimsy framework of the court” cannot be sustained because it is a “fantasy” that compromises British power (real) with the impartial justice for Indians (unreal)’ (1994, p. 95). Here we have a perspective to contrast with the Magistrate’s more moderate position: whereas Mr Das tries to conduct the trial in a British fashion, Mahmoud Ali states his disagreement with prevailing power structures. Forster’s text is unafraid of pointing out in explicit ways the master/slave dynamic of the colonial relationship in order to critique India’s state of complete subjuga- tion to the British. In the riot which ensues Aziz’s discharge, after Adela Quested has confessed to his innocence, Mahmoud Ali states that ‘[the British] hope to destroy us one by one; they shall fail’ (Chapter 25, p. 237). This example of anti-British fervour may not be explicitly connected to the Congress Party or the Muslim League, whose global prominence would not reach its zenith till a few decades after the publication of Forster’s novel, but the lack of real political figures in the text – a fact that applies to both Indian and British factions – should not presuppose cowardice regarding a political stance or ultimate conflation with imperial power. 6. Henceforth referred to as Passage. 7. For Forster’s troubled perception of the Hindu festival of Gokul Ashtami, see The Hill of Devi (1965b, pp. 99–117). 8. For instance, G. K. Das has studied the textual symbolism inherent to the Marabar and has pointed out their Hindu characteristics. Their relationship with several Indian religions – for more than one interpretation is possible on account of their textual ambivalence – is what renders them a useful tool to represent the clash between British and Indian metaphysics (1982, pp. 244–56). 9. For a lengthy and detailed account of Forster’s relationships with men and the deterrent which his homosexuality was to his writing, see Wendy Moffat (2011). Although Moffat makes quite clear from the very beginning that her focus will be on the life, hence lacking innovative readings of Forster’s work, the use of previously unavailable sources makes this an important volume for readers wanting to delve into Forster’s life after he stopped publishing fiction. 10. Critical commentaries on what ‘postcolonialism’ and ‘postcolonial’ mean have been numerous over the years. This is a selection of some of the most prominent debates: Kwame Anthony Appiah, 1991, 336–57; Arif Dirlik, 1994, 328–56; Simon Gikandi, 2006, 69–84; Stuart Hall, 1996, pp. 242–60; Hallward, 2001; Anne McClintock, 1992, 84–98; Parry, 1997, pp. 3–21; Stephen Slemon, 2004, pp. 15–32.

1 ‘He is one of your hollow men’: Homosexuality and Sublimation in Paul Scott’s The Raj Quartet and Ruth Prawer Jhabvala’s Heat and Dust

1. Withstanding essentialist definitions of the postcolonial according to nationality, it is also because of the persistent focus on the trauma of the colonizers and the comparatively understated trauma of the colonized that Scott’s work cannot be considered to be postcolonial, although critics who are quick to Notes 209

dismiss Forster, such as Sara Suleri, also argue that ‘the stories of colonialism – in which heterogeneous cultures are yoked by violence – offer nuances of trauma that cannot be neatly partitioned between colonizer and colonized’ (1992, p. 5). Suleri’s measured statement underlines the existence of personal crisis on both sides of the colonial divide, and enables an approach to British characters in Scott’s fiction which signifies such trauma without legitimizing only the British or the Indian factions. 2. Henceforth referred to as Jewel, Day, Towers and Division. 3. Unlike any of The Raj Quartet novels, Staying On is set in an India contemporary with Scott’s writing, and it deals with the agents of the former Raj, Mr and Mrs Smalley, who decided to ‘stay on’ after Independence and the Partition of India and Pakistan. It is hard not to suspect that this simple and unassuming novel peopled by some of the characters of Scott’s previous fiction was awarded the Booker Prize as recognition of Scott’s general literary career. 4. The naming of the former event has been the object of controversy for decades. Gyan Prakash (1990) offers a useful discussion of the different names given to the Sepoy War, including its most frequently used form, ‘the Indian Mutiny’. Prakash argues that the British labelled it a mutiny because ‘calling it anything other than a mutiny meant conceding that it had some legitimacy’ (pp. 389–90). Prakash also charts some of the first instances in which Indian nationalists challenged the naming of the event by calling it a ‘national revolt’. 5. Weinbaum has argued there are many types of metaphorical imprisonment in the novel (1992, p. 101). 6. Judith Scherer Herz observes that although Marcella Sherwood was ‘badly beaten’, ‘after the attack she refused government compensation and wrote to the Times to point out that she had been saved by the parents of her Indian students.’ See Judith Scherer Herz (1993), p. 19. 7. D. C. R. A. Goonetilleke has recently paid attention to other literary references in Scott’s creation of Daphne. He argued that ‘Scott’s choice of a rape as his central event and motif is validated further by his formal indebtedness to the epic tradition.’ According to Goonetilleke, ‘the stories of ancient epics are woven round acts of sexual violence, though not neces- sarily rape: in The Iliad, an abduction (of Helen by Paris) and the “rape” is with consent; in The Ramayana, an abduction (of Sita by Ravana) but no rape; less importantly, in The Mahabharatha a woman is dishonoured’. See D. C. R. A. Goonetilleke (2007), p. 800. Goonetilleke’s essay frames Scott’s tetralogy more generally within the epic tradition and takes it away from the more recognizable tradition of Forster and Kipling; it also considers Scott’s investment in a vision of British military power in India, which Forster avoids, focusing more keenly on personal relationships and on selected cases of political commentary, such as the trial scene in Chapter 24 of Passage. 8. Jenny Sharpe has observed that ‘the appearance of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in A Passage to India [is] a ghostly presence that guides its plot’. See Jenny Sharpe (1993), p. 118. If a ghost in Forster’s text, because of its lack of a name, Jallianwallah and its main personage, General Dyer, feature promi- nently in Scott’s works. 210 Notes

9. Repetition is of particular importance, for Scott’s tetralogy places a lot of emphasis on recurring situations and behavioural patterns. Booker argues that

when characters die or otherwise disappear from the action, they are often replaced with others who assume their roles. […] For example, in the later volumes Barbie Batchelor comes to occupy a position initially occupied by Edwina Crane, while the function of Daphne Manners is assumed by Sarah Layton. The relationship between Daphne and Hari Kumar is mir- rored to an extent by the later one between Sarah and Ahmed Kassim [sic], and so on. (1997, p. 137)

Rubin concurs with Booker, and argues that, although not interchangeable, Daphne Manners and Sarah Layton resemble each other in many ways, as Sarah could be regarded as ‘continu[ing] where Daphne left off, just as Barbie will extend the role and sensibilities of Edwina Crane’ (1986, p. 136). Morey also suggests that ‘[t]he replication of character relationships and incident is complemented [in Scott’s work] by a Forsterian “repetition-plus-variation” in the multiplicity of multi-functional symbols used’ (2000, p. 144). 10. Parry has interpreted Miss Crane’s death as the consequence of religious inadequacy, which is Mrs Moore’s plight in the Marabar Caves; she writes:

when Edwina Crane cannot find God in India, it seems that this is because she has been looking for a western deity and not seeing Shiva dancing in his cosmic circle of flames or the sleeping Vishnu looking as if he might at any moment awaken. Still, the mythological and the metaphysical, so central to serious western transcriptions of India, is on the margin of Scott’s vision. (1975, p. 369)

Parry’s reading of Miss Crane’s death interprets the religious symbolism which does not seem apparent to Miss Crane herself: Shiva’s fire can be related to the flames that consume her, and the sleeping Vishnu to the corpse of Mr Chaudhuri, whose hand Miss Crane holds and will not let go. The episode bears the imprint of Scott’s symbolism, which is itself the legacy of Forster’s subtler religious symbolism in the Marabar Caves. Miss Crane’s becoming suttee – a more archaic spelling of the more familiar sati – con- stitutes not so much an episode of religious incomprehension comparable to Mrs Moore’s, but a final embrace of intercultural connection undertaken through a Hindu religious ritual. 11. Mildred Layton, who despises Barbie’s influence on her stepmother Mabel Layton, returns the silver Apostle spoons the latter has given to her daughter Susan as a wedding present. Upon a visit to Mildred in which Barbie has planned to reinstate the gift, she finds Mildred having adulterous sexual intercourse with her lover, and flees in a panic. She subsequently gets rain- drenched and comes down with pneumonia after her carriage crashes during a rainstorm. See Towers, pp. 306–8. The connection between a scene of sexual scandal and bodily and mental breakdown is one that also harkens back to Passage, particularly in the link between the sexual confusion in the Marabar Caves and Mrs Moore’s subsequent refusal to deal with Adela Quested’s or Aziz’s moral quandary and public trial. Notes 211

12. It is worthy of note that later texts, such as J. G. Ballard’s The Empire of the Sun and Ondaatje’s The English Patient also undertake similar episodes of remote historical synchronization between the fortunes of the British Empire’s subjects and the key event of Hiroshima’s bombing during the Second World War. 13. Spurling’s biography delves into the issue of Scott’s complex sexual orientation: eventually married and with children, his youth, partly spent in India, was marked by the attempt not to give in to the ‘undisciplined desire’ of a Dorian Gray. As Spurling suggests, however, his portrayal of Merrick demon- strates the ‘monstrous consequences of fear and self-denial’ (1991, p. 132) in a fictional representation which brings out what he perceives to be the ‘darkest’ side of the colonial agent: the contradiction between discourses of racial and cultural superiority and the underlying attraction to the members of a subjugated nation. 14. I am particularly thankful to Judie Newman for pointing out the Pathans’ homosexual activities and their relevance to Scott’s narrative. 15. Henceforth referred to as Devi. 16. One of Forster’s early critics, Laurence Brander, argues that ‘Forster used his visits first in his novel and now for this biography which is a unique little bit of history’ (1968, p. 37). Brander’s comment cannot altogether conceal its slight disregard for Forster’s autobiographical account, for the purpose of Forster’s trips to India seems to have been, primarily, to write Passage, whilst Devi is relegated to the list of Forster’s minor works. 17. Jhabvala left India in 1975, shortly after the publication of Heat and Dust. In the light of her self-penned introduction to An Experience of India, even in the early 1970s she suffered from a cyclical disaffection with the place ( Jhabvala, 1971, p. 7), which may have prompted her to relocate to the United States, where she remained a published writer, as well as a distin- guished screenwriter, her film adaptations of Forster’s novels – A Room with a View and Howards End, produced and directed by Ismail Merchant and James Ivory – being two of her most celebrated film efforts. 18. Jhabvala’s novels from her initial period have been compared to Jane Austen’s comedies of manners, a critical gesture which obviates in a Eurocentric man- ner Jhabvala’s engagement with her Indian sociocultural context. For historical comparisons with Austen’s art, see Moore Williams, 1970, p. 9; Rutherford and Petersen, 1976, p. 373; Shahane, 1976, p. 14; Sucher, 1989, p. 4. 19. Jhabvala’s biting and sometimes embittered representation of India in her last novel composed in the country has been received with misgivings, sometimes heated, by Indian critics. Negative Indian reactions to the novel are best summarized by Nissin Ezekiel, when he asserts that ‘Heat and Dust did not raise any heat or generate any dust in England. It did both in India, partly because of the Booker-Prize which put on the novel the stamp of English approval, naturally without any concern for Indian sensibilities. The gulf between the two view points seem [sic] unbridgeable’ (Ezekiel quoted in Sinha, 2004, pp. 138–9). 20. For a more detailed, although sometimes hostile, exploration of the issue of framing, see Ashish Roy (1994). 21. This ambivalence also serves to dismantle official treatment of Indian princes during the Raj. According to C. A. Bayly, ‘if properly controlled, 212 Notes

[the princes’] resources could be used against rebels in directly controlled territories and their lands act as fire screens to prevent the brush fire wars of consolidation becoming conflagrations’ (1988, p. 110). By allowing the Nawab of Khatm to remain uncharted by conflicting British perspectives, Jhabvala is contributing to his liberation from, at least, the representational control of the Empire. 22. Cannadine’s notion is coined in conscious interaction with Edward Said’s concept of Orientalism. In his book, Cannadine suggests that Indian native rulers were ‘the most favoured (and most ornamental) side of the Raj’ (2002, p. 46) because of their respect for British sovereignty and their power to deflate the growing influence of the Congress Party in their states. This agrees with Bayly’s previous assessment (1988) of the rulers’ strategic role in imperial politics. 23. That said, although, from a British point of view, Jhabvala might have been freer to represent homosexuality in the 1970s, which she may have chosen to do in order to pay tribute to silenced personal narratives during colonial times, homosexual acts were decriminalized in India as late as 2009, only to be outlawed yet again in late 2013. 24. The reader never finds out whether the father of her child is either Chid, the young man from Birmingham who wants to become a sadhu and who looks ‘like a boy who has just got up from a sickbed’ (Heat and Dust, 1984, p. 65) or Inder Lal, her sexually frustrated landlord, whose life is immersed in office intrigues regarding his boss. Both possibilities are equally ironic, for they do not match the imposing character or social standing of the Nawab of Khatm, and point at the narrator’s arduous attempt at emulating Olivia. 25. The death of the destitute widow Leelavati, whom the narrator and her friend Maji accompany to the sati stones, and whom the rest of India has apatheti- cally ignored, fills the narrator with contentment; she describes the scenery as ‘pleasant’, and Maji pronounces Leelavati’s death as ‘a good, a blessed end’ (Heat and Dust, 1984, p. 115). This scene of death engenders feelings of optimism in the narrator because she has for once overruled the textual shackles of Olivia’s letters. However, it is perhaps too late by this point in her own – and Jhabvala’s – narrative to engage with the social realities of 1970s India.

2 Shattered Realities, Torn Nations: (Post)Modernism in J. G. Farrell’s The Siege of Krishnapur and Anita Desai’s Clear Light of Day

1. Henceforth referred to as Krishnapur. 2. After the relative critical dearth of the 1980s, the 1990s witnessed a short revival of scholarly commentary on Farrell’s work, with Ralph J. Crane and Jennifer Livett’s monograph Troubled Pleasures: The Fiction of J. G. Farrell (1997); Crane’s edited collection of essays J. G. Farrell: The Critical Grip (1999); and a chapter in Peter Morey’s book on fictions of India (2000), the last of these seeing Farrell criticism into the new millennium. The 1990s also produced the first full-length biography of the ill-fated author, namely Lavinia Greacen’s J. G. Farrell: The Making of a Writer (2000). Greacen’s book throws light on a discreet and elusive writer who tended to avoid the public Notes 213

eye; however, despite the book’s achievements, its explicit juxtaposition of Farrell’s life experiences with his fiction restricts the discursive autonomy of Farrell’s work. There have also been some prominent journal articles reas- sessing Farrell’s fiction: Lars Hartveit (1993) has explored the relationship between history and fiction in Krishnapur, whilst John McLeod (1994) has provocatively examined Farrell’s dealings with colonialist taxonomies in the same novel. More recently, Greacen has complemented her biographical work with J. G. Farrell in His Own Words: Selected Letters and Diaries (2009), a volume through which we gain a fresh first-person insight on Farrell’s life and work. 3. This is a selective list of characters and their plights: the Magistrate, a seemingly avid scientist, is fascinated by the now defunct pseudo-science of phrenology. George Fleury and Harry Dunstaple are the heroic – and often mock-heroic – pair of the book: Fleury is the idealist and romantic son of the Director of the East India Company who becomes a technology enthusiast, rather ironically, when in contact with the machineries of war; Dunstaple is the respectable son of Dr Dunstaple whose first proper contact with feminin- ity makes him fall for the charms of the ‘fallen woman’ Lucy. Their sisters, Miriam Fleury and Louise Dunstaple, are constantly challenged by the lack of hygienic and cosmetic means in the besieged Residency, and their priva- tions drive Louise to eat the flour with which she tries to cover her heat boils. The vocal Dr Dunstaple and the taciturn Dr McNab have conflicting methods of treating cholera, which are judged not according to scientific observation but according to their social standing, which betrays the snobbery and racial prejudice of their British community, since Dr McNab happens to be a Jew. The Padre is the Protestant leader of Krishnapur who cannot stop preaching to Fleury about his creationist theories of the origin of species whilst Fleury tries to hold off the approaching sepoys. In addition, in a moment of despair, the Padre uses the Bible as a weapon to crush between its pages the multitude of flies surrounding him. 4. Binns has remarked on Farrell’s avoidance of the ‘ugly end to the Mutiny’ and its physically disproportionate repression of the rebelling Indians (1986, p. 80). Newman also points out the novel’s ‘privileg[ing] [of] every last detail of the British in India while consigning the Indians to the status of figurative or metaphorical existence’ (1999, p. 82). On a similar note, Neil McEwan affirms that ‘[i]t would have been better to have left Indians, except as bel- ligerents, out of the story altogether’ (1987, p. 142). McLeod takes a different, but perhaps too optimistic view of the elision of Indians, and sees it as Farrell’s productive refusal ‘to provide the illusion of an omniscient narrator who can traverse cultural difference at will’ (1994, p. 130). More recently, McLeod reviews his critical position and regrets the ‘awkwardness’ of the Indians who are present in the book, especially the grotesque representation of the Westernized son of the Maharajah, Hari (2007, p. 72). Whether Farrell meant to reveal the partiality or bias of his representation as a British writer, it is reasonable to say his representation of Indians has been duly problematized. 5. Steven Connor has affirmed that Brian McHale’s distinction between the epistemological and the ontological ‘has been troublesome for those who have failed to see that the latter is an intensification of the former, rather 214 Notes

than a clear break with it. To move from epistemology to ontology, from world-witnessing to world-making, is to recognize that the problems of knowing are both intensified and transformed when the very acts of seeing and understanding are themselves taken to generate new worlds or states of being’ (2004, p. 66). Connor argues that it is mainly the first part of McHale’s definition that has caught on with critics, whereas the charting of the mutual relationship between epistemology and ontology has not been as seriously addressed. 6. In his unfinished novel, The Hill Station, Farrell expands on the emergent Marxist perspective at the end of Krishnapur and juxtaposes a view of colonial India with the figure of Marx in the British Library. Farrell’s narrator writes: ‘It would be harsh to blame Emily for not having re-invented the class- stratified view of the world she had inherited from her parents along more egalitarian lines. (In any case, as Emily, light as a feather, went bobbing away on the strong brown shoulders of her jampanis, a few thousand miles away in London a familiar bearded leonine figure sucking a pencil turned a little in his seat in the British Museum to see the hands of the clock at the northern quarter of the Reading Room, and thought, “Soon it will be closing time.”)’ (1982, p. 92). Whilst Emily relishes the comforts of her own jampan and her dutiful jampanis, a figure who is becoming, unlike her, quite conscious of the class stratification of the world is at work in London, releasing into our literary space a thought of prophetic significance; the man, whom we can identify as Karl Marx, says to himself ‘Soon it will be closing time’, which applies to the schedule of the Reading Room of the British Library, and also to the ‘closing time’ of the British Empire as a whole. Crane and Livett have also remarked on this haunting presence in Farrell’s book (1997, p. 24). 7. Henceforth referred to as Clear. 8. Margaret describes the different approaches to love and human connection that she, Helen and Henry have; she calls herself ‘prose’, while Helen is ‘romance’, and she admits Henry lacks ‘poetry’ (Howards End, 1961, Chapter 19, p. 163). Her later motto ‘Only connect! […] Only connect the prose and the passion, and both will be exalted, and human love will be seen at its height’ (Chapter 22, p. 174) is one of the novel’s most prominent indictments and one of the most recognizable and important messages of Forster’s entire oeuvre. 9. Critics such as R. K. Dhawan have qualms about applying the ‘modernist’ label to Desai’s work, mostly because, according to him, it imports ‘the critical clashes of the West’ while separating ‘Indian English fiction’ (2001, p. 13) from the general history of Indian literature. Dhawan’s comment is duly wary of the uncritical transposition of terminologies. It would be at once more tentative and less categorical to regard Desai’s fiction – and this particular novel more precisely – as strategically utilizing a set of techniques inherited from European modernism, and from Forster’s specific vision. Such a particularist view enables a critical assessment of Desai’s work that does not shortcut its cultural complexities and allows for a wider variety of literary registers elsewhere in her fiction. 10. The spectral character of the relations between Howards End and Clear does not, however, rule out the presence of manifest links between Desai’s and Forster’s writing elsewhere, some of which have been highlighted. For Notes 215

instance, in Susheila Nasta’s edited collection Motherlands (1991), Judie Newman analyses the connection between Indian caves in Passage and in Desai’s Baumgartner’s Bombay. 11. The novel establishes a clear contrast between the Old Delhi of the Moguls and the New Delhi of the British, which marks an investment in the representation of social stasis and change (Clear, 2001, p. 5). 12. The psychologically driven and musically sensitive form of Clear, as well as the explicit affinities with T. S. Eliot’s Four Quartets, can be seen as rendering Desai’s novel modernist in endeavour. Alamgir Hashmi has described the book’s structure as ‘quartets in a musical composition’ (1990, p. 70). Bipin B. Panigrahi has compared it to the musical structure of a sonata (1990, pp. 78–9). In turn, Shirley Chew has analysed the culturally complex musical allusions and their significance in the text: ‘[Desai’s language] is alive with poetic suggestion, the rich soundings of a technique in which motifs, once announced, are repeated, developed and transformed, like the variations tirelessly elaborated in the raga, or the figures in Four Quartets that vanish only to “emerge / in another pattern”’ (1991, p. 51). Also according to Chew, family history is remade ‘in the performances of the singers, Iqbal’s verses and Eliot’s poetic sequence’ (p. 51). 13. Shashi Tharoor observes that democracy in India ‘stalled for a while in the Emergency of 1975–77 [...]. When Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of national emergency in India on June 26, 1975, [...] Mrs. Gandhi’s suspension of civil liberties, her arrests of opposition leaders, her attempts to amend the Constitution, and her postponement of scheduled national elections appeared to confirm liberal fears that an era of authoritarianism had dawned in India’ (2006, pp. 199–200). 14. For Jameson’s and Ahmad’s original essays, see Fredric Jameson (1986) and Aijaz Ahmad (1992). 15. Forster’s biography of his great-aunt Marianne Thornton, 1797–1887: A Domestic Biography (1956) is particularly illuminating regarding his secular but almost mystical relationship with houses. Henry S. Turner writes apropos this book: ‘Marianne Thornton is particularly remarkable for its memorializing of Battersea Rise, the Thornton family estate, and for the way it records the Thorntons’ distinct imaginative and sentimental investment in houses. It was a sensibility that Forster shared, and I am struck by how clearly Howards End prefigures his later exploration of this aspect of his family and of his own earliest memories’ (2000, pp. 341–2n.). 16. I am particularly grateful to Shirley Chew for alerting me to the possibility of accessing the recent Indian past in Desai’s narrative.

3 Of ‘planetary strangers’: Humanism in Nadine Gordimer’s The Lying Days and Michael Ondaatje’s The English Patient

1. Judie Newman points out that Gordimer sees her efforts as being mostly in the literary realm, while the public disagrees and regards her artistic and public commitment to politics as integral to her overall impact as a South African citizen (2003, pp. 3–4). I would agree with this latter perspective, for 216 Notes

in Gordimer’s imaginary, artistic representation and political positioning are never mutually exclusive. 2. Henceforth referred to as Days. 3. Henceforth referred to as Journey. 4. Despite Clingman’s judiciousness here, he then misreads the trajectory of Gordimer’s English protagonist Toby Hood and of his black African friend Sam Mofokenzazi. He argues that ‘[i]n the triumph of Toby and Sam the “only connect” of E. M. Forster’s Howards End seems to be a reality; the “No, not yet… No, not there” of his A Passage to India apparently inoperable’ (1993, p. 57). Here, Head is right in appreciating the echo of the ending of Passage in Toby’s farewell to Sam (1994, p. 54) as the former leaves for England; however, the text subtly intimates that Toby will not return to South Africa and that this is a final parting of the ways and the end of their friendship. 5. Martin writes: ‘It will be helpful to note that Forster’s use of the tripartite structure corresponds to the same seasons of the Greek year, in which Cambridge represents the Spring/Summer, Sawston represents the Fall/ Winter, and Wiltshire represents the Winter/Spring’ (1998, p. 8). This tripartite structure would also be taken up in Passage; however, in Forster’s last novel, the use of ‘Mosque’, ‘Cave’ and ‘Temple’ to delimit the novel’s three parts does not correspond strictly to personal progression, as it maps instead the religious plurality of India and the staging of the meeting of Indian and British sensibilities in such locations. 6. Wendy Moffat suggests, when describing the meetings of the Apostles, that ‘[i]n a room full of talkers, Morgan’s steadfast silence demarked him as a peculiar kind of genius’ (2011, p. 54). This also meant that his personality was deemed as inward looking and slippery as an undergraduate, earning him the sobriquet of ‘the mole’. 7. In Tendencies, Sedgwick argues that ‘even for someone like E. M. Forster whose national identity was in no sense a colonized one, the erotically expressive anti-imperialism of A Passage to India has as its other face also the anti-imperialistic, highly problematized English nationalism of The Longest Journey, whose shepherd nature-hero refuses an imperialist future in the colonies in favor of the homoerotically anthropomorphic, body-scaled and nationally figured landscape of his native valley’ (1994, p. 149). I mostly agree with Sedgwick’s appreciation of the anti-imperialism of Forster’s gesture through Stephen’s, although equally, I cannot help thinking that the hermetic Englishness of Stephen’s Wiltshire fails to account both for a wider conception of Britishness and, via Said’s reading of Howards End (1994, p. 77), for its own dependence on the Empire for economic sustenance, even if the direct sub- jugation of the colonies is refused by Forster’s character. Although Forster’s sentiments may remain anti-imperialist, there is a strategic evasiveness about economic profit here which will later be communicated to Howards End before the more blatant critique of imperialism in Passage. 8. Indeed, in his study of fantasy in The Longest Journey, James J. Miracky explores the apparent paradox in Forster’s preference for this particular novel amongst all of his published fiction considering that the narrative relies mostly on the sublimation and subtle codification of those homosexual desires it cannot express mimetically. In Miracky’s words, who also Notes 217

quotes Forster: ‘Because he had not personally achieved “that junction of mind with heart where the creative spark speaks,” the novel embodies, in form and matter, the split characteristics and tensions of its creator’s struggles and serves as possibly the best example of the connection between Forster’s use of fantasy and the homosexual spirit behind it’ (2003, p. 42). 9. It is no coincidence that Helen’s frustration with her white environment prompts her to leave the safety of her ‘fenced’ home and venture into the seemingly more worldly realities of the mining town. Here, the black work- ers pose a necessary initial ruse: ‘I looked at these dark brown faces […]; won- dering, receptive, unthinking, taking in with their eyes as earth takes water; close-eyed, sullen with the defensive sullenness of the defenceless; noisy and merry with the glee of the innocent’ (Days, 1994, pp. 23–4). There is in this passage an intimation of the opening of Helen’s mind and also of the insist- ent immaturity of her perception. The black faces are a staunch experiential trigger demanding attention, but Helen’s description remains ambivalent: the blacks are receptive yet thoughtless; their eyes take in reality innocently and naturally, yet they are sullen in their knowledge of their oppression: this seems a projection of Helen’s own lack of understanding of their thoughts and their experiences. 10. Head argues that

just as the interaction of self and other is presented as the basis of cultural identity, so do the personal interactions in the novels reveal broader political lessons. If this is sometimes seen as an extension of Forsterian liberalism – especially in the early novels – it might also, and perhaps more appropriately, be seen as the foundation of a more radical personal micropolitics. (1994, pp. 22–3)

Although Head’s argument about reading the personal relations in Gordimer’s work as being the springboard for political action is persuasive, the inherent dismissal of ‘Forsterian liberalism’ clouds a more nuanced sense of the impact of Forster’s humanist philosophy in Gordimer’s oeuvre. 11. Martland decodes the ‘homosexual’ reference in ‘Cnidus’, a term historically used to describe homosexuals (1999, p. 77), hence revealing Forster’s encod- ing of homosexual references for his discerning readers. 12. Gordimer’s novel is witness to the gradual emergence of native figures in the South African and cosmopolitan cultural scene, albeit often in exile. There is a passage in which obscure black South African writers, dancers and art- ists, such as the fictional Leo Castle, John Frederic, Isa Welsh or Phil Hersh, gain international notoriety in spite of apartheid (Days, 1994, pp. 160–1). Days is in itself an example of the irruption in the scene of literary voices grappling with the inequalities of South African society; such a task would, as Gordimer reminds us later in ‘Censored, Banned, Gagged’, end up in the state’s banning of books by authors such as Peter Abrahams, Harry Bloom, Hans Hofmeyer, Daphne Rooke, Ezekiel Mphalele, and herself because of their critical views on apartheid (Telling Times, 2010, p. 122). 13. Henceforth referred to as Patient. 14. The film version of Ondaatje’s narrative has turned its story into such a global phenomenon that the resulting symbiosis of book and film in the 218 Notes

collective imagination has had to be rebuked by some discerning Ondaatje scholars. To critics such as Thomas Harrison, whose study of the relationship between Ondaatje’s narrative and Herodotus’s Histories purposefully and self- allegedly ‘treat[s] the book a film as a seamless whole’ (1998, p. 48), Gillian Roberts responds that

Ondaatje’s quasi-collaborative role in the making of the film has blurred the distinctions between the novel and the film in the eyes of many critics. […] The result has been the almost complete silence about the sharp- est distinctions between The English Patient and THE ENGLISH PATIENT: namely, the consequences of leaving the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki out of the film’s narrative have largely gone unmentioned and unexamined. (2002, p. 195)

While pointing to the film’s glaring omission of the two atomic bombs, Roberts also draws our attention to the parallelism – in mis-adaptation – of Patient and one of its filmic forefathers, namely David Lean’s A Passage to India, released in 1984. Roberts argues, via Arun Mukherjee’s critique of Lean’s film, that the commentaries of the original texts, to which the impossibility of friendships during colonial rule and under the strain of the Second World War politics are respectively central, are betrayed in their film versions. Indeed, the joyous celebration of the end of the Second World War and the amicable parting of Aziz and the Fieldings never really take place in the original literary narratives. If the films have been made to appeal to their directors’ sensibilities and to their audience’s desire for optimistic closure, it has been done to the detriment of the books’ most prominent socio-political critiques. Hence, not only does Ondaatje inherit from Forster a shared concern over intercultural personal connection and the search for alternative humanist knowledge(s) which can productively debunk European rationalism, but also a similarly skewed journey into the world of film because of their shared and seemingly impalatable pessimism about Western histories of colonialism and warfare. 15. For a more detailed interpretation of corporeality and the sensorium in Patient, see Milena Marinkova’s Michael Ondaatje: Haptic Aesthetics and Micropolitical Writing (2011), in which Marinkova undertakes readings of several of Ondaatje’s poetic and narrative texts through the concept of the ‘haptic’; that is, the sensorial perception and engagement with reality which goes beyond a mere optical witnessing of history. This study persua- sively proposes that Ondaatje’s writing posits intercorporeal perception and interaction as a site of micropolitical action which demystifies aesthetics, removing Ondaatje’s polished experimentalism from the realm of the purely formal, and reinstating it with political agency against the tide of postcolonial criticism castigating it as politically non-committal or as complicit with colonial cultural practices. 16. This point is supported by Madhumalati Adhikari, who argues that the literary historians’ quest for the resurrection of humanity from the ashes of devastation is continued through ingenuous compression and extension of available facts. The focus is shifted from the outcomes of the actual events to the characters and their emotions at the center of those events (2002, p. 47). Notes 219

Whereas it is true that Ondaatje’s characters seem to inhabit a temporal or historical limbo in which they attempt to recover from the traumas of the war, it could also be argued that the quasi-modernistic shift from a public conflict to individual consciousness does not bypass some of the more problematic aspects of the characters’ personal histories, such as Almásy’s espionage for the Germans, Caravaggio’s discriminate thieving, Hana’s apparently humane but strategic nursing of the ‘English patient’ for the sake of Allied interests; even, we could say, Kirpal’s apolitical spiritualism and his obeisance to British interests in Europe at a time when his native country and his own family are knee-deep in the Quit India campaign. Psychological complexity and individual fracture does not seem enough of a reason for such kinds of personal indecision; these are characters in search of a new narrative, a new humanistic scripture which will allow them to redefine their own as well as each other’s humanity. 17. In The Day of the Scorpion, Scott’s narrator recounts Sarah Layton’s visit to Merrick at the war hospital after he has been severely wounded while attempting to save her deceased brother-in-law:

[L]ooking beyond [the other patient] she saw Merrick in the bed by the window – or anyway a figure lying there, propped by pillows. A complex of bandage and gauze around the head, like a white helmet, left only the features and a narrow area of the cheeks exposed. The sheet that covered his body was laid over a semi-circular frame. She could see nothing of him except the small exposed area of the face and the blue-pyjamaed chest and shoulders. His arms were under the arch of the sheet. His head was inclined a little to one side. He was looking at her. (1983, p. 377)

Although the body of the ‘English patient’ is visible, its burnt skin offers a masking layer not dissimilar from the effect of the bandages and sheets on Merrick’s body; the immovability but perturbing alertness of both characters also links them together, as well as the challenge they pose to the novels’ inquisitive ‘readers’, Sarah and Hana. The similarities between Merrick’s and Almásy’s plights further corroborates Ondaatje’s interest in the colonial subject and its motives, although, as we know, Almásy’s identity is probed not just in terms of sexual orientation and class – like Merrick’s is – but also regarding nationality and political allegiance. 18. Ondaatje also deploys the identitarian play and political intrigues of Second World War literary and filmic narratives such as Carol Reed’s The Third Man, a post-war film noir based on a screenplay and a subsequently published film treatment by Graham Greene. The narrative’s combination of equivocal identities, shifting national allegiances, politically as well as architecturally torn landscapes, and dubious moralities, is one which Ondaatje inherits spectrally from a body of popular representations of the war’s aftermath. Paul Bowles’s The Sheltering Sky, with its exploration of a couple’s mental crumbling in the North-African desert, also seems another spectral textual predecessor. 19. Leaving aside the novel’s ambiguities and discontinuities, Almásy could be read as the informant of three different empires: the British Empire whose culture and national attributes he impersonates and fetishizes; Hitler’s 220 Notes

Third Reich, to which Almásy is supposedly providing crucial cartographic information; and, as an alleged member of the Hungarian aristocracy, the debunked Empire of the Habsburgs. In fact, his reclusive obsession with the Libyan desert may be a consequence of his political dispassion or of his lack of consistent commitment to any specific national project following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His nomadic life in the desert turns sour his perception of nation states, which becomes patent when he states: ‘We were German, English, Hungarian, African – all of us insignificant to [the Bedouin]. Gradually we became nationless. I came to hate nations. We are deformed by nation states’ (Patient, 1993, p. 150). 20. Marinkova suggests that Hana and Kip’s relationship ‘is a coming together premised on the affinity of suffering and propinquity in difference rather than on proprietary and identitarian claims’ (2011, p. 114). While it is persuasive to consider that the two characters may be an inverted mirroring of Almásy and Katharine, and that in their refusal to have an affair with each other they may be relinquishing the complex sexual entanglement of the tragic couple, their celibacy seems also to enforce their difference and to be built on an internalized prejudice against intercultural relations. As I will suggest later, their unfulfilled desires result in Hana’s haunting of Kirpal once he is back in India, a belated recognition of a connection which was severed because of colonial sexual and political repression.

4 The Politics of Friendship and Hospitality: Liberalism in Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children and The Moor’s Last Sigh and in Zadie Smith’s On Beauty

1. Smith’s indebtedness to Rushdie, particularly in the connections to Midnight’s Children in White Teeth, has been dispelled by Smith herself, who claims not to have read Rushdie’s work before writing her debut novel (Gerzina and Smith, 2004, p. 273). Whether Smith’s disclaimer is altogether honest or not, the more blatant resemblances between The Moor’s Last Sigh and On Beauty reveal a kinship between literary sensibilities which, despite Rushdie’s more overt postmodernist aesthetic and Smith’s more realist one, prove hospitable to each other. 2. Morey argues apropos Midnight’s Children that ‘to a certain extent, the self-constitution of the text and sometimes of its characters takes place through intertextuality and the “second-hand”’, and that such intertextual connections are evident in Rushdie’s reference to Forster found in ‘Saleem Sinai’s grandfather, the Westernised Dr Aadam Aziz’ (2007, p. 31). Brennan also offers that ‘Rushdie jestingly opens the novel with a character he names “Dr Aziz”, in a reference to the Aziz of E. M. Forster’s A Passage to India’ (1989a, p. 82). Whether seen as an important aspect of Rushdie’s work or as a jest, these references by Morey and Brennan constitute all of their exploration of Rushdie’s relationship with Forster. 3. Goonetilleke claims that in creating Aadam Aziz, ‘Rushdie is […] alluding to the main Indian character in E. M. Forster’s A Passage to India, thereby evok- ing the preceding stock of literature about India and the colonial period it dealt with, filling out an era for which Rushdie himself cannot afford much Notes 221

space in his own text’ (1998, pp. 21–2). In this view, Forster would offer Rushdie a literary entry point to a period he would rather gloss over suc- cinctly because of his lack of ‘connection’ with it. 4. Nehru holds a special position in several areas of Rushdie’s work: in his anthology The Vintage Book of Indian Writing: 1947–1997, Nehru’s famous ‘Tryst with Destiny’ speech, uttered on the eve of Independence, opens the collection with a message of hope and optimism for a free India. It is signifi- cant that this is the only piece of political writing in the whole volume. In addition, Rushdie has written a preface to Tariq Ali’s book The Nehrus and the Gandhis: An Indian Dynasty, later anthologized in Imaginary Homelands, in which he lionizes Nehru by affirming that viewing ‘the dynasty as collective dream – Jawaharlal Nehru represents the dream’s noblest part, its most idealistic phase’ (1985, p. iii). This proves the relative nostalgia with which Rushdie looks back to Nehru’s vision of independent India. 5. There is a revealing gap in the narrative between the Amritsar Massacre of 1919 and the beginning of the ‘Quit India’ campaign of 1942; in a book so concerned with discontinuity and with unreliable accounts of history, this temporal absence would not be so noticeable did it not excise the crucial years of Gandhi’s ‘Civil Disobedience’ campaign. 6. Saleem draws our attention to the potential relatedness of his grandfather’s death with that of the first Prime Minister of India: ‘One last fact: after the death of my grandfather, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru fell ill and never recovered his health. This fatal sickness finally killed him on May 27th, 1964’ (Midnight’s Children, 1982b, p. 278). In contrast with this blatant juxtaposition of the real Nehru and of Rushdie’s fictional Nehruvian character, we have the nebulousness and inaccuracy surrounding Gandhi, and also the erroneous date of his death (p. 166). 7. Nehru himself pointed out in An Autobiography, first published in 1936, that ‘[t]o quote Forster […], every Englishman feels and behaves, and rightly, as if he was a member of an army of occupation, and it is quite impossible for natural and unrestrained relations between the two races to grow under these circumstances’ (2004, p. 31). Nehru appreciates Forster’s investment in the complex and fraught social relations between the British and the Indians during the Raj, whilst acknowledging that ‘[a]s individuals [my father and I] had usually met with courtesy from the Englishman and we got on well with him, though, like all Indians, we were no doubt racially conscious of subjection, and resented it bitterly’ (p. 108). He also believes that ‘[e]ven for Englishmen I was an individual and not merely one of the mass, and, I imagine, the fact that I had received my education in England, and especially my having been to an English public school, brought me nearer to them’ (p. 362). Nehru establishes a distinction between the private and the public, the personal and the political; the colonial domination of the British over the Indians does not prevent him from appreciating the society of some British people, even if he remains aware of the imperial social hierarchies at work. 8. Rushdie’s text allows for the possibility of casual religious apparitions by ordinary characters, and it treats the supernatural as natural, in keeping with the magical realism inherited from writers such as Gabriel García Márquez and Günter Grass, and in spite of his self-confessed agnosticism. Although 222 Notes

Rushdie’s playful and satirical narratives certainly belong in the Erasmist tradition which challenges religious authority, Andrew Teverson dwells on Rushdie’s use of magic realist techniques which defy rationalism and, as I argue by extension, strict secularism, allowing for ‘an inherently radical form of writing, because it develops fictional strategies in which accepted (“realist”) representations of the world are destabilised by their encounter with forms of representation which are less easily contained or controlled within “normative”, “rationalist” discourses’ (2007, p. 16). 9. This is not the only place in Rushdie’s work in which he explores this episode. In a short story published in the collection East, West entitled ‘The Prophet’s Hair’, he constructs Mohammed’s hair as the bane of a Muslim family: the hair acts as a curse, and the household under whose roof the hair is kept is finally destroyed by the fundamentalist religious shadow which it casts over its members (1995a, pp. 35–58). Such bitter representation of the influence of Islamic religious fervour is clearly written after the Satanic Verses affair. 10. Jean M. Kane (1996) discusses the relationship between body and nation in the novel, arguing that the significance of the body, and also of its cracks, as seen in both Aadam Aziz and Saleem, are linked to Hindu Ayurvedic medicine. It is possible, then, to see Rushdie’s use of physical metaphors as another aspect of Midnight’s Children fostering of hybridity in the combination of Aziz’s westernized medicine with Indian vernacular medicine. More recently, Clare Barker offers a compelling reading of the novel in terms of children and disability (2008, pp. 127–57). 11. Henceforth referred to as Moor. 12. A surprised Abraham learns about his ancestor ‘Boabdil’, the Spanish transcription of the better-known Abdallah, the last ‘king’ of Al-Andalus, although, in typical Rushdiean fashion, the truth of this piece of family history is often debated in the novel, and it is later surmised that Boabdil’s crown may well have been stolen. See Rushdie, 1995b, pp. 78–81. The expul- sion in 1492 of the Moors and the Jews from the Iberian peninsula by the leaders of the Reconquista, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, is offered as an episode of Catholic fundamentalism echoed 500 years later, in 1992, by the Hindu fundamentalism in Ayodhya. 13. Because of the novel’s superimposing of historical layers ultimately dating back to medieval Moorish Spain by looking through the lens of Nehruvian secularism, thinkers such as Ruston Bharucha (quoted in Didur, 2004) have regarded Rushdie’s novel as being too steeped in nostalgia; Didur disagrees, and sees the novel’s style and structure as crucial to debunking easy affective positions: ‘Narrated in Rushdie’s characteristic postmodern and magic realist style, Moor unfolds in a fragmented and self-consciously subjective fashion, emphasizing a deconstructive relationship to truth, history, rationality and identity’ (2004, p. 551). 14. Caroline Herbert argues that the onset of rampant communalism coincides with the rise of the Hindu fundamentalist party Shiv Sena, and uses Derrida’s notion of Marx’s spectre to chart how Bombay novels ‘resurrect stories of the city silenced by the corporate and the communal, bearing witness to the materiality of everyday urban life and mourning the death of “Bombay” and the birth of “Mumbai”’ (2012, p. 8). Herbert’s essay is compelling in its acknowledgement of minority figures caught up between modern Notes 223

Indian capitalism and the Hindu Right in a city gradually but ultimately ‘decosmopolized’. 15. This hushed private attraction is echoed by the also discussed affinities between the historical figures of Edwina Mountbatten, the wife of the last Indian Viceroy and Nehru, the first Indian Prime Minister, adding a further overlapping layer to the relationship between private and public discourses (The Moor’s Last Sigh, 1995b, pp. 175–6). 16. In investigating the ethical dimensions of aesthetic appreciation, Smith makes reference to its main non-fictional intertext, namely Elaine Scarry’s On Beauty and Being Just. For a more detailed examination of the relationship between both texts, see Fiona Tolan (2006). 17. See Graham Huggan (2001) for an influential commentary on the consump- tion of postcolonial cultural phenomena for the sake of Western middle- class aesthetic pleasure. 18. Both Carey and Rose remain critical of Forster’s representation of Leonard Bast, and they deem it to be more of an exercise of the imagination than of true empirical knowledge, which is true at least some of the time when Forster was writing the novel, hence the character’s lack of verisimilitude. 19. In his study of globalization, Appadurai (1996) defines the different dimensions of global culture as ‘scapes’. These comprise ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, finanscapes and ideoscapes, and, he argues, they stand for ‘deeply perspectival constructs, inflected very much by the historical, lin- guistic, and political situatedness of different sorts of actors: nation-states, multinationals, diasporic communities, as well as sub-national groupings and movements (whether religious, political or economic), and even intimate face-to-face groups, such as villages, neighborhoods and families’ (p. 33). 20. As an example of a prominent US newspaper’s bias against Aristide, Washington Times columnist Paul Greenberg opens his commentary on the Haitian president’s second ousting in 2004 with the following sentences: ‘Nothing became Jean-Bertrand Aristide in office like his leaving it – and so not inviting still more bloodshed. The country’s president and demagogue- in-chief decamped in the style of other Haitian dictators over the years. How many other presidents of Haiti have been forced out over its troubled history – 10, 20, 30? We lose count […]. Also, do you count Jean-Bertrand Aristide twice, since this is the second time he has fled into exile?’ (2004, n.p.). To Greenberg’s polemical depiction of Aristide, we can add his further denouncement of the apparently typical anti-Americanist ‘conspiracy theories’ that will surely follow Aristide’s ousting.

Conclusion: Towards a Cosmopolitan Humanism

1. For a measured and thought-provoking response to this and other ideas in Chibber’s polemical book, see Chris Taylor’s blog review (2013). In it, Taylor formulates some reasonable criticisms of Chibber’s project, particularly of: its opportunistic debunking of the materialism of the Subaltern Studies group, for which it does not offer any productive alternatives; its definition of Marxism as the ‘child’ of Enlightenment; and, perhaps most importantly, its criticism of all postcolonial theory as being inherently anti-Marxist. Bibliography

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A Guest of Honour (Gordimer) 117 symbolism 81, 208n8 A Passage to India (film) 33 tripartite structure 216n5 A Passage to India (Forster) 2, 21, 36, A Room with a View (Forster) 51, 117 50–1, 70, 72 ending 22 Adela Quested 37, 38–9, 41, 46, 49, homosexuality in 55 54, 60–1, 68, 81, 83, 140–1, 163 humanism 131 Aziz 140–1, 163–6, 173, 197; Aziz’s Lucy Honeychurch 54–5, 56, 68 trial 15, 141, 163, 207–8n5 A Theory of Parody: The Teachings Aziz and Fielding 163–6 of Twentieth-Century Art Forms bourgeois self-interest 156 (Hutcheon) 7–8 central relationship 48 A World of Strangers (Gordimer) 117 the Club 14–15, 15 Adhikari, Madhumalati 218–19n16 confronting the Other 163–6 Adorno, Theodor 205 critiques of Empire 14–16, 216n7 Africa 17 ending 165–6 Ahluwalia, Paul 152–3 episodes of departure 85–6 Ahmad, Aijaz 6, 18, 100–1 exploration of Otherness 142 Allen, Graham 19 friendship in 163–6 Amritsar Massacre, the 13, 35, 38, historical context 152 77, 166 homosexuality in 46 Anil’s Ghost (Ondaatje) 133 humanism in 131, 140–3 Anjaria, Ulka 178–9 intercultural connections 143 anti-colonial movements, dialogue interpersonal relations in 140–3 between 73 irony 76–7 anti-imperialism 5 and liberalism 12 Anxiety of Influence, The (Bloom) 10 the Marabar Caves 17–18, 38–9, apartheid 113, 114–15 138, 140–3, 208n8, 210n10, Appadurai, Arjun 190, 223n19 210n11 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand 190–2, Mrs Moore’s metaphysical 223n20 breakdown 141–3 Armstrong, Paul B. 1–2, 11 narrative voice 79–80 art, approaches to 195–6 ontological defeat 85–7 Ashcroft, Bill 152–3 opening 78–80, 109–10 Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and pessimistic denouement 151 Helen Tiffin: The Empire Writes protagonist 13 Back: Theory and Practice in pukka-sahib attitudes 14–15 Post-Colonial Literatures 5, 10, religious symbolism 32 110, 116 role of women 54, 68 Attenborough, Richard 33 and sati 12 Austen, Jane 91–2 sexual relations in 140–3, 148 author, the: and The Siege of Krishnapur disempowerment of 9–10 78–80 legacy 20 status 77 Ayodhya crisis, the 170

239 240 Index

Ballard, J. G. 211n12 Christianity 44, 141, 143 Ballistic Bard: Postcolonial Fictions, citizenship 205 The (Newman) 8–9 Civil Rights movement 181 Banerjee, Jacqueline 34 class relations 5, 156, 180–1, 180–96, Banerjee, Mita 150 192 Banerjee, Mukulika 47 Clear Light of Day (Desai) 8, 18, 70, Barthes, Roland 9–10, 10, 20, 207n2 71–2, 90–109 Bayly, C. A. 211–12n21 allegorical readings 97–101, 108 Bennett, Arnold 16 Baba 93, 94, 104–5 Bennett, Robert 162 Bim 93–4, 95, 97, 99, 103, 104–5, Bergonzi, Bernard 74 105–8 Best of the Booker, 2008 72, 161 and cultural identity 71 Between Men: English Literature and domestic spaces 99–100, 111 Homosocial Desire (Sedgwick) 31 ending 108–9 Bhabha, H. K. 90, 142 family dysfunction 94–7, 98–9, Bhan, Pankaj 60 105–9 Bharucha, Ruston 222n13 family reconciliation 107–8 Binns, Ronald 74, 80, 213n4 Forster’s legacy 20, 90–1, 96, 108 J. G. Farrell 72–3 and Howards End 90–1, 92, 94–7, Birds of Paradise, The (Scott) 35 97–8, 101–3, 105, 106–7, 109, black characters 23, 180 110–11, 214–15n10 Black Consciousness movement 181 Hyder Ali 95, 102, 104–5 Bloom, Harold 10, 207n2 inter-faith dynamic 93–4, 95–7, body, the: 98–9, 105–9 mapping 145 modernism 104 and the nation 222n10 narrative 93–4; narrative gaze 101 as a strange land 139–40 and national allegory 100–1 Boehmer, Elleke 45–6, 73 non-chronological structure 94 Booker, M. K. 210n9 and Partition 95, 97, 99, 100, 105 Borges, Jorge Luis 23 portrayal of India 93 Born, Daniel 194 Raja 93, 94, 95–7, 98–9, 105–8 Bradbury, Malcolm 12 representation of marginal Brahman (god) 143 masculinity 96 Brander, Laurence 211n16 and the State of Emergency 106 Brennan, Timothy 160, 220n1 structure 215n12 British normativity 3 style 93 Britishness 26, 179 symbolic depiction of houses brotherhood 121 101–8, 105–8 Burningham, Bruce R. 171 symbolism 100 Tara 93, 103–4, 106–7 Campbell, Elizabeth 53–4 vocabulary 91–2 Cannadine, David 63, 212n22 Clingman, Stephen 117, 216n4 Carey, John 184 Club, the 14–15, 15, 98 Cat’s Table, The (Ondaatje) 133 Cnidus Demeter 125 Chandrapore 78–9, 80 cohabitation, rule of 206 Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 13, 166 collective memory 97 Chew, Shirley 56 colonial discourse analysis 3, 7, 199 Chibber, Vivek 202–3 colonial identity 23 Childs, Peter 17, 37 colonial representation 69 Index 241 colonial taboos 33 Forster’s legacy 111 colonial trauma 40–1, 43, 68, influences 91–2 208–9n1 literary projects 26–7 colonial violence 30, 83–4 modernism 94, 109, 110–11 Coming Through Slaughter modernist aesthetics 103 (Ondaatje) 133 and the Partition of India 20 Commonwealth Literature 203 portrayal of India 93, 110–11 communalism 109, 162–3, 169, vision 92 172–4, 222–3n14 vocabulary 91–2 Connor, Steven 213–14n5 see also Clear Light of Day Conrad, Joseph 81 Dhawan, R. K. 214n9 cosmopolitan humanism 204–6 Didur, Jill 177 cosmopolitanism 53, 199, 204–6 difference 10 Costa, Magda 91 respect for 181 Crane, Ralph J. 53 disenchantment 114–32 Crews, Frederick C. 12 dislocation 52 Cronin, Richard 49, 60, 63 Divisadero (Ondaatje) 133 Culler, Jonathan 10, 207n2 domestic spaces 99–100 cultural dislocation 14, 126–7 Drabble, Margaret 76 cultural exclusivism 113, 147–51 Dufourmantelle, Anne 164 cultural identity 71, 108 cultural inheritance 196–7 eco-criticism 199 cultural legacies 200 Edemariam, Aida 183 cultural location 80 Empire Writes Back: Theory and cultural particularism 150 Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures, cultural segregation 127, 153 The (Ashcroft, Griffiths and cultural superiority 85 Tiffin) 5, 10, 110, 116 cultural universalism 204 ‘The Empire Writes Back with a culture, bleaching of 113 Vengeance’ (Rushdie) 4–5 empowerment 154 Darling, Malcolm 52 English Patient, The (Ondaatje) 8, 13, Das, G. K. 208n8 132–52, 151, 204, 211n12 Dauner, Louise 81 Almásy 136, 137–40, 143–7, David, H. 64, 65–6 219–20n19, 219n16, 219n17; de Bolla, Peter 207n2 Almásy’s relationship with decentred humanism 200–2 Clifton 139–40, 144–6, 220n20 decolonization 25 Caravaggio 136, 147, 149–50, Dellamora, Richard 2–3, 11 219n16 Derrida, Jacques 5, 88, 103, 118, 157, cartographic technique 137–40 164, 169, 173, 176, 185–6, 206 the Cave of Swimmers 138–9, The Politics of Friendship 155, 143–7 174–5 characters 133, 136, 219n16 Specters of Marx 19–21 colonial crisis 138–9, 143–7 Desai, Anita 161 the desert in 138–9 background 92 ending 151–2 Booker Prize nominations 92 film adaptation 133, 217–18n14 criticism of 214n9 Forster’s legacy 135–6, 149–50 cultural heritage 92–3 Hana 136, 147–9, 151–2, 219n16, debt to Forster 91 220n20 242 Index

English Patient, The (Ondaatje) – Forster, E. M. 211n16 continued (un)popularity 4 humanism in 113, 132, 134–40, Armstrong on 1–2 136–7, 138, 140, 147, 151–2 and Austen 91–2 inheritance 135 belief that Britain is right 12 interpersonal relations in 132–52 and British normativity 3 interracial sexual relations in 148 challenge to imperial ideologies 6 Katharine Clifton 137, 139–40, childhood 12 144–6, 220n20 comparison with Scott 37–8 Kip’s anti-colonial critical perspectives on 1–24 awakening 149–51 critique of British rule in India 5, Kirpal (‘Kip’) Singh 136, 147–51, 207–8n5, 216n7 220n20 critiques of Empire 14–16 orality/aurality 145–6 death 31 personal relations in 112–13 double career 2–3 postmodern aesthetic 154 and the Enlightenment 200 racial exclusivism 147–51 Gordimer on 112 sexual relations in 139–40, 148 homosexuality 2–3, 3, 21–4, 31, and World War II 136, 149 31–2, 46, 48–9, 50, 68–9, 161, Englishness 137 208n9 Enlightenment, the, Forster and 200 humanism 3, 13, 114, 131–2, equality 132 153–4, 203–4, 206 Ezekiel, Nissin 211n19 and imperial relations 13–14 and imperialism 2 familial history 171 and intercultural relations 46–7 family dysfunction 94–7, 98–9, 105 internal harmony 18 Fanon, Frantz 201 irony 14–16, 74, 78–9 Far Pavilions, The (film) 33 ‘Kanaya’ 48–9, 51, 62 Farrell, J. G. 16 legacies 18–21, 23–4, 30, 32, background 73 34–5, 41, 68, 71, 204, 206; in Britishness 26 Clear Light of Day 20, 90–1, 96, commentaries on 212–13n2 108, 214–5n10; in Desai 111; comparison with Scott 29–30 in Farrell 73–4, 111; in death 72 Gordimer 112, 116–18; in Forster’s legacy 73–4, 111 Heat and Dust 50–1, 64–5, 69; The Hill Station 214n6 in Jhabvala 69; in Midnight’s modernism 109–10 Children 160, 163–6, 169, postmodernism 74–5, 89–90 220–1n3; in On Beauty 20, and the Raj 29–30 156–7, 181; in Rushdie 156, status 72–3 159–61, 177–8, 197, 220n2; in symbolism 111 Scott 36, 69; in Smith 178–9; Troubles 72 in The English Patient 135–6, see also Siege of Krishnapur 149–50; in The Moor’s Last Sigh female colonial trauma 40 174; in The Raj Quartet 69; in feminism 199 The Siege of Krishnapur 72–4, First World War 5 76–7, 78–80 Fischer, Susan Alice 180, 194 liberal humanism 2 Ford, Ford Madox 17 liberalism 3, 11–16, 59, 66, 117, foreigners, understanding 185–6 157–8 Index 243

Marianne Thornton, 1797–1887 disenchantment with liberalism 215n15 130–1 middling line 2, 16, 178, 190 early novels 116, 117 modernism 2, 3, 16–18, 90, 91, on Forster 112 109–11 Forster’s legacy 112, 116–18 narratorial philosophizing 102–3 A Guest of Honour 117 pessimistic realism 184 humanism 153–4 relevance 198 Nobel Prize for Literature 114 representation: of bourgeois ‘Notes from an Expropriator’ 112, 116 self-interest 156; of British political consciousness 129 women 34–5; of India style 117 13–16, 17–18; of marginal university career 123 masculinity 96 A World of Strangers 117 and the role of women 68 see also Lying Days, The screen adaptations 24 Greacen, Lavinia 74 self-censorship 60, 63 Great Britain: sexual experiences 48–9 modernism 90 Smith on 1–2 moral superiority 41 and socialism 3 postcolonial introspection 27 symbolism 91 Grimus (Rushdie) 158 use of tripartite structure 216n5 Gurnah, Abdulrazak 158 see also individual works friendship 163–6, 193–4, 197 Haarhoff, Dorian 117 across societal barriers 178–96 Hai, Ambreen 16 forfeiture of 169–78 Haiti 188–92, 196, 223n20 politics of 156–8, 167–8, 198 Hallward, Peter 17, 191–2 Harrison, Thomas 218n14 Gaite, Carmen Martín 23 Hartveit, L. 75 Galsworthy, John 16 Hashmi, Alamgir 215n12 Gandhi (film) 33 Head, Dominic 116, 129, 217n9 Gandhi, Indira 67, 71, 106 Heart of Darkness (Conrad) 81 Gandhi, Mahatma 34, 162 Heat and Dust (Jhabvala) 8, 50–67, Genette, Gérard, Palimpsests: 67–8, 212n24, 212n25 Literature in the Second Degree and Clear Light of Day 105 19, 174 and colonial sexuality 23 Gervais, David 126 Forster’s legacy 50–1, 64–5, 69 ghosts 19–20 Harry 51–2, 56, 57, 62–6, 69 Gikandi, Simon 17, 90, 138 homoeroticism 64–5 Gilroy, Paul 186–7, 190, 204 homosexuality in 51–2, 56–7, globalization 205, 223n19 62–6, 66, 68–9, 212n23 globalization studies 199 imperial nostalgia 30–1 Gooneratne, Yasmine 53 Indian characters 58–9 Goonetilleke, D. C. R. A. 160, 172, intercultural relations 58–66, 65 209n7, 220–1n3 interracial sexual relations 56–7, Gordimer, Nadine 215n1 60–1 and apartheid 114–15 lack of vision 67 appropriation of English liberalism 59–60 literature 116 narrative 53–4 background 115 narrator 53, 64, 66–7 244 Index

Heat and Dust (Jhabvala) – continued denouement 194 the Nawab of Khatm 51–2, 53, ending 22 56–7, 58–62, 63–6, 69 family dysfunction 94–7 Olivia Rivers 55–7, 58–62, 64, humanism 131 66–7 Leonard Bast 180–1, 183, 184, political metaphor 55–6 189, 192, 194, 196, 223n18 role of women 54–7, 68 publication 21 story of Amanullah Khan 60 representation of Britain 90–1 Herbert, Caroline 222–3n14 symbolic depiction of Herodotus, Histories 137–8, 218n14 houses 101–3 high culture 181 and the working class 189 Hill of Devi, The (Forster) 48–9, 51, H-Shihan, I. 67 61, 62–3 Hubel, Teresa 12 background 52 human bonding 114, 116 chronological scope 52 humanism 3, 13, 113–14, 131–2, the Maharajah of Dewas 203–4 Senior 57–8, 69 cosmopolitan 204–6 Hill Station, The (Farrell) 73, 214n6 decentred 200–2 Hillger, Annick 145 decolonizing 152–4 Hiroshima 45 definition 123–4, 136 Histories (Herodotus) 137–8, 218n14 in The English Patient 113, 132, Holocaust, the 136 134–5, 136–7, 138, 140, 147, homosexuality 2–3, 3, 21–4, 31, 151–2 31–2, 48–9, 68–9, 161, 208n9, intercontinental model 151 217n10 in The Longest Journey 123–6 European 65–6 in The Lying Days 113–14, 115, in Heat and Dust 51–2, 56–7, 62–6, 126–32 66, 68–9, 212n23 non-Eurocentric forms of 138 Indian stratagems against 48–9 in A Passage to India 140–3 in The Longest Journey 120 planetary 204 in A Passage to India 46 renewal of 146 in The Raj Quartet 32, 34–5, 38, and social inclusivity 114 42, 45–50, 50, 68 Western 140 in A Room with a View 55 Humanism and Democratic Criticism self-censorship 60, 63 (Said) 113 hospitality 164, 170, 174, 177–8, Hutcheon, Linda 7–8, 51 183, 193–4 cross-class 185–7, 198 identity 219n18 lack of 167, 186, 197 cultural 71, 108 houses, symbolic depiction of 101– fragmentation 159 8, 215n15 national 205 Howards End (Forster) 5, 17, 66, 70, racial 180–96, 187 72, 157, 214n8, 216n7 Rushdie and 27 and On Beauty 179–80, 180–1, ideological prescription, rejection 189, 192–3, 193, 195–6, 197–8 of 198 class relations 156, 180–1, 192 imperial centre, the, antagonism and Clear Light of Day 90–1, 92, to 5 94–7, 97–8, 101–3, 106–7, 109, imperial complacency 54 110–11, 214–15n10 imperial nostalgia 30–1, 70 Index 245 imperial relations 13–14 in A Passage to India 140–3 imperialism 2 interpersonal transcendence 155 rejection of 88 interracial sexual relations 47, 48–9, Scott and 29 56–7, 60–1, 62–6, 148 In the Skin of a Lion (Ondaatje) 133 intertextuality 8–11, 207n2 India: Irish War of Independence 72, 73 the Ayodhya crisis 170 irony 14–16 challenges to British senses 76 Islam 158–9, 176 communalism 162–3, 169 Italy 54–5 democracy in 215n13 Ivory, James 24 Desai’s portrayal 93, 110–11 the Emergency 51, 67, 71, 106, Jain, Jasbir 97 161–2, 215n13 Jainism 143 Forster’s critique of British Jameson, Fredric 18, 72, 100–1, 122, rule 207–8n5 179 Forster’s representation 13–16, JanMohamed, Abdul R. 120, 128, 17–18 129–30 Hindu majoritarianism 168, Jeffries, Stuart 161 171–2, 173 Jewel in the Crown, The (TV Hindu–Muslim tensions 93–4, series) 30–1, 33 95–7, 97, 98–9, 105–9, 168 Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer 26 Independence 71, 95 background 27, 53, 211n17 multicultural social reality 170 and colonial sexuality 23 national allegories 100–1 Forster’s legacy 69 Partition 20, 35, 71, 93, 95, 97, literary career 53, 211n18 99, 100, 105, 161, 168 postcolonial perspective 51 princes 63, 211–12n21 representation of India 211n19 re-imaginings of 72 screen adaptations 24 rise of the Congress Party 60 see also Heat and Dust road to peace 109 Joseph Anton (Rushdie) 158, 160–1 Rushdie’s portrayal of 161–9 Joyce, James 2, 16–17 Scott’s visits to 35 see also individual works ‘Kanaya’ (Forster) 48–9, 51, 62 ‘India: A Post-Forsterian View’ Kane, Jean M. 222n10 (Scott) 38 Kermode, Frank 54, 179, 197 Indian Mutiny, see Sepoy War, 1857 Kim (Kipling) 136 Indian nationalism 165, 168 Kipling, Rudyard 17, 136 Indian self-expression 69 Kristeva, Julia 9, 10, 20 Indo-British relations 13 influence, models of 10–11, 207n2 landscape 78–80, 86–7 intent 11 Lane, Christopher 22, 23 intercultural connection 143 language 185–6, 195 intercultural relations 46–7, 58–66 Lawrence, D. H. 91 internal harmony 18 Lawrence, T. E. 137, 138 internalized imperialism 72 Lawson, Alan 10 interpersonal connection 126, Lazarus, Neil 201–2, 203 180–96 Lean, David 33, 138 interpersonal relations 164 Leavis, F. R. 113 in The English Patient 132–52 Levenson, Michael 16–17 246 Index

Lewis, Barry 80 Mary Seswayo 128–9 Lewis, Wyndham 17 the mine 122–3, 128 liberal humanism 2 narrative structure 118–20 liberalism 3, 11–16, 66, 117, 157–8, opening 122–3 190 personal relations in 113 definition 12 personal tensions 119–21 Gordimer’s disenchantment and racial segregation 127–9 with 130–1 the sea 122–3 Heat and Dust 59–60 social awakening 130 The Raj Quartet 42 symbolism 119 Life to Come, The (Forster) 21 the university 123, 127–9 Lobnik, Mirja 145–6 Lyotard, Jean-François 18, 75, 77, Lodge, David 21–2 84, 85, 110 Longest Journey, The (Forster) 115, lyrical realism 118–19 216–17n8 and class positioning 126 McCabe, Colin 184 failure 128–9, 132 McEwan, Neil 213n4 homosexuality in 120 McHale, Brian 77, 213–14n5 humanism in 123–6 McLeod, John 25, 26, 73, 89, 206, the journey 119 213n4 the Madingley dell 124 McNeillie, Andrew 121 narrative 124–6; narrative magical realism 221–2n8 structure 119 Mahood, M. M. 32 opening 121–2 male class privilege 45–6 Rickie Elliott 119–20, 121–2, Mandela, Nelson 114 124–6, 129, 130 manifest legacy 6 social awakening 130 marginal masculinity 96 Stephen Wonham 125, 126, 130 Marianne Thornton, 1797–1887 the university 123, 124–5 (Forster) 215n15 Loomba, Ania 100–1 Marinkova, Milena 138, 218n15, López, Alfred J. 201 220n20 Lucknow, siege of 75 Martin, Robert K. 119, 125, 216n5 Lying Days, The (Gordimer) 8, 13, Martland, Arthur 21, 22, 55, 120, 114–32 217n10 central concern 121 Marxism 87, 88, 89, 110, 111, 199, cultural dislocation 126–7 202–3, 214n6 and cultural exclusion 113 Maurice (Forster) 2–3, 21–2, 31 and disenchantment 114–32 May, Brian 12 engagement with otherness 127–9; mediascapes 190–1 with political events 128–9 memory 97, 145–6 failure 128–9 Mendoza, Eduardo 23 gradual radicalization 131 Merchant, Ismail 24 Helen Shaw 115, 119, 120, Meyers, Jeffrey 22 122–3, 126–30; Helen’s refusal to Midnight’s Children (Rushdie) 5, 8, abandon South Africa 129–30 72, 155, 161–9 and humanism 113–14 Aadam Aziz 156, 162–3, 166–9, humanism in 115, 126–32 172, 220–1n3 the journey 119, 132 the Amritsar Massacre 166 lyrical realism 118–19 confronting the Other 166–9 Index 247

and cultural inheritance 196–7 secularism 171, 172–3, 175 ending 176–7 theme 158–9, 161 Forster’s legacies 160, 163–6, 169, Morey, Peter 33–4, 69, 160, 220n1 220–1n3 Mountbatten, Edwina 223n15 geographical trope 167 mourning 175 highlighting of divergence 167–8 Mufti, Aamir 159 ideological standpoint 162–3 Mukherjee, Arun 7, 8, 13, 52 lack of closure 197–8 multiculturalism 170 magical realism 221–2n8 Munro, Martin 188 narrative gap 221n5 Muslim-Hindu relations 93–4, 95–7, narrative voice 134 98–9, 105–9 as national allegory 162 optimism 168–9 Narayan, R. K. 161 physical metaphors 222n10 national allegory 18, 72, 100–1, 131, portrayal of India 161–9 162 publication 158 national identity 205 the religious visitation 169 national projects, lack of Saleem Sinai 176–7 closure 197–8 scope 161–2 national unity, family dysfunction as Tai 166–8 metaphor for 105–9 theme 158, 161 nationalism 165, 168 migration 53, 133 nationality 80 Miracky, James J. 216–17n8 native insurrection, fear of 13 Mo, Timothy 73 Nehru, Jawaharlal 34, 162–3, 221n4, modernism 2, 3, 16–18, 70, 71, 221n6, 221n7 71–2, 77–8, 80, 84, 90, 91, 94, Newman, Judie 8–9, 57, 215n1 104, 109–11, 197 Nicholls, Brendon 114–15, 131 Moffat, Wendy 208n9, 216n6 nomad memory 145–6 Mohan, Rajeswari 96, 97, 103 ‘Notes from an Expropriator’ Moore, G. E. 121 (Gordimer) 112, 116 Moore-Gilbert, Bart 25 Moor’s Last Sigh, The (Rushdie) 5, 8, On Beauty (Smith) 5, 8, 155, 155, 169–78, 222n12 178–96 communalism 172–4 agenda 178–9 and cultural inheritance 196–7 approaches to art 195–6 cultural references 172 Author’s Note 182 and Enlightenment rationality 177 black characters 180 and familial history 171 Carl Thomas 180–5, 197 Forster’s legacy 174 class relations 180–96 and friendship 169–78 critique of Aristide 190–2 Hindu majoritarianism 171–2, 173 and cultural inheritance 196–7 ideological standpoint 163 ending 195–6 lack of closure 197–8 Forster’s legacy 20, 156–7, 181 Moraes Zogoiby 169–70, 171–2, and friendship 178–96 173–8 Haitian characters 185–6, 188–95, murder of Fielding 173 196 nostalgia 222n13 and high culture 181 palimpsest 170, 172–4, 174, 175 and hospitality 183, 185–7, 193–4, Raman Fielding 156, 171–5 198 248 Index

On Beauty (Smith) – continued parody 7–8, 51 and Howards End 179–80, 180–1, Parry, Benita 3, 33, 41, 210n10 189, 192–3, 193, 195–6, 197–8 past, the 19–20 identitarian categories 180 Pathans 47 ideological inconsistency 191, 197 personal connections 155 and interpersonal personal memory 97 connection 180–96 personal relations 5, 13, 68, 112 Kiki Belsey 187–8, 192–5 in The English Patient 112–13 Levi Belesy 188–91, 193 in The Lying Days 113 liberalism 190 Phillips, Caryl 73 mediascapes 190–1 planetary humanism 204 mixed-race subject 188–91 pluralism 198 and Otherness 182–4 Politics of Friendship, The Preface 178 (Derrida) 155, 174–5 and racial identities 180–96 Pondicherry 58 Rubens painting 182 postcolonial: definition 24–6 setting 179–80 understanding 26–8 sociological interests 181 Postcolonial Con-Texts: Writing Back to theft of Hyppolite painting 193–4 the Canon (Thieme) 11 Zora 182–5 postcolonial introspection 27 Ondaatje, Michael: postcolonial mono-discursiveness Anil’s Ghost 133 7, 8 background 133 postcolonial peoples, definition 25 The Cat’s Table 133 postcolonial studies 3, 16, 199–200 Coming Through Slaughter 133 postcolonial subjects 201–2 Divisadero 133 postcolonial writing 4–7, 200, 203–4 humanism 134–5, 153–4 postcolonialism 199, 206 influences 134 postmodernism 8, 18, 70, 71, 74–5, Running in the Family 133 77, 84, 89, 89–90, 110, 154 In the Skin of a Lion 133 Prakash, Gyan 209n4 see also English Patient, The progress 87 Orientalism 212n22 Prusse, M. C. 89 Orientalism (Said) 6 pukka-sahib attitudes 14–15 Ornamentalism 63 Orr, Mary 9 Quayson, Ato 25–6, 27, 206 Other, the 114, 115, 130, 132, queer reading 31 151–2, 154, 204 queer studies 2–3 confronting 163–9 connecting with 155 racial exclusivism 63, 147–51 relationship with 170–8 racial identities 180–96, 187 suspicion of 155–6 racial segregation 153 Otherness 131, 138, 142, 146, 148, racism 15 155 Raj, the: civilizing purpose of 75 perceptions of 182–4 deconstruction 82–3 welcoming of 157 fall of 34 Farrell and 29–30 Palimpsests: Literature in the Second spiritual crisis of 41–3 Degree (Genette) 19, 174 Raj Quartet, The (Scott) 8, 32–50, Pan-Africanism 187 67–8 Index 249

afterthought 35 Ramayana, the 174 Barbie Batchelor 41, 43–5, 47, Randeria, Jer D. 43 210n11 reading practices 11 British characters 36 religious symbolism 32, 42–5 character names 37 resistance, metropolitan sites of 6 and colonial sexuality 23 respect 181 and colonial taboos 33 revisionist writing 73 and colonial trauma 40–1, 43, 68 Rhys, Jean, The Wide Sargasso critiques of 32–4 Sea 8–9 Daphne Manners 37, 41 Richards, I. A. 113 The Day of the Scorpion 35, 36, Roberts, Gillian 218n14 219n17 Robinson, Andrew 93 A Division of the Spoils 35, 36, 47, roots, and routes 200 48 Rorty, Richard 12 Edwina Crane 34, 36, 41–3, 44–5, Rose, Jonathan 184 47 routes, and roots 200 Forster’s legacy 69 Rubin, David 37 Hari Kumar 36, 40, 46, 47 Running in the Family (Ondaatje) 133 historical span 35 Rushdie, Salman 16, 73 homosexuality in 32, 34–5, 38, 42, background 158 45–50, 50, 68 characters 156 Indian characters 34, 36 critique of Scott 32–3, 36 inspiration 35 cultural references 159–60, 172 The Jewel in the Crown 35, 37, education 34 38–40, 42, 46 fatwa 169 liberalism 42 Forster’s legacies 156, 159–61, literary references 209n7 177–8, 197, 220n2 marginal voices 41 Grimus 158 Merrick’s death 47, 50 and identity 27 Mildred Layton 210n11 and Islam 158–9 the rape of Daphne Manners 36–7, Joseph Anton 158 38–40, 46, 148 liberalism 13 religious symbolism 32, 42–5 literary projects 26–7 repetitions 41, 210n9 magical realism 221–2n8 representation of British The Moor’s Last Sigh 5, 8, 155, women 34–5 169–78, 222n12 role of women 54 and the Other 155, 156 Ronald Merrick 34–5, 36–7, 39, ‘Outside the Whale’ 33 45–50, 50, 68, 211n13 The Satanic Verses 158 Rushdie’s critique 32–3 Smith and 220n1 sexual relations in 37–8, 148 ‘The Empire Writes Back with a sexual violence 49–50 Vengeance’ 4–5 thematic core 35–6 ‘The Prophet’s Hair’ 222n9 time span 41 see also Midnight’s Children The Towers of Silence 35, 36, 41, 43–5 Said, Edward 6, 12, 13, 113, 122, TV adaptation 30–1, 33 123–4, 129, 136, 146, 152–3, 160, viewpoints 33–4 165, 201, 205, 216n7 Rajan, Tilottama 10 Salgado, Minoli 170 250 Index

Satanic Verses, The (Rushdie) 158 Sharma, K. 103 sati 12, 42–3, 212n25 Sharma, R. S. 91 satyagraha 162 Sharpe, Jenny 209n8 Schultheis, Alexandra W. 172, 175 Sherwood, Marcela, rape of 13, 38, Schwarz, B. 45 39, 41 Scott, Paul: Siege of Krishnapur, The (Farrell) 8, The Birds of Paradise 35 18, 70–90 Britishness 26 Afterword 75 and colonial sexuality 23 ambition 71 and colonial violence 30 background 72–4 comparison with Farrell 29–30; characters 213n3 with Forster 37–8; with the Collector 75, 77, 81–5, 88–9, Jhabvala 31 110; the Collector’s return to early novels 35 Britain 86–8 Forster’s legacy 36, 69 and colonial violence 83–4 Forster’s representation 34–5 criticism of 76, 213n4 imperial nostalgia 30–1, 70 deconstruction of the Raj 82–3 and imperialism 29 depiction of colonial India 70–1 ‘India: A Post-Forsterian View’ 38 ending 88–9 and intercultural relations 46–7 episodes of departure 85–7 religious symbolism 42–5 Forster’s legacy 72–4, 76–7, 78–80 representation of British historical detail 75 women 34–5, 38–45, 46 ideological stance 77–8 Ronald Merrick 137 irony 75, 80 Rushdie’s critique 32–3, 36 literary approach 75–6 sexuality 211n13 Marxist metanarrative 89, 214n6 symbolism 32 modernism 77–8, 80 visits to India 35 narrative voice 79–80 secularism 162–6, 171, 172–3, 175, ontological defeat 85–7 177 opening 78–80, 109–10 see also Raj Quartet and A Passage to India 78–80 Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky 120, 150, postmodernism 84–5, 89–90 216n7 symbolism 81–3 Between Men: English Literature and treatment of Indians 76 Homosocial Desire 31 and Victorian ideals 85 self, the 115, 118, 123, 125, 128, 152 Singapore Grip, The (Farrell) 72 construction of 171 Singh, Nagendra Kumar 58 relationship with the other 170–8 Singh, Rishi Pal 66–7 self-knowledge 126 Slemon, Stephen 8 Sepoy War, 1857 35, 47, 70–1, 75, Smith, Zadie 1–2, 3, 11, 16, 118–19 76, 82, 84, 88, 209n4 Forster’s legacy 178–9 sexual relations 23 liberalism 13 in The English Patient 139–40, 148 and the Other 155–6 interracial 47, 48–9, 56–7, 60–1, and Rushdie 220n1 62–6, 148 see also On Beauty in A Passage to India 140–3, 148 social harmony 109 in The Raj Quartet 37–8, 148 social inclusivity 114 sexual violence 49–50 social injustice 114 Shahane, V. A. 52 social stratification 89 Index 251 socialism 3, 117, 203 transposition 10 socialist particularism 204 transtextuality 19 socialist universalism 202–3 Trilling, Lionel 12, 21 Solecki, Sam 134, 146–7 Trivedi, Harish 10 South Africa 113, 154, 217n12 Troubles (Farrell) 72, 73 apartheid 114–15 Tukoji Rao III, Maharajah of Dewas cultural dislocation 126–7 Senior 52, 57–8, 62–3, 69 cultural segregation 127 importance of English United States of America: literature 116 Black Consciousness Indian indentured labourers 130 movement 181 mines 122–3 black culture 186–7 portrayal in The Lying Days Civil Rights movement 181 114–32 cross-class hospitality 186–7 racial segregation 127–9 race in 186–7 Specters of Marx (Derrida) 19–21 Smith’s depiction 180–96 Spencer, Michael 142–3 Spencer, Robert 204–6 Victorian ideals 85, 87 Spinks, Lee 135, 137 spirituality 124 Waugh, Patricia 29, 71, 81 Spurling, Hilary 35, 47, 211n13 Weinbaum, Francine S. 32, 37 Srivastava, Neelam 168, 169 Wells, H. G. 16 Staying On (Scott) 35, 209n3 Westerman, Molly 136 Stevenson, Randall 30–1 Western rationalism 138 Subaltern Studies 199, 202–3 Westernized Indian subject Sucher, L. 67 positions 34 Suleri, Sara 3, 23, 209n1 Where Angels Fear to Tread suspicion, politics of 157–8, 167–8 (Forster) 117 Swinden, Patrick 45 white characters 23 symbolism 91, 101–8, 105–8, 111, Wide Sargasso Sea, The (Rhys) 8–9 119, 208n8 Wilson, J., Sandru, C. and Lawson Welsh, S. 199, 200 Teverson, Andrew 222n8 women, role of 54–7, 68 Tew, Philip 185–6 Woolf, Virginia 2, 17, 91 Thaggert, M. 103 writers: Tharoor, Shashi 215n13 backgrounds 26–8 Thieme, John, Postcolonial Con-Texts: choice of 24 Writing Back to the Canon 11 Third World literature 100–1 Yacoubi, Youssef 160 Third World, the 100–1 Yaqin, Amina 156 Thorpe, Michael 76 Yeats, W. B. 119 Tiffin, Chris 10 Young, Robert 6, 24–5, 88, 202